psych 3

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Parents' child-rearing style

authoritative parenting is linked to higher grades and achievement test scores in school among adolescents carrying widely in SES, other styles are associated with poorer achievement and declines in academic performance over time.

The most effective parents

avoid punishment altogether, preferring instead to teach children by using reinforcement strategies that focus on long-term social and life skills, such as cooperation, problem solving, and consideration for others

Lateralization

cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other

self concept in older children: content

competencies (instead of just talking about behaviors, like young children do) · personality traits, mentioning both positive and negative traits (instead of just observable characteristics) · social comparisons involving many people

What advances in thinking did Piaget think emerged during his concrete operational stage?

conservational abilities and seration

4 forms of self-esteem

academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance that all differentiate into additional self-evaluations, to form a general sense of self-esteem.

what else leads to non use of contraceptives

personal fable, "i wont get pregnant"

What are the characteristics and experiences of late-maturing girls

physically attractive, lively, sociable and leaders at school

a crowd

consists of several cliques with similar values who form a larger and more loosely organized group, common among western adolescents attending high schools with complex social structures. Membership in a crowd is based on reputation and stereotype and grants the adolescent an identity that exists within the larger social structure of the school.

memory strategies do older children use: elaboration

creating a relationship/shared meaning between 2 or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category

How do teacher expectations differentially impact low- vs. high-achievers?

expectations have greater impact on lower-achieving than high achieving students, low-achieving students sensitivity to self-fulfilling prophecies can be beneficial when teachers believe in them, however biased teacher judgements are normally slanted in the other direction.

How do these factors influence moral development? Gender

females tend to emphasize care, whereas males either stress justice or focus equally on justice and care, may reflect women's greater participation in "caring" activities throughout the day.

What roles do the following factors play in puberty onset? physical health

including nutrition/malnutrition (including leptin secretion), exercise, infectious disease- In girls, a sharp rise in body weight and fat may hasten sexual maturation. Fat cells release a protein called leptin, which is believed to signal the brain that the girl's energy stores are sufficient for puberty (heavier girls will most likely reach puberty first). In poverty stricken regions where malnutrition and infectious disease are common, menarche is greatly delayed. Within developing countries, girls from higher-income families reach menarche 6 to 18 months earlier than those living in economically disadvantaged homes.

James Marcia's four identity statuses: Foreclosure

individuals have committed themselves to values and goals but have failed to explore alternatives to do so. They accept and follow a ready-made identity indicated for them by authority figures—normally parents but can be others like teachers, religious leaders or romantic partners. The commitment aspect indicates a secure future, tend to be low in anxiety and generally satisfied with life, but show an inflexible cognitive style as they internalize the beliefs and values that belong to others of importance to them, which can lead to fear of rejection and low self esteem.

James Marcia's four identity statuses: Moratorium

means "delay or holding pattern" These are individuals that haven't yet made solid commitments. They are still exploring alternatives to collect information and try out new activities with the goal of finding values and goals to help guide their future and life decisions. Normally indicates solid psychological wellbeing, maturity, self-esteem, and good moral reasoning.

what is an elaborative style

means to follow a child's lead, ask varied questions, add information to the child's statements, and volunteer their own recollection of events to assist the child in weaving together a story.

what is a repetitive style

means to provide little information for the child and repeat the same questions.

What is friendship like for older children

more complex and psychologically based. Friendship becomes a mutually agreed upon relationship where children show preference to each other's personal qualities and respond to each other's needs and desires. They are more selective, based on kindness towards one another, deeply rooted in trust, and prefer those most similar to themselves in all aspects. Relationships are fairly stable over time.

signs of high quality education: evaluations of progress

regular evaluation of child's progress through written observation & work samples, and use these to enhance individualistic teaching. help children reflect & improve. Also consider info from parents

memory strategies do older children use: Rehearsal

repeating the information to oneself

Conservational abilities

such as reversibility, operations (mental actions that obey logical rules), decentration (focusing on several aspects of a problem and relating them), classification, the ability to categorize generally and specifically, and comparing categories.

Substance abusers

taking drugs regularly, requiring increasing amounts to get the same effect, moving on to harder substances, and using enough to interfere with their ability to meet daily responsibilities (substance abuse)

How do these factors influence moral development? Religious involvement

teenagers who remain part of a religious community are advantaged in moral values and behaviors. Can be beneficial by keeping kids out of trouble and encouraging close relationships with family as well as academic success, can be harmful by conveying stereotypes and prejudice

Are there gender differences in friendship quality? Male relationships

tend to focus on achievement and status, more minority males mentioned having closer relationships with friends than white counterparts, but say that masculine stereotypes caused these to decline in late adolescence.

Are there gender differences in friendship quality? Female relationships

tend to focus on communal concerns, also tend to coruminate (mull over problems/negative emotions), can cause anxiety and depression

Seriation

the ability to put items in order based on quantitative dimensions (weight, length), transitive inference (the ability to seriate mentally), create cognitive maps (mental representations of commonly inhibited spaces) and recognizing landmarks.

What do research findings tell us about how to effectively reduce prejudice among older children?

through intergroup contact in which ethnically different children have equal status, work towards common goals, and become personally acquainted, with parents and teachers expecting such interactions.

What forms of prevention and treatment for delinquency have been found to be Ineffective?

zero tolerance policies- severely punish all disruptive and threatening behavior (major or minor) usually with suspension or expulsion. They are usually implemented more regularly to minority and low-SES youth and encourage antisocial behavior to continue.

self concept in older children: structure

· think about their behavior and experiences across a variety of situations and use that information to talk about themselves · talk about both positive and negative characteristics they have · compare their own characteristics with those of other people

Limitations of Piaget's theory include:

· underestimates children's abilities · lack of evidence for qualitatively different stages (both discontinuous and continuous change are involved) · underestimates the role of the social environment; impact of cultural practices and schooling were ignored · vague in terms of the processes responsible for cognitive change

memory strategies do older children use: chunking

(elaboration & organization) allows children to hold onto more information at once and retrieve the information more easily by thinking of other items associated with something.

factors related to depression

-Onset of depression in girls is more closely related to hormonal changes that come with puberty than age. (estrogen) That said, hormonal change alone rarely causes depression. -Genetic and hormonal risk factors sensitize the brain (make it more susceptible) to react more strongly to stressful experiences. -genetic predisposition, is linked to adolescent depression, but ONLY in the presence of negative life stressors. This is more consistent among adolescent girls. - Girls are twice as likely to have depression than boys. Besides greater stress reactivity, girls are at risk of they use gender-typed coping styles (passivity, ruminating about problems), and if they identify strongly with more "feminine" traits. Also, having friends with depression contributes, most because co-rumination is high.

negatives of adolescent dating

-You mentioned this but here's the statistic: 10-20% of adolescents are physically or sexually abused by dating partners; boys and girls are equally likely to report being victims, and violence by one partner is often returned by the other. My overall advice would be to encourage your teen to not start dating until they are around 15 Relationships for older teens are generally healthier and tend to have significantly less adverse effects.

What factors are related to adolescent delinquency?

-boys more likely than girls -low-SES ethnic minorities are more likely to be arrested but only mildly related in teenager's self-reports. -parental separation and divorce - limited recreational and employment opportunities, and high adult criminality: access to deviant peers, drugs, and weapons (firearms)

positives of adolescent dating

-promote sensitivity, empathy, self-esteem, -teenager's increasing capacity for caring and compromise with dating partners enhances the quality of other peer relationships.

Effective sex ed program's key elements:

-teach techniques for handling sexual situations, including refusal skills for avoiding risky sexual behaviors and communication skills for improving contraceptive use through role-playing and other activities in which young people practice those behaviors -deliver clear, accurate messages that are appropriate in view of participating adolescents culture and sexual experiences -last long enough to have an impact -provide specific information about contraceptives and ready access to them

changes in make believe play

1) Play detaches from the real life conditions associated with it, ability to imagine objects/events without any physical representation. 2) Play becomes less self centered, play begins directed towards the self but eventually transfers to objects and then differentiating agents and recipients of make believe actions. 3) Play includes more complex combinations of schemes, going from only one to several rolls of make believe as well as a variety of plots

What cognitive factors support adolescents' ability to coordinate theory with evidence?

1) greater working memory capacity, and 2) metacognitive understanding [the ability to think about theories, isolate variables, consider all influential variables, and activity seek disconfirming evidence

hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought

1. When faced with a problem, adolescents can use hypothetico-deductive reasoning. They develop a hypothesis of what they think will happen and deduce testable inferences to solve it (beginning with possibility and moving to reality). 2. Adolescents can also engage in propositional thought which is evaluating the logic of statements just by considering them against concrete evidence in the real world.

how do Television and computer games influence aggression in young children?

60% of TV programs contain violent scenes, and rarely show/imply that it's wrong. Creates short term difficulties in parent & peer relations. Study showed that when other factors are controlled, time spent watching TV in childhood predicted aggressive behavior in adulthood. Aggressive children also actively seek out more violent programming. 20-30% of preschoolers and roughly half of school age children don't have limits on TV, computer, or tablet usage.

how do family factors influence aggression in young children?

A conflict-ridden family atmosphere starts with forceful discipline which occurs more often in families with significant stressors. The parent threatens, criticizes, and punishes & the child angrily resists until the parent becomes frustrated and gives in, so the behaviors repeat & escalate. This causes children to be more aggressive towards one another and demonstrate destructive/antisocial behavior. Boys are more likely to experience this than girls and view the social world as hostile when it isn't, causing unprovoked attacks to be made

What is the secular trend in pubertal timing?

A generational change, supports the idea that stressors & threats to emotional health accelerate puberty, while stressors & threats to physical health delay it. Ex. the age for girls getting their period has increased over time in industrialized countries.

What are the different patterns of change in gross motor performance for girls and boys?

A girl's gains are slow and gradual, leveling off by age 14, while boys show a dramatic spurt in strength, speed, and endurance that continues throughout the teenage years. By midadolecence, boys outdo girls in running speed, broad jump, or throwing distance by a lot.

How does the corpus callosum change and make contributions to development in early childhood?

A large bundle of fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres. Development peaks between 3-6 years, and continues at a slower pace throughout adolescence. Supports smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body & integration of many aspects of thinking: perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving. The more complex the task, the more essential communication between the hemispheres is.

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Adolescents' jobs

A low level part time job teaches adolescents many life skills and is beneficial to development, as well as vocational education for those who aren't college bound. A heavy commitment to a job can be harmful. The more hours students work, the poorer their school attendance, the lower their grades and the less likely they are to participate in extracurricular activities and the more likely they are to drop out. Also increased risk of drug & alcohol abuse and delinquent acts. The maximum number of hours a student should work is 15 per week

How does the reticular formation change and make contributions to development in early childhood?

A structure within the brain stem that controls alertness and consciousness, which consistently develops from infancy into the twenties. Sends out fibers to other areas of the brain, commonly the prefrontal cortex, encouraging improvements in controlled/sustained attention.

How do the following factors influence children's self-esteem? Parenting style

A warmer family and extended family as well as a strong sense of ethnic pride and living/going to school in an area where there is good representation of someone's ethnic group both contribute towards good self-esteem.

How does the cognitive limitation that Piaget called centration contribute to children's inability to conserve?

Centration means focusing on one aspect of a situation and neglecting other important features, the child centers its mental representation on one physical aspect (height of water), neglecting how another aspect may make up for a change in the centered aspect (width of water).

Personal fable

Certain that others are observing and thinking about them, teenagers develop an inflated opinion of their own importance, and a feeling that they are special and unique

Several very good longitudinal studies have been conducted to investigate if adolescent parenthood increases the chances of teenage childbearing in the next generation. What findings have emerged from these studies

Adolescent parenthood does increase the chances of teenage childbearing in the next generation, because it is often linked to a set of unfavorable family conditions and personal characteristics that negatively affect development over an extended time. Far greater intergenerational continuity, specifically for daughters, occurs when the father is absent and the mother remains unmarried. Even if they don't become teenage mothers themselves, their development is often still compromised in a variety of ways.

why is identifying depression in adolescents challenging

Adolescents also are not typically very open with parents about their true feelings due to fear of being dismissed and other reasons. Parents also forget that because of these hormone changes, the adolescent brain is much more sensitive to negative effects. Therefore, they do not think something such as a lost friendship or relationship is enough to cause someone to become depressed

Imaginary audience

Adolescents belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern.

How do changes in responsiveness to different neurotransmitters affect adolescents' experiences of stress and pleasure?

Adolescents react in a stronger manner to stressful events and experience pleasurable stimuli more intensely.

What does self-concept look like in adolescence?

Adolescents tend to place more emphasis on their social virtues in relation to their self-concept, such as friendliness, consideration, kindness, and being cooperative, as their self-concept revolves more around how others view them. Personal and moral values also become important themes to self-concept in older adolescents

What do research findings tell us about adolescents' experiences with the transition from elementary school to middle school and high school?

Adolescents' grades tend to decline during the transition from elementary to middle school. This is partly due to higher academic standards but school transitions are also associated with reductions in achievement test scores and attendance, which cannot be explained by tougher grading. Adolescents facing added strains (family disruption, poverty, low parental involvement, high parental conflict, learned helplessness on academic tasks) are at greatest risk for self-esteem and academic difficulties.

How does the cerebellum change and make contributions to development in early childhood?

Aids in balance and control of body movement. Fibrous connections grow rapidly from birth to preschool age, and by the later preschool years a child has many motor capabilities due to this structure

How does Gender schema theory account for gender identity development?

An information processing approach that combines social learning & cognitive development features. Explains how environmental pressures & children's cognitions work together to shape gender role development (gender schemas). Kids notice gender typed preferences and organize their experiences, once they know their own gender then they apply it to the schema.

What factors affect changes in the structure of the self that occur in later childhood?

Changes in structure are made possible by children's advancing cognitive development; specifically, the ability to coordinate several aspects of a situation in reasoning about how the world (including people and themselves) works.

What factors affect the changing content of self-concept?

Changes in the content of self-concept are the result of both advancing cognitive development and social experiences (mainly, feedback from others).

What do research findings tell us about how an awareness of mental life develops from age 1 through ages 4 and 6?

At the end of the first year, babies view people as intentional beings who can share and influence one another's mental states. This is a milestone in development that opens new forms of communication such as joint attention, social referencing, preverbal gestures, and spoken language, foundation for later understandings. At age 2, the toddler is able to interpret others' emotions and desires. This is evident as the child understands that people differ from one another & themselves in terms of their likes, dislikes, wants, needs, and wishes. By age 3 children come to the realization that thinking takes place inside their heads and that people can think about something without seeing, touching, or talking about it. Children believe that people behave in a way that is consistent with their desires until age 4, when most realize that less obvious, more interpretive mental states, like beliefs, also affect behavior. Explicit false-belief understanding becomes more secure between ages 4-6, becomes a good predictor for social skills.

How does Social learning theory account for gender identity development?

Behavior comes before self-perceptions. Preschoolers first acquire gender-typed responses through modeling & reinforcement and only later organize these behaviors into gender-linked ideas about themselves. Behaviors drive thoughts.

executive function: Flexible shifting

Benefits from gains in inhibition by enabling children to ignore rules not momentarily relevant, flexibly shifting one's attention in response to task requirements (rule use).

How does synaptic pruning and the growth and myelination of particular areas of the brain during adolescence support the cognitive development of this time in life?

Brain imaging research reveals continued pruning of unused synapses occurs in the cerebral cortex, specifically the prefrontal cortex. Growth and myelination of stimulated neural fibers increase which further strengthens connections among various brain regions. Linkages between the prefrontal cortex and other areas in the cerebral cortex and the inner brain expand and attain rapid communication.

how does The child's biology (genetics) influence aggression in young children?

By 17 months of age boys are more physically aggressive than girls. This is due to male sex hormones (androgens) and temperamental traits like activity level, irritability, and impulsivity in which boys all exceed girls.

how do peers influence gender typing in early childhood?

By age 3, same sex peers positively reinforce one another for gender typed play, and when preschoolers engage in "cross-gender" activities, they are criticized by peers, with boys being especially intolerant. Boys and girls also tend to interact differently, boys being much more obnoxious and assertive while girls are more gentle, which tends to separate them as well. In group favoritism also occurs, which means to more positively evaluate members of one's own gender.

How does empathy-based guilt play an important role

By emphasizing the impact of a child's action on others, it gives children a reason to alter their behavior and adopt moral standards (guilt motivates moral action).

What are changes in moral understanding during middle childhood?

By middle childhood, children have internalized rules for good conduct. They construct a flexible appreciation of moral rules based on intentions and context and develop a better understanding of personal choice and individual rights. School-age children absorb prevailing societal attitudes about race & ethnicity, and pay more attention to inner traits with age, although implicit racial bias may continue. Children most likely to hold bias are those who live in a social world that highlights differences as opposed to celebrating them. Long term intergroup contact is the most effective way to reduce prejudice.

How do the following factors influence children's self-esteem? Gender

By the end of middle childhood, girls feel less confident than boys about their physical appearance and athletic abilities. Boys also score higher in academic self-esteem than girls, but lower in self-esteem dimensions of close friendship and social acceptance.

expression of emotion ages 3-4

Children are able to understand various strategies for emotional self-regulation. The factors that effect a child's ability to handle stress and negative emotions are things like temperament, parental modeling, and parental communication about coping strategies. The extent in which the rise of empathy in a child leads to sympathy and results in prosocial or altruistic behavior also depends on the above factors, knowledge about emotion helps children in their efforts to get along with others. This is all driven by a child's gain in executive function, such as inhibition, flexible shifting in attention, and manipulating information in working memory.

Neglected children

Children aren't socially isolated, prefer a small social network. Happy & well adjusted

when do children have mental representation

Children do have mental representation by the end of the sensorimotor stage that develops the most in early childhood

Why does physical punishment interfere with moral development?

Children do not respond well to physical punishment and end up modeling it more than learning from it. Repeatedly exposing a child to physical punishment and anger can cause the child to develop serious long lasting problems such as weak internalization of moral rules, depression, aggression, antisocial behavior, and poor academic performance in childhood as well as depression, alcohol abuse, criminality, physical health issues, and family violence in adulthood.

limitations of preoperational: Inability to conserve

Children in the pre-operational cannot understand that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same even when their physical appearance is altered.

What are the changes in self-conscious emotions in later childhood?

Children learn to only feel guilty for intentional wrongdoings. Pride motivates children to take on further challenges.

How should neighborhoods and/or schools be organized to reduce prejudice?

Children should be assigned to learning groups with peers of diverse backgrounds for extended periods of time, this includes long term collaboration among neighborhood/community groups as well. Children should be taught to value differences among them and their peers, and also taught that human attributes are changeable.

What limitations in thinking did Piaget associate with concrete operations?

Children think in an organized and logical fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly, mental operations work poorly with abstract ideas not apparent in the real world. Continuum of acquisition (gradual mastery) supports this limitation, children like to work out logic of each situation separately.

What do research findings tell us about the relationship between use of computers and mental development

Computers can be beneficial when used for educational purposes, most early childhood classrooms include computer-learning centers, this introduces children to programming skills. Children spend much more time using computers for entertainment- game playing, which is not beneficial.

How does Erikson's notion of an identity crisis during adolescence differ from the views of current theorists?

Current theorists prefer not to view it as a "crisis" as that implies the inner struggle must be somewhat traumatic or severe, which is not the case for most people. Today theorists view it as a process of exploration followed by commitment.

Why do researchers think that development during adolescence triggers more arguing and disputes between parents and their adolescents?

Departure of adolescents discourages sexual relations between close blood relatives. But adolescents in industrialized nations, who are still economically dependent on parents, cannot leave the family. Consequently, a substitute seems to have emerged called psychological distancing. Children begin to demand to be treated in adultlike ways and contribute to a rise in family tension. factors emerge (driving, dating, curfew, substances, early sexual activity) that parents try to protect their kids from. Teens and their parents don't agree, and that leads to fighting. Arguments between girls and their parents are more intense than boys, and this might be because girls have more restrictions. Disputes become less frequent towards late adolescents as reasoning and compromise are increased.

What advances in thinking did Piaget think emerged during the formal operational stage?

Development of the capacity for abstract, systematic and scientific thinking. Also become capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought.

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Media multitasking

Disrupts learning, adolescents who often media multitask report problems with each aspect of executive function in everyday life—working memory, inhibition, and flexibility shifting attention.

What do we know about long-term consequences for early- vs. late developing girls and boys?

Early maturing girls are especially at risk for lasting difficulties. A study found that depression and frequently changing sexual partners persisted in to early adulthood among early maturing girls, with depression evident mainly in those who had displayed the severest adolescent conduct problems. They also reported poorer quality relationships with family and friends, smaller social networks and lower life satisfaction in early adulthood than did their on time counterparts. Another study found that early-maturing boys had good adjustment.

What do research findings tell us about the relationship between television viewing and mental development?

Educational TV can be beneficial to mental development, watching entertainment TV detracts from children's academic success and social experience with peers. Television remains the dominant from of youth media

What does theory of mind look like in older children?

Elaborate and refined, they have a better understanding of cognitive processes and view the mind as active. They also further understand the sources of knowledge (mental inferences), aware that people form beliefs about other's beliefs, and that 2 people are likely to interpret the same event differently.

how does an elaborative style assist young children in remembering one-time events?

Elaborative style helps children remember one time events by scaffolding, this helps the child to produce a more organized and detailed account of a personal story with the help of a parent, and also strengthen their relationship by creating a shared narrative.

how does Broader social environment influence gender typing in early childhood?

Everyday environments present many examples of gender-typed behavior (occupations, leisure activities, media portrayals, achievements). Media stereotypes also contribute to young children's biased beliefs about roles/behaviors suitable for males & females.

How do the following factors influence children's self-esteem? Ethnicity

Example, in China and Japan children tend to score higher academically yet poorer in self-esteem due to the strong emphasis the culture puts on social comparison, as well as praising others while not bothering to encourage one's self.

how do teachers influence gender typing in early childhood?

Extend gender role learning by comparing genders in ways that perpetuate existing stereotypes. Teachers generally give more attention to boys than girls, both negative and positive, academic and behavioral. Teachers tend to expect boys to misbehave more often than girls.

limitations of preoperational: Egocentrism

Failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own. The child sees its own viewpoint and assumes everyone else feels, perceives, and thinks the same way they do.

discuss the factors that contribute to a positive ethnic identity

Family members encouraging disapproval of negative ethnic stereotypes associated with low achievement and antisocial behavior, knowing their history, values, and traditions associated with their culture, schools that respect the use of native language and their education, form a bicultural identity, and interacting with those of the same ethnicity.

What cognitive and social factors lead to low rates of contraceptive use among adolescents?

Few teens believe their parents would be understanding or supportive of them using contraceptives, sex ed classes are often incorrect and confusing in the way they teach students about sexuality, they don't know how to discuss contraception with a partner, and worried that their doctor's visits related to sex and contraceptives may not be kept confidential. Adolescents don't know where to access contraceptives and information or how to discuss with their partner.

late onset offenders

For some, quality of parenting may decline for a time, perhaps due to family stresses or the challenges of disciplining an unruly teenager. When age brings gratifying adult privileges, these youths draw on prosocial skills mastered before adolescence and abandon antisocial ways.

What changes in gender identity occur during middle childhood?

From grades 3-6, boys identify more with masculine traits while girls tend to identify less with feminine ones. Girls tend to be more androgynous than boys, and are more willing to experiment with a wider range of hobbies. Children who are content with their genders typically gain self esteem, while those who are not decline in self worth. Males identifying with masculine things decreases while females identifying with feminine things decreases.

What roles do the following factors play in puberty onset? early family experiences with conflict, harsh parenting, separation/divorce

Girls and boys with a history of family conflict, harsh parenting and parental separation tend to reach puberty early. In contrast, those with warm, stable family ties reach puberty relatively late.

how does The child's biology (genetics) influence gender typing in early childhood?

Girls exposed to more androgens (male hormones) prenatally tend to display more "masculine" behavior and display a preference to things commonly associated with males even when parents encourage them to move away from these things. Boys with reduced androgen exposure prenatally tend to engage in "feminine" behaviors like toy choices, play behaviors, and preference for female playmates. Children tend to play with their same gender at a younger age due to biological similarities that contribute to similar play preference.

How does modeling (social learning theory) contribute to moral development?

Having helpful or generous models increases young children's prosocial responses. Characteristics of models that encourage children to participate are things like warmth and responsiveness, competence and power, and consistency between assertions and behavior. Children are most influenced by models in their earlier years.

What are the benefits of a positive ethnic identity to adolescents

Higher academic achievement and motivation, an optimistic attitude, less likely to be affected by discrimination, higher general self-esteem.

What does self-esteem look like in adolescence?

In adolescents, teenagers add dimensions of self-evaluation like intimate friendship, romantic appeal, and job performance. Self-esteem also rises in a general sense for most adolescents.

How does self-esteem change in later childhood in terms of its structure?

In later childhood self-esteem is structured primarily around achievement related attributions while younger children are reared by their parents to form a generally good or bad self-esteem. In later years that initial development is expanded into a hierarchical structure

How does parent-child communication change in later childhood?

In middle childhood, the amount of time spent with parents declines dramatically. Children foster independence & this presents new issues for parents. Parents who have established authoritative style during the early years find that child rearing becomes easier despite new concerns. Parents gradually involve themselves less in daily activities, but will engage in coregulation, which is a form of supervision where they have general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making. This includes effectively communicating expectations and watching from a reasonable distance.

What do we know about cultural variations in child-rearing styles from research using Chinese, Hispanic/Asian Pacific Island/Caribbean, and African American samples?

In white families, externalizing behavior in kindergarten predicted parental physical punishment in grades 1-3, which led to more externalizing behavior by grade 4. However, in African American families kindergarten externalizing behavior was unlinked to physical punishment down the road, and physical punishment didn't worsen externalizing behavior. In African American families, pairing physical punishment with warmth and verbal teaching causes a reduction in problematic behavior while white parents see it as a last resort and tend not to deliver it in a warm and educational manner, causing the child to lash out further. Chinese parents tend to be more controlling, and less flexible. This goes with their values of self-control & high achievement. In Hispanic, Asian Pacific Island, and Caribbean families, firm insistence on respect for parental authority is paired with high parental warmth, promotes cognitive & social competence as well as family loyalty.

What does research tell us about providing adolescents with access to contraception?

Increase in contraceptive use indicates positive and open sexual thoughts/ideas. When contraceptives are accessible to adolescents both physically and financially, teenage sexual activity is no higher than expected but rates of pregnancy, childbirth, and abortion drop.

Kohlberg's three levels of moral understanding: Postconventional level

Individuals move beyond unquestioning support for their own society's rules and laws. They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. They know that there are alternatives to the social order they experience, social contract orientation- following the rules because it brings more good for people than if it didn't exist. Correct actions are determined by self-chosen ethical principles that are valid for all people.

Kohlberg's three levels of moral understanding: Conventional level

Individuals regard conformity to social rules as important, but not in terms of self-interest. Instead, they see the bigger picture and believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships and societal order. Want to maintain approval of friends and family by "being a good person", and an understanding that law keeps order.

James Marcia's four identity statuses: Identity diffused

Individuals that lack clear direction. They have no commitment to values and goals, and are not actively exploring in order to find them. Do not see importance in exploring alternatives or may be overwhelmed by the gravity of the task. They are the least mature in terms of identity development, and rely on situational factors to determine their fate rather than using their own judgement. Generally low self-esteem, prone to depression, most likely to be antisocial and abuse drugs. Normally feel hopeless in terms of their future.

What does it mean to say that adolescents are much better than children at coordinating theory with evidence?

Instead of viewing evidence as separate from and bearing on a theory, children often bled the two into a single representation of "the way things are". Children are especially likely to overlook evidence that does not match their prior beliefs when a causal variable is implausible and when task demands are high. The ability to distinguish theory from evidence and use logical rules to examine their relationship improves steadily from childhood into adolescence, continuing into adulthood.

What different factors affect identity development?

Interactions with diverse peers through school and community, schools that offer ample and varied opportunity for exploration, communities that allow teens to explore/grow interests, a "secure base" and attachment from family, personality characteristics, learning about one's culture, and societal forces in terms of LGBTQ+ and minority teens.

How does the cognitive limitation that Piaget called irreversibility contribute to children's inability to conserve?

Irreversibility is the inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and reverse the direction of that series to return to the starting point. If a child sees a visual representation of something that differs from their own, they can't logically assume the two things are the same.

level of self esteem: first entering school

Is more realistic than preschoolers, this is due to receiving feedback in comparison to their peers. By ages 6-7, children have formed at least 4 broad self-evaluations: academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance. These categories become more refined/distinct with age.

how does induction contribute to moral development

It contributes to moral development as early as age 2, toddlers whose parents use induction are more likely to refrain from wrongdoing, confess and repair damage after misdeeds, and display prosocial behavior, also encourages empathy and sympathetic concern.

What is the importance for girls of remaining involved in athletics?

It is important because girls get less encouragement and recognition for athletic achievement, and sports & exercise are important to cognitive & social development as well as important life lessons

What aspects of preschool/childcare programs support mental development?

Kids in childcare benefit from responsive caregiving, structure, engagement in a wide array of activities, promoting social interaction among peers, and allowing the child to foster independence.

How are Lawrence Kohlberg's beliefs about the development of moral understanding similar to what you know about Jean Piaget's theory?

Kohlberg believed that moral understanding is promoted by the same factors that Piaget saw as important for cognitive development, which are: · Actively grappling with moral conflicts and noticing weaknesses in one's current reasoning · Gains in perspective taking, permitting individuals to solve moral conflicts on a more effective level.

advances in preoperational stage: Mental representation

Language is our most flexible means of mental representation. When thought is not linked with action, more efficient thinking is being exercised. Thinking in terms of words rather than action allows us to overcome limits of momentary experiences. Concepts of past, present, and future can be combined to understand them from a unique perspective. Children do have mental representation by the end of the sensorimotor stage that develops the most in early childhood

What are five strategies for regulating screen media use?

Limit TV viewing and computer/tablet use, avoid using screen media as a reward, watch TV and view online content with children when possible to help them understand what they see, link TV and online content to everyday learning experiences, and model good media practices.

How does Cognitive-developmental theory account for gender identity development?

Maintains that self-perceptions come before behavior, and says that children acquire gender constancy. Thoughts drive behaviors. They use gender constancy perceptions to guide their behavior.

how do parents influence gender typing in early childhood?

Many parents encourage children to play with "gender appropriate" toys, with boys' centering around competition & achievement while girls' focus on warmth, polite behavior, and close supervision. Parents directly encourage children to take part in stereotypical play for both boys and girls. Parents also provide children with indirect cues about gender stereotypes through choice of language like referring to one gender as being "alike" in some way, and excluding the other. Boys tend to be more gender-typed, and parents with nonstereotyped values have children who are less gender-typed.

What do we know from research on Kolhberg's theory about how effective it is in representing people's moral development?

Moral maturity is located in a "revised understanding" of stages 3 & 4, meaning the post conventional level is not often reached and not an essential part of being morally and socially sound, rather it's limited to a handful of people and not representative of a normative population. There's plenty of influence from situational factors on moral judgements and the stages are loose and apply differently to everyone. The range gradually shifts upwards with age

Kohlberg's three levels of moral understanding: Preconventional level

Morality is controlled externally with extrinsic rewards & punishments for behavior. Children accept and respect the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences. Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad, those that ensue a reward as good. Steps 1 & 2, punishment and obedience orientation and instrumental purpose orientation.

What is the role of educational and employment opportunities in preventing teen pregnancy?

Most beneficial for youth already at risk for these things. Enhanced their connection to the community, ability to cope with everyday challenges, social skills, and self respect. Main point: Children who are given the proper educational teachings about sex are less likely to engage in early, risky sexual behaviors. Idea is to postpone adolescent pregnancy and explain the reasons in life to postpone parenthood.

What do young children know about gender?

Most young children see gender as having blanket rules rather than flexible guidelines as far as traits & items associated with either gender.

Explain the role of situations and events in mood (teenagers)

Negative moods were linked to a greater number of negative life events, like difficulties with parents, disciplinary actions at school and breaking up with a significant other. Negative events increased steadily from childhood to adolescence, and teenagers also reacted to them with greater emotion than children. Increase in non-stable moods (mood swings) also linked to situational events.

Are all people capable of engaging in formal operational reasoning?

No, they're not. People from cultures that value these types of reasoning and people who have experience thinking in these ways (from school activities, etc.) do better on formal operational tasks. This is that same criticism of Piaget we've talked about before---that he tended to ignore the role of culture and schooling in cognitive development.

advances in preoperational stage: make believe play

Through pretending, children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes

How are idealism and critical nature actually advantageous?

Once adolescents come to see others as having both strengths and weaknesses, they have much greater capacity to work constructively for social change and form positive lasting relationships.

how do scripts assist young children in remembering familiar events?

Once formed, scripts can be used to predict what will happen in the future. Children rely on scripts in make believe play, and storytelling. They also support a child's earliest efforts at planning by helping them represent sequences of actions that lead to desired goals.

In what ways does decision-making advance in adolescence and how is it still limited?

Over time, young people learn from their successes and failures and gather information from others about factors that affect decision making. They less often carefully evaluate alternatives, instead falling back on well-learned intuitive judgements. They perform less well in decision making when they must inhibit emotion and impulses in order to think rationally, so they need supervision and protection from high-risk experiences until their decision making improves. improve in their metacognition when it comes to decision-making; they are able to take experiences and learn from them and make better decisions

how does Gender-role conformity influence aggression in young children?

Parents react much more negatively towards physical fighting amongst girls. Girls focus their aggression relationally, and more often use indirect relational tactics to disrupt intimate bonds and show aggression (exclusion tactics)

What kinds of family relationships present challenges for adolescent autonomy?

Parents who are coercive or psychologically controlling interfere with development of autonomy.

older children and inhibition

Performance of inhibition improves sharply between ages 6-10, with gains continuing through adolescence. Children become better at attending to relevant aspects of a task and inhibiting irrelevant aspects

How well are U.S. children achieving compared with children in other industrialized nations?

Performs at or below the international averages among other developed countries. The united states are less challenging, being more focused on absorbing facts and less on high-level reasoning an critical thinking compared to other countries. Countries like the U.S with large socioeconomic inequalities rank lower in achievement, likely because the US is does not give an equitable education to low-SES children and ethnic minority students in comparison to some of its higher-scoring counterparts.

executive function: Planning

Planning on multistep tasks improves over the school years. Children making decisions on what to do first and what to do next in a more orderly fashion. By the end of middle childhood, children engage in advance planning, which is evaluating an entire sequence of steps to see if it will get them to their goal.

How does the amygdala change and make contributions to development in early childhood?

Plays a central role in the processing of novelty (new) and emotional information. It also enhances the memory of emotionally-charged instances, which is important for vital information concerning survival in the face of danger and its retrieval. Connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex promote emotional regulation and are formed throughout childhood and adolescence.

signs of high quality education: daily activities

provide challenging activities that include small group opportunities & independent work

How does the hippocampus change and make contributions to development in early childhood?

Plays a vital role in memory and images of space/surroundings that help us find our way. It undergoes rapid growth in the second half of the first year, when the ability to recall memory and independent movement emerge. Continues to develop steadily throughout preschool and elementary years, supports dramatic gain in memory & spatial understanding in early/middle childhood.

What aspects of young children's home lives support mental development?

Preschoolers who develop well intellectually have homes rich in educational toys and books. Their parents are warm & affectionate, stimulate language & academic knowledge, and arrange intriguing outings. They also demand that a child sustain a level of maturity, within reason.

executive function: Working memory

Profits from increased efficiency of thinking. A faster thinker can hold onto and operate more information at once. Faster thinkers tend to have more efficient memories. Difficulty in reading and math at a young age indicates a slower working memory, and poverty-stricken children are more likely to score low on working-memory tasks.

What are characteristics of effective prevention programs?

Promoting effective parenting including monitoring of teen's activities, teaching skills for resisting peer pressure, and reducing social acceptability of drug taking by emphasizing health & safety risks.

advances in preoperational stage: Symbol

Real-world relations- Sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words symbolically (big snoopy little snoopy)

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Interactions of parents and school staff

Schools can build parent-school partnerships by strengthening relationships between teachers and parents, organizing communities of parents who mutually support one another, and including parents in school governance so they remain aware of and invested in school goals. also important that parents stress the importance of academic achievement to their kids

What are scripts

Scripts are general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. They begin as simple, and gradually become more complex over time, but are almost always recalled in the correct sequence.

What is one-on-one friendship like in adolescence?

Self-disclosure rises, intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty all become important aspects of friendship. Because closeness becomes deeper and more specific, friendships are based more on personality and less on proximity. This means friends share more similar aspects like identity status, education status, political beliefs, depressive symptoms, and willingness to do illegal things.

level of self esteem: elementary school

Self-esteem remains high but becomes more realistic and nuanced. This occurs because children receive more competence related feedback, and they're compared more to their peers as they age

What is the value of these technologies for enabling satisfying interaction among teenage friends?

Sharing an activity online can be a way to enhance friendship like video games especially ones that involve microphones or chats, there's also an enhanced sense of intimacy which can likely be attributed to online disclosure of personal information.

What is known from research studies about the best ways to help children adjust to parental divorce?

Shielding children from conflict, providing children with as much continuity, familiarity, and predictability as possible, explaining the divorce and telling children what to expect, emphasizing the permanence of the divorce, responding sympathetically to child's feelings, engaging in authoritative parenting, and promoting a good relationship with both parents.

How do sibling relationships change in later childhood?

Siblings are an important source of support throughout life, yet sibling rivalry tends to increase with age. As the parents compare the children to more of an extent, the child with the most disapproval may become resentful or show poorer adjustment. In order to reduce rivalry siblings often try and present differently than one another.

what factors could contribute to positive sexual identity development and what are the benefits for LGB youth?

Some factors that could contribute would definitely be the support of close family and friends, access to support at schools via counseling services and/or centers for LGB adolescents, surrounding themselves with those like them and allies, respect from the school, and integration into their community through activities/informative interactions.

What is the potential for facilitating harmful emotional and social consequences related to technology and teenage friendship?

Some harmful and emotional consequences can come into play when social media is used as a way to express risqué things, jealousy over romantic partners, or used to handle conflict between people and cause miscommunications to occur. Strangers are able to contact people and make them uncomfortable.

early onset offenders

Some have ADHD (upsets their learning and self-control problems). Most decline in aggression over time. Some develop more defiance and persistent aggression. These tend to fail academically and are rejected by their peers and leads them to befriend other deviant youths who encourage one another's violent behavior while relieving loneliness.

What changes in gender-stereotyped beliefs occur during middle childhood?

Stereotyping of personality traits increases steadily in middle childhood, they derive these differences from observing sex differences in behavior as well as from adult treatment. Teachers also contribute by attributing femininity to diligence and masculinity to laziness and trouble. Kids also view STEM areas as more masculine and liberal arts areas as feminine. Children are more open minded about the abilities of both genders, boys are still more looked down upon for crossing gender lines. Kids are more open minded about what each gender does, and are aware of the stereotypes.

Why are older children still challenged by cognitive self-regulation?

Structure is needed for cognitive self-regulation. Older children are still reliant on parents to help give them consistent and structured settings where they can self-regulate. If given a very disruptive setting the child will have difficulty self-regulating their focus on a task. Other issues are if a stimulus is too strong and highly desired by the child.

How can we help adolescents adjust positively to school transitions?

Support from parents, teachers, and peers can ease these strains, parental involvement, monitoring, gradual autonomy granting, and emphasis on mastery over good grades also show favorable adjustment. Adolescents with close friends are more likely to sustain these friendships across the transition, which increases social integration and academic motivation in the new school.

What are these reinforcement-based, positive parenting strategies?

Use transgressions as opportunities to teach, reduce opportunities for misbehavior, provide reasons for rules, arrange for children to participate in family routines/duties, when children are obstinate try compromising and problem solving, and encourage mature behavior.

What is meant by the idealism and critical nature of adolescents?

Teenagers capacity to think about possibilities opens up the world of the ideal (family situations, religious, political, & moral systems). They often construct grand visions of a world with no injustice, discrimination, or tasteless behavior.

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Peer Influences

Teenagers whose parents value achievement generally choose friends who share those values. Peer support for high achievement also depends on the overall climate of the peer culture which is powerfully effected by the surrounding social order especially for minority groups. Teenagers' use of texting, emailing, and social media to remain constantly in touch with peers even during school activities is an aspect of peer-group life that poses risk to achievement.

limitations of preoperational: Animistic thinking

The belief that intimate objects have life-like qualities like thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions. Children egocentrically assign human purposes to physical events, and promote "magical thinking".

How can bilingual education promote ethnic minority children's cognitive and academic development?

The classrooms that have both languages present, and integrated into the curriculum, help the children to become more involved in their learning and are able to develop a second language more easily. This results in higher academic status for the children, as well as letting them know that their heritage is respected, and prevents inadequate proficiency in both languages whereas focusing only on English limits both languages

What is the cognitive-developmental perspective on moral development?

The cognitive view emphasizes that children are active thinkers about social rules. The best example of this perspective is children's ability to distinguish moral imperatives vs. social conventions vs. matters of personal choice.

How could stereotype threat interact with teacher expectations to create an extremely difficult situation for some students?

The students can get the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype-triggering anxiety which will interfere with the student's academic performance. They can feel more intimidated by the teacher if they answer incorrectly for an example.

Popular prosocial

These kids are academically and socially involved, non-judgmental, and are usually known for a passion or hobby of theirs. Liked by everyone and authority figures

Controversial children

They had a group of people who found them to be good friends but were also considered mean and distasteful by a fair amount of people.

How do close one-on-one friendships contribute positively to adolescent adjustment?

They provide opportunities to explore the self and develop a deep understanding of another through open and honest communication, provide a foundation for future intimate relationships by applying what is learned from others in future situations, help young people deal with the stresses of adolescence by promoting prosocial behavior, and improve attitudes toward & involvement in school by contributing to a generally positive school experience.

Can you trace the development of vocabulary, grammar, and conversational skills in early childhood?

Vocabularies in preschoolers' increase dramatically when supported by fast mapping. Initially, children heavily on the perceptual cue of object shape to expand vocabulary. Between ages 2-3 children adopt the basic word order of their native tongue, gradually master grammatical rules, overextending grammar rules= overregulation. End of early childhood child will have acquired complex grammatical forms. Pragmatics is the practical side of language, 2 year-olds are skilled in conversation & face to face interaction, while by age 4 they adapt their speech to listener's age, sex and social status

What kinds of parent-child relationships support autonomy

Warm, supportive parent-adolescent ties that make appropriate demands for maturity in terms of exploring ideas and social roles, a balance between connection and separation, supports autonomy. balance between connection and separation

factors can contribute positively or negatively to adolescents' achievement in school: Characteristics of school classes and curriculum

Warm, supportive teachers who develop personal relationships with parents and show them how to support their teen's learning, learning activities that encourage high level thinking, and active student participation in learning activities and classroom decision making. Without appropriate learning experiences, their cognitive potential is unlikely to be realized. avoid ability-grouping of students (known as tracking) whenever possible; use mixed-ability classes

left cerebral hemisphere is especially active between 3 and 6 years and then levels off. Activity right hemisphere increases steadily throughout early and middle childhood. How does this fit with what we know about cognitive development?

We already know that language skills (located in left hemisphere) expand very rapidly in early childhood to allow the child to communicate effectively and learn from it's surroundings & support a child's improved executive function. Spatial skills (located in right hemisphere) like giving directions, drawing, and recognizing shapes develop gradually over childhood/adolescence. This is because as the brain develops, it needs to specialize certain areas at certain times. The two hemispheres continue to lateralize as development progresses

How does a positive coming out experience foster many aspects of development for lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents?

When people react positively, coming out strengthens the young person's sexual identity as valid, meaningful, and fulfilling. Contact with lesbian, gay, and bisexual peers is important for reaching this phase. Positive coming out can foster many facets of adolescent development including self-esteem, psychological wellbeing, and relationships with family and friends. a positive coming out experience leads to a decreased internalized homophobia (societal prejudice against oneself). Key Point to keep in mind: The parent understanding is the key predictor to positive adjustment.

Are adolescents the only ones capable of hypothetical-deductive and propositional thought or do we see these abilities in children?

Without direct instruction, school age children cannot sort out evidence that bears on three or more variables at once, and children have difficulty explaining why a pattern of observations supports a hypothesis, even when they recognize the connection between the two. In early adolescence, young people become better at analyzing the logic of propositions, regardless of their content & handle problems requiring increasingly complex mental operations. However, these capacities do not appear suddenly at puberty & gains are gradual from childhood on, which calls into question the emergence of a new stage of cognitive development at adolescence.

How do young children's recognition memory abilities differ from their recall abilities? What accounts for this difference?

Young children have a remarkably good recognition memory, while their ability to recall is much poorer. Recall is a more demanding task and requires the generation of a mental image of an absent stimulus to achieve, while recognition simply requires the child to tell whether the stimulus is similar to one they've seen previously. Improvement in recall is strongly associated with the development of language. Memory strategies are also important to the ability to recall.

What does self-concept look like in young children

Young children's self-concepts consist largely of observable characteristics, like their name, physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors.

What is a peer group

a collective that generates unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure including both leaders and followers

a clique

a group of about five to seven members who are friends and usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, values and interests. They are limited to same sex members at first, and for girls being in a clique predicts academic and social competence. Clique membership is more important to girls as they use it as a way to express emotional closeness.

What is induction

a type of discipline in which an adult helps to make a child aware of their feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others.

"self-protective disengagement"

a weakening of motivation sometimes triggered by stereotype threat that can have serious consequences.

How do these factors influence moral development? Parenting practices

adolescents who gain most in moral understanding have parents who engage them in moral discussions, encourage prosocial behavior, insist that others be treated respectfully and fairly and create a supportive atmosphere by listening sensitively, asking clarifying questions and presenting higher-level reasoning.

What factors contribute to a strong commitment to learning in Finnish and Asian families and schools?

all students receive the same nationally mandated, high-quality instruction by the teachers who are well prepared, highly educated, highly respected in their society, and way better pay than the U.S teachers. and assessments are aimed at cultivating initiative, problem solving, and creativity. In Asian education parents and teachers believe that all children can achieve academically if they try hard

What factors affect these changes in level of self-esteem?

are associated with improvements in the child's perspective-taking skills; in particular, their ability to compare accurately themselves to others, This is all effected by cultural influences (culture, gender, ethnicity).

What is the focus of Erikson's identity vs. role confusion stage?

believed that successful psychosocial outcomes in infancy and childhood are the presets toward an overall positive resolution. If conflicts faced early on were resolves in a negative way or if their choices of expression are limited based on society's standards in a way that does not compliment their abilities and desires, they will appear more shallow, unprepared for the challenges of adulthood that lie ahead, and directionless in general.

older children and flexible shifting

better at flexibly shifting their attention. When given rule-use tasks that require frequent switching of the rules used to sort picture cards containing conflicting cues, schoolchildren gain steadily with age in the complexity of rules they can keep in mind and in the speed and accuracy which they with which they shift between rules.

executive function: Inhibition

during middle childhood children become better at deliberately attending to relevant aspects of a task and inhibiting irrelevant responses. Selectivity and flexibility of attention in general become better controlled and more efficient over middle childhood.

Warning signs related to suicide include:

efforts to get personal affairs in order, verbal cues like saying goodbye to people or referencing the act of committing suicide, feelings of sadness and numbness "not caring anymore", extreme fatigue/lack of energy, boredom, no desire for socialization and withdrawal, easily frustrated, volatile mood swings, inability to concentrate, decline in grades, absence from school, neglect of personal appearance, sleep change (more or less), obtaining a weapon or method of self-harm.

Popular antisocial

harass their teachers and make others uncomfortable, however they were very well known, somewhat attractive, and some found them humorous which would lead them to be considered "popular".

signs of high quality education: relationship with parents

forge partnerships w parents, hold periodic conferences and encourage parents to visit observe and volunteer

signs of high quality education: interactions between children and teachers

foster each child's progress and use intellectually engaging strategies. Demonstrate, explain, coach, and assist in ways that help each child learn

Factors related to suicide

gender: boys much more likely than girls; due to substance abuse and aggression -profound family poverty -school failure -being a queer adolescent because of family conflict, problems in romantic relationships, and peer victimization -two personality types are vulnerable: 1) intelligent, but solitary and withdrawn personality, and 2) antisocial tendencies, being hostiles, and destructive, and abusing drugs

memory strategies do older children use: organization

grouping related items together

level of self esteem: preschool years

have several self judgements but lack cognitive maturity to combine these judgements into a global sense of self-esteem. Overestimate their abilities, overall have unrealistically high self-esteem

expression of emotion in preschoolers

have the ability to understand consequences, and behavioral signs of basic emotions and this is supported by cognitive and language development, secure attachment, and conversations about feelings. They also begin to experience self-conscious emotions which are directly linked to self-evaluation by age 3, as their self-concepts develop and depend on feedback from their caregiver to know when to feel these emotions. By age 4-5, children correctly judge the causes of many basic emotions and are good at inferring how others feel but have difficulty when interpreting situations with conflicting cues on how someone is feeling. Discussions of negative experiences/disagreements are especially helpful because they evoke a more elaborative dialogue that includes validation of a child's feelings

According to Vygotsky's theory, how can parents support cognitive development in early childhood, including the development of private speech?

having the child participate in social dialogues with themselves and other, more knowledgeable individuals. As they learn how to appropriately communicate with others, they begin to communicate with themselves in a similar way using "private speech". Private speech is important to engage in when engaging in a challenging task and presented with failure or uncertainty about how to proceed. Parents should encourage private speech during problem solving as children who freely engage in it show better task performance as well as being more attentive and involved.

Strengths of Piaget's theory

he showed the world that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge. And he emphasized discovery learning and direct contact with the environment as key experiences for cognitive development.

signs of high quality education: curriculum

helps children achieve academic standards and make sense of their learning, subjects are integrated , and implemented through activities in response to child's activities/interests/ideas as well as cultural backgrounds

Authoritative

high acceptance & high involvement, most effective way of parenting, parents utilize techniques of control that are flexible to the child's behavior & encourages growth. Independence is encouraged. This technique of parenting makes for a successful, optimistic, focused, likeable, flexible, intelligent child with high self-esteem and high levels of maturity.

What roles do the following factors play in puberty onset? Genetics

identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in attainment of most pubertal milestones

peer group basis for organization

proximity (being in the same classroom) and similarity (sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, popularity, aggression).

How do these factors influence moral development? culture

individuals in industrialized nations move through Kohlberg's stages more quickly and progress to higher stages than do individuals in village societies who normally don't get past stage 3. This could be due to societal differences in the importance of government/laws vs relatives/elders/traditions. The latter is normally more valued in village societies. Is Kohlberg limited to western societies although people from collectivistic (or traditional) societies may emphasize care and those from individualistic societies may stress justice, across all cultures people use both care and justice in their reasoning; any cultural differences are due to socialization/norms and are not biologically-based difference

How do these factors influence moral development? peers

interaction among peers who present differing viewpoints promotes moral understanding. Adolescents who have more close friends and engage in conversation with them frequently have higher moral reasoning. Peer discussions as well as role-playing moral problems improve moral understanding.

older children and planning

multi-step tasks improves greatly; children can make plans on what to do first and what to do next in an orderly way that makes sense; near the end of middle childhood, kids should be able to engage in advanced planning which is evaluating and entire sequence of steps to see if it will lead them to their goal

Rejected withdrawn

never really had many friends and was very socially awkward. I think he was excluded from a very young age having much fewer friends than my other brother and I, and only became more so as we got older. By high school, he had one or two friends and rarely made plans with anyone. This also caused him to be overly dependent on any romantic relationship he had.

What are the characteristics and experiences of late-maturing boys

often experience transient emotional difficulties until they catch up with their peers from a physical standpoint

Rejected aggressive

often got into fights, experimented with drugs, and skipped class while wreaking havoc in the parking lot.

Authoritarian

poor acceptance & poor involvement, makes most decisions for the child, tends to come off as cold & disengaged. Independence is generally discouraged. Children normally struggle with anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and behavior problems in general as a result of this parenting style.

Uninvolved

poor acceptance & poor involvement, parent is emotionally unavailable in some way, and doesn't value parental responsibility. Effects of this parenting include physical & cognitive impairments in development, poor regulation of emotion, struggle academically, and antisocial behavior.

Permissive

poor involvement & high acceptance, little control enforced, but parents are warm and caring towards the child. Children fail to learn manners, struggle to focus, lack independence, are generally disobedient & don't thrive academically.

What forms of prevention and treatment for delinquency have been found to be effective?

positive family relationship, authoritative parenting, high quality teaching in schools, healthy economic/social conditions in communities, train parents in communication, monitoring and discipline strategies and providing youths with experiences that improve cognitive and social skills, moral reasoning, anger management and other aspects of emotional self-regulation. Multisystemic therapy- combining family intervention and positive environments to disengage from deviant peers. Prevention must start early and take place at multiple levels to be effective

How do these factors influence moral development? School

secondary schools with nondiscrimination and anti-bullying policies as well as student organizations that support the rights of minorities, enhance adolescents' moral reasoning about discrimination. Moral reasoning also tends to progress the longer an individual stays in school. more years of education or higher levels of education can improve moral deveopment

What are the changes in understanding and management of emotions?

shift adaptively between 2 strategies for managing emotion, problem centered coping and emotion centered coping. In problem centered coping, the child appraises the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide how to approach it. Only if that doesn't work, does emotion centered coping occur which is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome. When emotional self-regulation has developed well, a sense of emotional self-efficacy is developed, which is the feeling of being in control of one's emotional experience. Appreciating mixed emotions. They can sharply distinguish the difference between emotions such as happiness and surprise.

signs of high quality education: physical setting

space is divided into equally rich activity spaces (subjects), used flexibly for individual, group, and class activities.

What is the difference between Marcia's statuses and traditional stage theory (e.g., Piaget, Erikson)

stages happen in a sequence, with each one serving as a necessary stepping-stone for the next. There is no sequence to statuses; there may be one or more you never experience. There is an endpoint of development for stages, but no such endpoint exists for statuses. You can show characteristics of more than one status at the same time, whereas you can only show characteristics of one stage at a time. You can move from "higher" to "lower" statuses, but such regression does not occur with stages. Marcia is understanding of the differences that occur with environmental experiences as well as temperamental ones, and how those effect individuals experiencing the stages, where Piaget leaves little wiggle room for how and when an individual experiences a stage.

limitations of preoperational: Lack of hierarchical classification

the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences

big snoopy little snoopy study

there was a model house and an actual room and kid had to relate them

How are young children limited in their understanding of mental life?

they do not understand that mental inferences can be a source of knowledge, or about the constant rate of thought. They view the mind as a passive container of information, as opposed to an active, constructive agent as they view it later in life.

James Marcia's four identity statuses: Identity achieved

they have explored alternatives, so identity-achieved individuals are committed to intentional and precisely formulated self-chosen values & goals. They are content with their decisions and future plans, consistency throughout time, and feel a sense of psychological wellbeing.

What is friendship like for preschoolers

understand the uniqueness of friendship, but does not have the aspect of a long-time buildup of trust and companionship. These friendships can remain stable throughout childhood if the social group is maintained. They also give and receive lots of greetings, praise, and compliance. Children with mutual friendship are found to be better adjusted and more socially competent and adjust to school more favorably, suggesting that friends may serve as a secure base to form other friendships for school age children.

What are the characteristics and experiences of early-maturing girls

unpopular, withdrawn, lacking in self-confidence, anxious, and prone to depression, and they held few leadership positions & more involved in deviant behavior.

Occasional experimenters

usually psychologically healthy, sociable, curious young people, more likely than not won't become addicted. (substance use)

older children and working memory

varies greatly; those with high capacity working memories don't need as much time to solve problems and process information and can hold onto and operate on more info at once; those with slower cognitive development show significant decreases in working memory and struggle with processing and solving problems and give up easier

How do young children behave around gender?

very rigid in these beliefs (gender stereotypes), and typically don't want to play with children that violate gender stereotypes. They view gender characteristics as determining rather than an association.

What are the characteristics and experiences of early-maturing boys

viewed as well adjusted, but reported more psychological stress, depressed mood and problem behaviors such as drinking and smoking than their on time and later maturing age mates.

Maladaptive parenting

while depression runs in families, depressed parents often engage in maladaptiveparenting which the impairs the child's attachment, emotional self-regulation, and self-esteem as well as cognitive and social skills.

How can teachers' attitudes toward students become self-fulfilling prophecies?

with the way their attitude toward students is established, they can become more extreme than what is warranted by the students' behavior, and the child may adopt the teachers' positive or negative views and live up to them.