Psych 314 Exam 1
Unconscious
(biggest part). Not available for recall Harmful or threatening material - super deep
Cognitive motivation
- you set a goal for your self, decide how to achieve them, and then actually do it
Lewin's (1936) Field Theory
-----Psychological "force" is a motivation that comes from internal and external sources. Value of external objects + tension (needs). Reduced by distance to the object. ----All these forces act on you in the field (real world) and potentially drive your behavior.
Witz et al (2003)
-Affective forecasting of how much will you enjoy Spring Break. -Spring Break was forecast to be more satisfying than it actually was. -Spring Break was remembered as being more satisfying than it actually was.
What is psychological science?
-Applying the scientific to the study of human behavior. -Based on systematic measurement of thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.
Physiological Arousal
-Arousal serves as either the readiness for action or as information for the qualitative feel of an emotion. -Sympathetic nervous system.
Disadvantages of Correlational Methods
-Directionality problem. Effect may be a cause. Addressed by using a longitudinal design. - Third variable problem. A correlation may be caused by a third variable. Addressed by measuring the third variable.
Current Trend: Better Organization
-Need to better categorize needs. Easy to create a large number, but are they all needed? Best approach: group similar needs. -Focus on basic human needs.
Assessing Needs: Thematic Apperception Test
-Participant is shown a drawing of an ambiguous scene involving people and an event. -Participant is asked to tell a story about what is going on in the picture. -Intended to measure hidden needs / desires. -Shown a picture and then you have client describe the ambiguous picture and then see how the answer is influenced by the needs This test does NOT have a lot of validity to it
What Makes Psychology Research So Challenging?
-Psychology is not funded as well as the natural sciences, and we need to collect data cheaply. -We study invisible theoretical constructs that are impossible to objectively measure. -People are sentient and capable of thinking about and responding to how you study them. -People are incredibly varied and diverse, so a finding won't necessarily apply to others.
Incentive - drive
: Incentive (water) links with drive (thirst) to motivate behavior.
Environmental motivation
: Incentives and goals that affect motivation. -Objective : material incentives. -Cognitive: incentive perceptions.
Instinct
: Inherited impulses that result in specific patterns of behavior. Not a popular concept, but some motivated behaviors appear to be instinctive. Examples: sucking, crying, smiling, emotional feelings.
Current Trends: Existential Needs Existential concern:
: a basic psychological need shared by all people about the meaning of life.
variation
: means that different values of a particular trait vary in frequency in the population
material cause
: the object that causes motivation. In this case, the brain.
emotion defintion
A response of the whole organism, involving... -Physiological arousal. -Expressive behavior. -Conscious experience.
Pearson's Correlation Coefficient r
A statistic that describes how correlated two variables are and tests for statistical significance. A number between +1 and -1. Farther from 0 = stronger relationship. Sign = type of correlation (positive or negative). Zero correlation - no correlation at all
Self-regulation / self-control.
Ability to control emotions and impulses. A resource that can be depleted in situations.
Motivational Instincts and the Unconscious
According to Freud, instincts originate in the body and exert pressure. Aim of instinct is to be satisfied through interaction with an object. Main Freudian instincts: sex (Eros), death (Thanatos), ego preservation.
Freud's (1920) View of Motivation
According to _____, our mind has three components that develop before age 5. Id: your basic, unconscious urges. Ego: the part of you that deals with reality. Superego: your moral values.
pos vs. negative correlations
All that matters are the numbers, not whether the relationship is good or bad.
Aristotle's Views on Motivation
Ancient Greek philosopher. Four factors are involved in motivation.
negative correlation
As values of one variable go up, the other's go down.
positive correlation
As values of one variable go up, the other's go up too.
ON EXAM FOR SURE Psychological Needs According to Self-Determination Theory LIST THREE AND DEFINE
Autonomy competence relatedness
Agentic theory.
Bandura's theory rather than merely reacting, humans also intentionally create the circumstances of their lives, people are not slaves to their environments and instead seek out or create environments in order to satisfy their psychological motives ex: one could speculate that most individuals who possess a stable need to belong will seek careers that will allows them to affiliate with others - in the case of people who differ in level of extraversion, those with a high level are more likely to prefer large parties compared to individuals with a low level of extraversion
Priming Influences Behavior
Bargh (1996) Participants primed with "polite", "rude", neutral word. Did they interrupt a preoccupied experimenter? Priming video Someone's doing something brave in a TV show that activates bravery in you unconsciously - priming Images and words bring thoughts into our subconscious that can change our behavior Briefly expose people to warm or cold drink, that prime them to either be warm or cold Primed with heat - record participants judgements about his colluge Hot drink - illicit positive feelings Cold drink - illicit negative feelings Brief encounter with a beverage can influence how you respond to another human being
Lewin's Equation
Behavior is caused by (a function of...) P: Variables inside the person. E: Variables in the environment.
Current Trends: Law of Effect
Behaviorism does not care about how a consequence is subjectively experienced. Reinforcements are any experience that increase behavior, and punishments decrease behavior. Motivation is entirely external "pull." -People don't have anything inside of them that's guiding them, everything is driven by the environment in which people are in
What Types of Motivation Will We Study?
Biological Psychological Environmental
Advantages of an Experiment
Can rule out other explanations and make a strong argument for cause and effect. Can use good, behavioral measures.
temporal sequence
Cause must precede effect. - aggression can't cause heat
Repression
Censor prevents instinctual impulses from reaching the pre-conscious. Function of repression is to protect person from instincts that could produce anxiety, embarrassment, and punishment.
What Motivates a Person to Go to a Restaurant and Eat Pizza?
Cognitive motivation: Visualize pizza place and follow plan to get there. Anticipatory response mechanism: Stimuli associated with restaurant elicit responses that motivate and guide individual. Affective forecasting: Anticipated pleasure of eating pizza is pleasurable, and this pleasure motivates approaching the restaurant.
Freud's Three Levels of Consciousness
Conscious Preconscious Unconscious
What is Design?
Creating a study in a way to make sure that it generates the right type of data to answer a research question.
True Experiments Have a Measured Variable
Dependent variable: predicted effect. Any observed differences between groups is due to IV. Depends on the influence of the IV.
Current Trends: Temporal Motivation Theory
Description of how incentive value decreases with incentive delay Delayed incentives have less value or are less motivating than near incentives. Value of tomorrow's exam is greater than next week's exam The closer you get to the date the more impact it is going to have one you Used to explain why people procrastinate
Selection in the Theory of Evolution sexual selection
Different traits are associated with different rates of reproductive success. Mate? Pass on trait. -More/less desirable as sexual partner
Selection in the Theory of Evolution Natural selection
Different traits are associated with different rates of survival. Survive? Pass on trait.
Linking Biological and Psychological Variables
Distinction between biological and psychological variable is case of brain versus mind. Brain is a material substance. Mind is an immaterial, psychological entity.
Basic Emotions
Early Greeks (BC years) to Descartes (1649) to James (1884) considered basic emotions, e.g., love, hate, joy, sadness, hope, fear, desire. Cognitive interpretations of stimulus changes determine emotions.
Advantages of Correlational Method
Easy to conduct. Can study a large number of variables at once. May be the only way to study variables like personality.
Emotion as Motive for Action and Thought
Emotions serve as impulses for action and thought. Action readiness: the impulse for action of emotion-relevant behavior. Motor explosion: nonadaptive response during an emotion, e.g., jump for joy, when angry shake your fist etc.
Keep in Mind that Motivation is Not the Only Thing You Need Besides motivation, certain other assumptions must be met in order for behavior to occur. These assumptions are...
Energy. Knowledge. Competence.
Disadvantages of an Experiment
Experimental manipulations can be difficult and you're not always certain they are valid. The levels of an independent variable a person experiences may not occur in the real world. Not always possible, especially with personality.
Generalizability: Manipulations
Experimental studies often involve manipulations using specific stimuli or methods. You should try to use a range of methods and manipulations in order to make your studies more representative of real-life situations.
External Sources
External variables (e.g. incentives and goals). Positive incentives motivate approach behavior (e.g., good grades). Negative incentives motivate avoidance behavior (e.g., speeding ticket).
Room Analogy
Eye of conscious Contains: thoughts, feelings, sensations, memories ^ Preconscious Censor; Censor - part of the brain that tries to keep things out of awareness Various ways to deal with it Unconscious: contains mental excitations, instinctual impulses, repressed thoughts
How Do You Satisfy an Unconscious Impulse?
Freudian Slips Dreams Sublimation
satisfying an unconscious impulse according to Freud
HUMOR is one way of satisfying instinctual impulses a second source of pleasure in jokes lies in saving the energy that is expend in repression the energy used for repression is now no longer need and can thus be expended in other ways such as laughing at the joke DREAMS are another way of instinctual impulses are satisfied - during sleep there is a relaxation of censorship so it is easier for unconscious impulses to enter into consciousness - even during sleep though the innocuous impulse undergoes some censorship whereby the impulse is disguised - the actual dream as reported is known as the manifest content, while the unconscious impulses the dream represents are known as the latent content
What Are the Benefits of Self-Control?
Higher grades. Less alcohol use. Better adjustment. Better relationships. Higher income.
Why Study This? motivation & emotion
Humans have been questioning why we act for a very, very long time. We need to understand where the field of motivation has come from in order to fully understand where it is today.
Are Your Needs Being Satisfied? Autonomy
I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life. I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions. People I interact with on a daily basis tend to take my feelings into consideration. I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations.
Do You Have Self-Control?
I have a hard time breaking bad habits. I get distracted easily. I say inappropriate things. Pleasure and fun sometimes keep me from getting work done. I do things that feel good in the moment but regret later on. Sometimes I can't stop myself from doing something, even if I know it is wrong. I often act without thinking through all the alternatives
Are Your Needs Being Satisfied? Relatedness
I really like the people I interact with. I get along with people I come into contact with. I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends. People in my life care about me.
Current Trends: Self-Control
Impulsiveness: tendency to choose immediate reward, influenced more by nearness of reward. Self control: tendency to choose delayed rewards, influenced less by nearness of reward.
Unconscious Motivation
Inaccessibility to one's motives. Being unaware of sources of one's motivation. A main originator of __________ ____________ was Sigmund Freud.
Warden's (1931) Incentive-Drive Link
Incentive - drive : Incentive (water) links with drive (thirst) to motivate behavior. Increased hunger drive increases electrified grid crossings for food incentive. Delayed food incentive decreases electrified grid crossings in hungry rats.
External Sources of Motivation
Incentives: stimuli that attract or repel. Tolman & Honzik (1930) experiment of hungry rats learning a maze: Provide food incentive and maze errors decrease. Remove food incentive and maze errors increase.
True Experiments Have A Manipulated Variable
Independent variable: Hypothesized cause. Experimental group and control group are identical, except for exposure to the IV. Ex: study with a drug Give one group experimental - the drug and give the control group a placebo
Current Trends: Sex
Influences what we find attractive in others. Men: youth and beauty (fertility). Women: money and power (resources). Facilitates reproduction and survival.
Combined Internal and External Sources Motivate Behavior
Internal and external sources _________ to motivate behavior. Thirst increases the motivation for water. The size of the water reward increases motivation
What is a Correlation?
It means two variables are somehow connected. You identify correlation by studying how values for two variables relate to one another in a population. Example: Taller people tend to weigh more. Each dot represents a person in data set People who are shorter weigh less People who are taller weigh more That is a correlation - a positive correlation Tall skinny person - outlier
emotion
It's a response of the mind and body that can't fully be put into words. It's a complex phenomenon that involves many different things
What About Causality?
It's true - correlation does not imply causation. Correlation is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for causality. But in many cases, correlations are better than nothing. And correlations show us if variables are simply related.
Processing resources.
Limits of your mind's ability to think about things. If overburdened, you can't think about goals.
Evolutionary History
Long-term past of humans that determines human nature, i.e. what all humans have in common as a result of evolution.
Hedonism
Many philosophers thought motivation was governed by _______. Their idea of ________ was NOT similar to our modern day view of it. ________ was having (overall) more good things happen to you than bad.
Correlational Method
Measure or categorize variables, and if they correlate, they may be causally related. Must acknowledge problems with identifying temporal sequence and eliminating confounds
video: why do we eat?
Memory for what you have recently consumed controls being hungry Your brain controls hunger and tells you when you want to eat Energy homeostasis - brain tells you that you need to eat Fatty foods activate your pleasure center in the brain Biology plays a role in your behavior and motivates you
External and Internal Sources Induce Behavior
Motivation depends on both internal and external sources. Example: Hunger and food combine to motivate behavior.
motivation can be found in two places
Motive: internal cause (e.g. personality). Incentive: external cause (e.g. reward in the environment).
motives
Motives and incentives often work together to influence behavior. Why do people attend Iowa State? Why do people go to Hickory Park? Why did you come to class today? It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between them.
secondary needs or psychogenic
Murray (1938) postulated 22 psychological needs, e.g., need for achievement or affiliation.
primary needs
Murray's (1938) physiological needs, e.g., need for food or iron.
covariation
Must change together. if you are observing a phenomenon the things that are occurring have to occur at the same time. Heat causes aggression
eliminating confounds
Must rule out other explanations. Experiments are good at doing this
Why Did I Go to Cold Stone Creamery?
My brain is the source of hunger (material cause). My brain has made me motivated by hunger and a desire for sweets (formal cause). I saw an advertisement for the store and I was feeling hungry (efficient cause). I needed to consume calories in order to continue functioning (final cause).
Biological motivation
Nature of body and brain that affect motivation.
three needs
Need to achievement Need for affiliation Need for power
Preconscious
On verge of being aware Can access with minimal effort just below the surface
Hobbes (1640) View of Motivation
One of the first philosophers to recognize the importance of incentives for motivation. Anticipate a good experience from something? Approach it. Anticipate a bad experience from something? Avoid it. People remember their good or bad experiences.
Existential concerns:
One's own death Isolation Self-identity or self-insight Freedom or free will Meaning of life.
Evolution and Motivation
Our evolutionary past helps determine what currently motivates people today. Theory of evolution: changes in the frequency of physical and psychological traits are explained by principles of variation and selection. - Our ancestors acted this way and it got passed down onto us genetically and that is why we act the way that we do
True Experiments Have Random Assignment
Participants have an equal chance to be in any condition. Equates groups on every dimension (even ones you don't know). Without identical groups, individual differences could explain results (a serious problem).
Are Your Needs Being Satisfied? Competence
People I know tell me I am good at what I do. I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently. Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do.
Individual Differences
People are motivated differently because of stable individual differences (e.g., differences in psychological needs and personality traits). agentic theory
Agentic theory
People are not slaves to environments but seek out or create their own circumstances
Examples
Person texts a friend (external) when need to belong is activated (internal). Student studies for grades (external) provided that grades are valued (internal).
Personal History
Person's experiences since conception determines what motivates him/her. An individual's evolutionary history and an individual's personal history combine to determine what is currently motivating.
Emotion as Subjective Feeling
Personal feelings of affect that arise in consciousness. Feelings of bodily symptoms. Feelings that flood consciousness.
Accompaniments of Emotion
Physiological arousal has long been viewed as an accompaniment of emotion, e.g., heart rate. Bacon and Descartes noted that emotions involved physiological accompaniments.
Murray (1938) Needs
Primary needs: Murray's (1938) physiological needs, e.g., need for food or iron. Secondary or psychogenic: Murray (1938) postulated 22 psychological needs, e.g., need for achievement or affiliation.
Should We Worry About Generalizability?
Producing valid, reliable research with a homogenous population is tough enough. We need to keep striving to study different populations and situations. Just be careful about generalizing too far beyond the study's population.
Psychological motivation
Properties of mind that affect motivation.
Six Key Requirements of Ethical Research
Provide informed consent prior to study. Freedom from coercion. Protection from harm. Protection of privacy. The study's benefits should exceed the risks. Fully debrief participant after the study.
evolutionary psychology
Psychological traits may also be determined by genetics. These traits may have also facilitated survival or reproduction. -These traits facilitated the survival of our ancient ancestors. -We're not aware of this nor consciously seeking these goals.
Psychologists Love Talking About Methodology
Research methodology is a central concern to most psychologists. We're always self-conscious about whether we're using effective research methods. Why? Because studying people is hard!
The Need for Many Studies
Researchers test aspects of theories through many different studies. The more studies there are that demonstrate results supporting the theory, the more confidence researchers have in the theory. If study results contradict a theory, the theory is modified and the modified theory is tested.
Findings that Didn't Generalize
Social loafing (being lazy when working in a group) and cognitive dissonance (valuing consistency) are found in Western samples. However, people from Asian cultures are much less likely to do either.
Why Use a Quasi-Experimental Design?
Some variables can't be manipulated and can only be studied this way. Have the advantages of an experiment, but interpreting the results may be difficult due to confounds.
sources of motivation internal sources
Sources inside the person are either -Biological variables as in biological needs. Push motives Something inside of you drives you to act a certain way -Psychological variables as in psychological needs.
Generalizability: Populations
Studies often end up with samples that consist primarily of educated, Caucasian, well-off women, a limitation of using college student populations. We always strive for diverse populations, but without additional funding, this is difficult to accomplish. Usually tend to be educated white college students that are financially okay and women - this is a limitation of using these kinds of populations - we want to use everyone in population but can't due to funding
The Past as a Source of Motivation
The evolutionary past is shared by all humans. The personal past belongs to the individual. It can be a potent influence on your behavior.
what happens during emotion
The following happens: Appraisal of a stimulus. Physical response. Facial expression of emotion. Non-verbal behaviors. Motive to perform a behavior based on the emotion. The events can happen at virtually the same time. drive us to do things, ______ response that pushes you to act a certain way ________ is a prime motivator of our behavior Fear video: - Dog dressed as tarantula
motivation
The reason that we choose to take action or change how we're acting.
Current Trends: Physiological Patterns
There is not a good correspondence between patterns of physiological arousal and associated subjective emotional feelings. Current research attempts to link brain maps of emotion with subjective feelings and associated actions.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
They look exactly like an experiment, but they're lacking one of the defining qualities of an experiment. No control over the manipulation. No control group. No random assignment to condition.
Experimental Method
Typically run in a psychology laboratory. Makes the strongest argument for cause and effect. What makes something a true experiment? Having an independent variable. Having a dependent variable. Random assignment to condition.
Current Trends
Unconscious motivation as being unaware of processing and reacting to a stimulus. Person begins responding prior to being aware of intentions to do so. -Their environment is creating a situation in which these things come up
video
Video: The marshmallow test, took preschoolers and put them in the room with the marshmallow and said I'll leave you alone for three minutes and if you don't eat the marshmallow I'll give you another one Found that the kids that resisted the marshmallow, in the long run were more successful and had all the benefits listed above
Example of a Quasi-Experimental Design
Water usage went up during halftimes, not watching the game and everyone goes to the bathroom Tracking people over time -
Bentham's (1789) View of Motivation
We act based on what we expect to happen (similar to affective forecasting). Principle of utility. We do things that increase our happiness. We also do things that help us avoid unhappiness
We're Also Motivated by the Future
We are motivated by what we expect to happen in the future when we complete a goal. We anticipate the emotions that we'll experience when we complete the goal.
Why Should You Be Concerned With Ethics?
We don't want to harm the people who participate in our studies. The American Psychological Association and all research institutions require you to address ethical concerns and meet ethical standards.
Locke's (1690) View of Motivation
We place subjective value on potential outcomes. More easily acquired outcomes have greater value. Long-term goals outcomes must be very desirable in order to take precedence over easily acquired outcomes.
Why Does This Matter?
We sometimes use the mind and sometimes the brain in order to explain the motivation of behavior.
question
What are the motives to party with your friends? Desire to be around people (drive pushes us to do it) What are the incentives to party with your friends? The rewards you get from being with your friends - they make it enjoyable (pulls you to it)
What Does a Correlation Mean?
What do the values mean? Around .25 = weak relationship. Around .50 = moderate relationship. Around .75 = strong relationship. Many psychology correlations are weak to moderate in strength. Few are strong. Same types of relationships if there is a negative in front of number
TAT Activity (Thematic Aperception Test)
What has led up to the situation What the characters are feeling and thinking What is happening at the moment What is the final outcome of the story Made to assess a specific aspect of motivation - the need for ACHIEVEMENT Test has not been validated and is not true INVALID This is where motivation came from
TAT Activity
What has led up to the situation. What the characters are feeling and thinking. What is happening at the moment. What is the final outcome of the story.
Evolution and Motivation
What motives do we have that aid our survival? Eating. Drinking. Sex. Without these motives, we wouldn't survive.
Conscious
What's in awareness Small amount of material on the surface
Internal Sources of Motivation
When motivation for behavior begins inside the organism or person as in the case of a drive or need. People have these needs inside of them that guide their behavior Need creates a drive that leads to a behavior that will help satisfy the need thus resulting in satisfaction
What's the Drawback of Having Unrepresentative Designs?
You may find significant results, but that may be due to the one specific way you run your study. If you find the same results using different methods and stimuli, you're more certain that your findings are valid and generalizable.
Physical Energy
You need to have enough glucose in your body in order to have physical energy. Brain has 2% of body weight but uses 25% of glucose.
law of effect - video
Your environment is condition your behavior to act a certain way Video: how is a new skill learned? - built puzzle boxes in which cats could only escape by operating latches, proved that apparent cleverness arises from trial and error by the cat If an action brings a reward that action becomes STAMPED INTO THE MIND People don't have cognition that drive behavior but THERE ARE THINGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT THAT DRIVE BEHAVIOR
Psychological Needs NEEDS
_____ are inherent characteristics that indicate a psychological deficit. Person is lacking some necessary ingredient available in the environment.
What's the purpose of emotions?
_______ involves physiological changes that make behavior possible while it also guides thought process and provides the "feel" of the ___ second, the integrated set of response is designed to aid survival as individuals deal with environmental demands such as danger, a blocked goals, or a significant loss finally, _____ are universal which implies that all people experience them similarly
Ghrelin
a hormone that stimulates hunger/eating
True experiments have
a manipulated variable a measured variable random assignment
brain
a material substance
existential concerns
about life's most basic challenges
Freud's levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, unconscious.
according to freud, awareness results when motives have entered consciousness form either the preconscious or the unconscious
Current view of physiological patterns of emotions
according to william james an emotion is synonymous with th subjective awareness of bodily actions also each shade of emotion would have unique body reverberation or its own profile of physiological response his theory led to a long history o research trying to demonstrate the parallel between emotional feelings, on the one hand and specific activity of the nervous system on the other r the search for bodily basis of subjective feelings has shifted to the brain, a current research strategy is that wit the aid of brain imaging technology, attempts are made to identify brain maps that correspond to emotional feeling s the brain map of emotion would occresqpond to areas in which there is greater activity such as oxygen and glucose use brain imaging technology is starting to uncover sites that are relevant for processing emotion stimuli that lead to different emotional feelings and accompanying behavior neuroscientists will discover that each emotional experience will have a unique brain map, as James had imagined would b the case with physiological response profiles
external incentives and goals
act like pull motivation. incentive value of a university degree pulls you toward getting the degree, graduating, pride from graduating
motivation
all about the behaviors we engage in and why we do what we do -you need to create an environmental circumstance that would change the behavior, motivate them through punishment or rewards -what is keeping him in the basement - they are enabling his ability to not have to seek a job, he may have social anxiety, avoidant personality, etc.
Basis of Theory of Evolution variation
amount or value of a particular trait varies in frequency in the population.
mind
an immaterial, psychological entity
Instincts
an internal stimulus that indices a specific pattern of behavior in a species considered to be an inherited disposition that shows itself as behavior in the presence of a limited range of stimuli characteristics of an entire species, are influenced little if at all by learning, and have survival value for the organism William James - emphasized that the impulse to action was an important component of instinct eventually lost popularity in the field of psychology for many reasons - the list of instinct became quite long, some instincts appear contradictory, it ws very difficult to determine if insects were truly innate and occurred without the benefit of any experience or whether all behavior was the result of experience no matter how little
all emotions serve a purpose
anger - protect territory, resources or mates guilt - obtain forgiveness from the offended party and green try to the social group anxiety - anticipate danger, escape harm sadness - receive support from others, disengage from loss hope - perseverance in the face of obstacles
Affective forecasting.
anticipating how we will feel, our affect, is the third motivational mechanism it resembles a weather report but concerns the individual's expected subjective feelings pain and pleasure these feelings arise when the goal is achieved and from the accompanying consummatory behavior, such as the pleasure of eating pizza when you're hungry the present anticipation of future pleasure is pleasant and the present anticipation of future pain is unpleasant - anticipating a positive goal is associated with pleasant feelings while expecting a negative outcome is associated with unpleasant feelings
efficient cause
anything that can trigger a behavior, including motives and incentives
secondary needs
are concerned with mental or emotional satisfaction and depend on or are derived from primary needs
Why Do We Have Emotions
are motives that help us survive and deal with environmental demands. -Fear is for coping with danger. -Anger is for coping with a blocked goal. -Sadness is for dealing with loss.
primary needs
are physiological in nature and are characterized by bodily satisfaction theses would include the need for air, water, food, sex, lactation, urination, rest and sleep, defecation, and physical stimulation and the need to avoid harm, envious stimuli, heat, and cold
evolutionary psychology
attempts to understand current human behavior by relating it to our evolutionary past applying it to motivation is an attempt to describe and understand the origin of psychological motives through natural selection
Evolutionary psychology.
attempts to understand current human behavior by relating it to our evolutionary past assumes that humans are born with existing motives or are disposed to develop motives that prompt behaviors beneficial for survival
positive incentives
attract or pull us toward the incentive
Basic Needs According to Self-Determination Theory
autonomy competence relatedness ON TEST
Anticipatory response mechanism.
behavior anticipation is the second mechanism by which the pull motivation occurs neb-behaviorists created this to account for goal motivation according to this mechanism the goal evokes excitement in the form of minuscule consummatory behaviors that would occur or the actual goal
Principle of utility
bentham used it to describe the idea that our actions are determined by whether they decrease or increase our happiness an incentive has utility if it is useful, benefits us, induces pleasure or happiness, but it also has utility if it prevents pain or reduces unhappiness ex: money, cell phones, and computers have utility because these useful objects provide the means to increase our happiness
sources and scope of motivation
biological and psychological and environmental biological - nature of the body and specifically the structure and workings of the brain psychological - referes to properties of the human mind in contrast to the brain - represented by motives such as psychological needs, wants, and desires, but also by other characteristics such as personality traits environmental - can be divided into two categories; the objective (material things) and the cognitive representation o some external event which is a case of cognitive motivation
Ghrelin
biological variable on motivation hormone that is released in the stomach and promotes hunger and eating this hormone travels in the bloodstream, is high before meals, and decreases after eating Wren experiment - injection of ______ and saline placebo into the bloodstream of two different groups, rated their hunger. realists indicated that participants given ______ reported greater hunger and ate more measured in calories than participants infused with saline,
competence
capable of doing the behavior.
types of designs
case studies correlational studies experimental studies quasi - experimental studies
theory of evolution
changes in the frequency of physical and psychological traits are explained by principles of variation and selection.
Need to belong
characteristic that motivates a person to form close relationships with others.
Theory of evolution: variation and selection.
charles darwin evolutionary on the origin of species by means of natural selection two concepts that may answer these question - variation: means that different values of a particular trait vary in frequency in the population selection - means that certain trait values are elected for by environment and aid survival
reality principle
circumstances may force the individual to postpone immediate pleasure or endure discomfort if the result is greater pleasure later
Locke's view of motivation
conflict between a small immediate reward versus a large delayed reward is evident in his writings stated that a person may acknowledge that there may be a greater good or goal than those immediately available, these immediate rewards appear to evoke a desire so strong that a person is unable to resist , thus in order for the delayed greater good to motivate behavior, it must evoke a desire stronger than the desire for immediate pleasure ex: an alcoholic who acknowledges that his health and estate are of greater value than drink, this same alcoholic however is unable to resist the lure of immediate drink and drinking companions
correlational variable
contains levels that are measured but not created by the experimenter
warden's incentive-drive link
delineated the difference between internal and external sources of motivation based on his work with rats motivation involved both internal or drive factors and external or incentive factors holds that drives and incentives match up, like hunger matches with food, thirst with water, and custody with novel stimuli these matches mean that drive is a reaction tendency directed toward an incentive and that both are necessary for motivating behavior
impulsiveness
describe individuals who display the tendency to choose smaller rewards
Aristotle's four aspects of causes: material, formal, efficient, and final.
described four different types of causes efficient final formal and material these four causes are still relevant for psychology and provide insight into the source's of motivation
What's a correlational study?
does not manipulate a variable involves measuring an existing motivational variable to determine how the measured values are associated with behavioral indicators of motivation
correlational research
does not manipulate a variable involves measuring an existing motivational variable to determine how the measured values are associated with behavioral indicators of motivation
Anticipating the Future Anticipatory mechanism
engaging with stimuli that remind you of the goal elicits similar responses to actually completing the goal. Response is not as satisfying as actually achieving the goal, but it does help pull (drives) you toward the goal.
Basis of Theory of Evolution selection
environment selects trait that aids survival; trait increases in frequency. Certain qualities allow much more for someone to survive and pass it down to their offspring - selection Ex: cheetah speed, over time the slower cheetah's were less likely to survive and the faster ones were more likely to survive and pass the speed down to their children over time - selection
RELATEDNESS
establishing meaningful and satisfying ties to other people.
relatedness
establishing meaningful and satisfying ties to other people.
Why psychology research is often challenging.
ethics - it is neither feasible nor ethical to study some motivational phenomena in the psychological lab funding etc. in experimental research - different intensities of a motive can be created to determine how this will affect behavior - there is a limit to how intense the motive can be with correlational research - a greater range of motive intensities is possible, many motives occur naturally and their intensity is measured along with changes in behavior
quasi-experimental studies
experiments that aren't really experiments. experiment lacking the necessary things needed for an experiment (it has 2 out of the three)
Facial Expression
expressions have long been viewed as accompaniments of emotion. Expressions as indicator of emotional feelings. Expressions as signals used to satisfy one's social motives.
pull
external objects, referred to as incentives and goals, PULL individuals toward an end-state environmental prospects like incentives and goals pull an individual into action
environmental variables
external sources that pull the person are labeled this as incentives and goals those characteristics of incentives and goals that have the ability to attract or repel there are positive and negative incentives
What is the purpose of anger, guilt, anxiety, sadness, and hope?
fear, anger, disgust, and sadness push individuals toward end states defined by the aim o the emotion those end states also act like goals and pull the individual
Hunger
feeling in the mind, and the presence of hormones and glucose in the blood stream.
COMPETENCE
finding something you are good at, and becoming better.
competence
finding something you are good at, and becoming better.
AUTONOMY
finding your own way in life and making your own decisions.
autonomy
finding your own way in life and making your own decisions.
What motivates behavior, according to Freud?
for Freud it was based on the satisfaction of unconscious instinctual impulses originating in the body, instincts reach consciousness, where they exert pressure, which is really their demand for satisfaction the aim or goal of every instinctual need is for the reduction of this pressure the object of the instinct is the incentive that allows the instinct to meet its aim object can be external or can be a body part providing for the reduction of the instinctual need the source of the instinct is the body part or perhaps the chemical change in the brain from which the instinct originates we are only ware of the aim or goal of the instinct in our mind
conscious
for material to proceed from the large room (unconscious) to the small adjoining room (preconscious), it must pass through the doorway separating the two rooms = the censor here stands a door keep or censor who determines what mental excitations are allowed entry into the room of the preconscious if some mental events have gained entry, then they may yet be driven out if found to be unacceptable or anxiety provoking = freud calls them repressions
pleasure principle
freud referred to a person's purist of pleasure, which is attained from a decrease in psychological tension especially wen it follows from a sudden increase in tension while pleasers results from reducing or keeping psychological tension as low as possible, unpleasure results when tension increases pleasure is also obtained from gratifying unconscious instinctual impulses or desires
Freud's view of motivation: id, ego, superego.
he postulated two principles relevant for increasing pleasure and decreasing pain pleasure was in contrast to unpleasure pleasure principle and reality principle
knowledge
how to perform the behavior.
mechanism
how we do something or means by which an act is performed.
Basic emotions
idea basic set of emotions from which all other emotions can be derived was discussed as early as 300 bc greek philosopher such as aristotle and epicurus mentioned the basic emotions of fear, joy, envy, love anger, and hatred with additional emotions being combinations of those more central ones
What's the Goal of Research?
identify cause and effect covariation temporal sequence eliminating confounds
Dreams
imagining satisfaction of the impulse.
motivation
impetus or reason for the behavior.
physical energy
in contrast to psychological energy has a material existence exists mainly in the form of glucose which powers the brains and muscles without glucose, motivation would not be possible low on glucose - no energy brain utilizes 25 percent of all glucose yet it comprises only 2 percent of the body's weight instances in which certain areas of the brain require more energy than others - formation of memories
instincts originate where according to Freud
in the body and exert pressure Aim of instinct to be satisfied through interaction with an object
environmental motivation: cognitive
incentive perceptions
push/pull
individuals are not pushed or pulled at random but instead are directed toward specific ends, which are known as goals a person's internal disposition specifies the nature of this end-state
Psychological vs. biological sources of motivation.
internal dispositions that push are classified as either _______ or _____ -
Why is it sometimes challenging to distinguish between motives and incentives?
it is difficult to specify the exact source that moves an individual into action: motive or incentive trying to understand what motivates behavior - psychologists sometimes emphasize internal sources or motives while at other times they emphasize environmental sources or incentives
need
it was an early motivational concept similar to drive whereas drive was often viewed as the result of deprivation of some incentive, need was considered to be an inherent characteristics of humans _____ was assumed to already exist in different amounts in individuals need intensity was thus measured via some scale, questionnaire, or projective test primary and secondary needs
Other Components Needed for Behavior to Occur
knowledge competence motivation
Edward Lee Thorndike (1911)
law of effect Law of effect: your behavior changes because of its consequences. Satisfying consequences strengthen behavior. Dissatisfying consequences weaken behavior. Important idea for the field of behaviorism.
motives
like biological and psychological needs act like push motivation biological need for food PUSH people, palpable food, eat, pleasure of eating psychological need to belong PUSHES people, different belonging, affiliating, satisfaction from belonging
basic emotions list
love hate joy sadness hope fear desire
How evolution solved the commitment problem.
love is an instinct or species typical behavior that evolved in order to solve a set of specific surveil problems; mainly it is difficult to survive on your own what recurring problem of survival does love solve THIS PROBLEM refers to the necessity of one individual to be loyal and faithful to another for the survival benefits of both - advantages for survival that stem from commitment, love keeps people together - you stay committed even if there are other more attractive individuals partes' love for their children helps ensure the children's survival especially when children are young and vulnerable love commits parents to do all of those things for their children
experimental studies
manipulating variables.
Aristotle's Four Causes
material cause formal cause efficient causes final causes
environmental motivation: objective
material incentives
selection
means that certain trait values are elected for by environment and aid survival
correlational studies
measuring variables. not manipulating anything
Drive Concept
mechanism drive
psychological energies
mental energies have gone by the name cathexis, self regulation energy, adaptation energy, and processing resources cathexis - the accumulation of energy within the brain's neurons as hypothesized by sigmund freud, behavior occurs when neurons are able to achieve a lower level of energy, this process is accompanied by pleasure adaptation energy - coined by hans selye, founder of stress concept, humans experience a variety of stressors over their lifetime, and body's ability to adapt depends up on the amount of available adaptation energy. when a person's adaptation energy runs out, motivation and life cease self regulation - known as self control refers to the ability to control the effects that a person's emotions and impulses have on her or his behavior this ability allows the individual to weigh the value of larger delayed incentives instead of submitting to current emotions and impulses that yield smaller rewards processing resources: the capacities that allow the mind to carry out operations that are necessary for the motivation of behavior information form the environment impinges on the human senses and is briefly held in sensory memory, where some of it is elected and sent along for further processing g the incoming info is combined with other knowledge that is retrieved from long term memory the combined info provides the basis for developing preferences, making decision, developing goals, and eventually taking action
Positive incentives
motivate approach behavior (e.g., good grades).
Negative incentives
motivate avoidance behavior (e.g., speeding ticket).
push
motivated behavior wrestles from a person being pushed and pulled toward some end state internal dispositions - desire, want, longing PUSH individual toward some end - MOTIVES biological and psychological motives push an individual into action
If you're going to perform an action, what are the things that are needed in addition to motivation, and why are they needed?
motivation as a journey beings with choice of motive to be satisfied or goal to be achieved followed by behaviors that will accomplish that -choice = the selection of the motive or incentive from those vying for satisfaction. the choice becomes the goal instrumental behaviors you need: energy, knowledge, and competency to do so
Cognitive motivation. How does the future motivate us?
motivation as a journey toward specific end states based on past experience individuals are capable of looking ahead and visualizing their future human are motivated by the anticipated outcomes of their actions ".....to look forward to something permanent and to other progress toward a still better prospect." motivation as a journey that involves being pushed or pulled toward end-states that consist of food, friends, or a university degree an individual is motivated not by the actual ned state but by the expectation and anticipation of it motivation can also depend on visualizing the end state as consummatory behavior which signals the end of the motivational sequence
consummatory behavior
motivation depends on visualizing the end state of this which signals the end of the motivational sequence the consummatory behaviors are eating, affiliating with others, or graduating the end state could also consist of the subjective feelings that are part of consummatory behavior, such as the pleasure of eating, the happiness form relating to others, and the pride felt at graduation
energy for motivation
motivation requires energy 2 types psychological and physical without energy to power muscles and the neurons of the brain, behavior is impossible an event that motivates behavior or is thought to is one that also releases stored energy that makes behavior and thought possible
difference between motives and incentives push vs. pull
motive - person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive incentives an avoid negative incentives incentive - the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment a motive is linked to an incentive, since attaining an incentive is the goal of a person's motive
knowledge, competence, and motivation
need to know how to accomplish certain goals and be capable of doing so cognitive knowledge - is important because it enables the individual to evaluate incentives, understand how to attain them, and assess the chances of success competence - being capable of performing the behavior necessary to achieve a desired end, being able to execute the behavior to achieve a goal
internal sources of motivation
need, drive, behavior, satisfaction of need
motor explosion
nonadaptive response during an emotion, e.g., jump for joy, when angry shake your fist etc.
cognitive motivation
one pull mechanism works by visualizing an end state as a goal and executing a plan or following a script in order to achieve that goal this visualization easiest to perform for concrete aspects of the goal and accompanying consummatory behavior to reach the goal requires a plan of action or series of behaviors to achieve it, these can be visualized also the plan involves a hierarchy of steps or a sequence of specific behaviors that when performed bring individuals closer and closer to their goal
intensity
or effort of behavior varies directly with motivation when excited, a person may push hard on a door, yell rather than talk, or run rather than walk the street
duration
or persistence, refers to the amount of time a person persists to satisfy a motive
variation and selection in evolution
original population: slow running speed: the percentage of slow running cheetahs in the population has been reduced to near zero because they were not fast enough to catch their prey medium running speed: the percentage of medium fast cheetahs has remained constant in the population because they were just fast enough to catch the slowest prey fast running speed: the percentage of fast cheetahs has increased in the population because they were fast enough to catch more of the prey the pursued
preconscious
part of a person's mental apparatus is represented by the small room, which contains thoughts, feelings, sensations, and memories a person's "consciousness as a spectator" resides in this small room and serves as the focus of awareness
Ancient Sources Hedonism
people pursue pleasure and avoid pain. For ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Democritus, and Epicurus, hedonism meant pleasure is to exceed pain when averaged over the long run.
motives
person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive incentives an avoid negative incentives internal dispositions - desire, want, longing PUSH individual toward some end
Accompaniments of emotion
physiological arousal facial expression
needs
physiological needs, safety and security needs, love and belongingness needs, self esteem needs, self-actualization
Pleasure principle vs. reality principle.
pleasure in contrast to unpleasure
Freud's (1920) View of Motivation
pleasure principle reality principle
Lewin's field theory
postulated psychological force as a way of accounting for internal and environmental sources of motivation according to his theory human action takes place within a person's life space, which is the person's current internal and external environment the life space contains objects and possible activities of which a person is aware and which attract or repel him forces or motivational factors within the life space cause a person to move from one object or activity to another objects or actives that have positive valence attract the individual; they are approached or wanted objects that have negative valence repel the individual; they are voided or not wanted tensions - is the term he used to label a deficit in the person's internal environment; tension can result from an unfulfilled intention, a physiological need or a psychological need
Murray's primary vs. secondary needs. You don't need to know specific needs.
primary needs - are physiological in nature and are characterized by bodily satisfaction theses would include the need for air, water, food, sex, lactation, urination, rest and sleep, defecation, and physical stimulation and the need to avoid harm, envious stimuli, heat, and cold secondary needs - are concerned with mental or emotional satisfaction and depend on or are derived from primary needs considered that all needs are hypothetical processes referring to an organic potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under given conditions needs can be evoked by an internal philological process but also by environmental demands which are either to be approached or avoided
Self-regulation.
psychological energies energy for motivation known as self control refers to the ability to control the effects that a person's emotions and impulses have on her or his behavior this ability allows the individual to weigh the value of larger delayed incentives instead of submitting to current emotions and impulses that yield smaller rewards
Lewin's equation
psychological force = valence of goal properties; tension in person/psychological distance between person and goal it is not clear whether valence and tension should be added or multiplied together, what is important is that ore or inducement to action depends on both incentive valence or goal activity and tension force - decreases with psychological distance, usually the closer in time an individual is to attain gin the incentive the shorter the psychological distance,
lewin's field theory
psychological force = valence of goal properties;tension in person/psychological distance between person and goal
incentives
pull a person toward an end state. Oreo Overload pulls me toward Cold Stone Creamery.
motives
push a person into action toward an end state. Hunger pushes you to Cold Stone Creamery.
formal
refer to integrating the concept of motivation into models, hypotheses, or theories of behavior
Biological Variables
refer to momentary properties of a person's body or brain (e.g., an empty stomach). Ghrelin
psychological sources of motivation
refer to motives and are studied indirectly through measurable indicators ex: anxiety and happiness are _____ _____ that are indicated by perspiration and smiles psychological questionnaires and sales can also indicate the amount of a _____ ______. higher scale scores usually indicate a great amount of a ______ _______, such as a need or m motive general rule - as indicators of a psychological motive increase, the motivation for need-reliant incentives, consummatory behaviors, and associated feelings increase
final
refer to the aim or purpose of motivated behavior it is the goal of the behavior
efficient
refer to triggers of behavior these are a person's current motives and incentives
biological sources of motivation
refere to material characteristics of the body and brain that serve to motivate behavior ex: as _____ indicators of hunger increase, the motivation for seeking, preparing, and eating food increases GHREHLIN hormone - effect of a specific ______ ________ on motivation and its influence on hunger
Personal history as an explanation of behavior.
referes to an individual's experience form conception to the present these experiences help shape an individual's motives and system of values about incentives incentive value becomes and important explanatory concept when the incentive or goal is not linked to any obvious psychological or biological motive as in the case of money and course grades value is the pulling quality of an incentive or goal - individual learn that 100 dollars is more valuable than 10 dollars and that an A grade ism ore valuable than a B. the greater value determines that individuals are motivated to labor longer for 100 than for 1- and to study harder for an A than for a B
population thinking
referes to the idea that eery individual in the population is different rather than emphasize the similarity among people, this emptiness that each individual is unique translates into the area of individual differences, such as psychological needs and personality traits
material
referes to the material of which a thing is made the brain can be considered the _______ cause of motivated behavior
frequency
referes to the rate of engaging in a particular behavior
dependent variable
refers to behavior and depends on the experimental variable or is associated with the correlational variable
dependent variable
refers to behavior that depends on the experimental variable, in the case of experimental research is associated with the levels on the correlational variable, in the case of correlational research
Emergence
refers to the brain's neural processes issuing forth psychological or mental events in consciousness. Brain registers low level of nutrients or glucose in blood stream from which feeling of hunger emerges into consciousness.
drive
refers to what induced us to do it drive is the initial inducement of behavior and remains in effect in some part of the mechanism it remains in some part of our nervous system until behavior eventually results research on drive focused on drive as the deprivation of some incentive
Generalizability
reflects how well your findings apply to different people and situations. Ideally, our findings would apply to every person on the planet in every kind of situation, but that never happens. Whether or not our results are going to apply to other people
negative incentives
repel us from the incentive
How you satisfy an unconscious impulse according to Freud.
repression is a means of protecting us from the unpleasure that would result if we became aware of some of the impulses residing in our unconscious the idea of unpleasure means that the instinct might produce anxiety, embarrassment, or punishment from others under certain circumstances, these instinctual needs can reach awareness in jokes, dreams, slips of the tongue, and neuroses if mental events cross the threshold not the small room (preconscious) it does not mean that an individual is automatically aware of them a person becomes aware of these mental excitation so thoughts only if they attract "the eye of consciousness"
Thorndike's law of effect
rewarded a cat with food for escaping from a box observed that over series of attempts the cat's escapes occurred faster and faster applied spencer's formulations escape brought forth a feeling of pleasure into the cat's consciousness and the behavior that brought it about was beneficial to the cat based on this research he formulated the law of effect = the cat escaped because of the satisfaction that resulted from espying, whereas remaining in the box was associated with less satisfaction or with dissatisfaction satisfying effect strengthened behavior and a dissatisfying effect weakened behavior - faced problem that cat could not tell him whether escape and food provided pleasure he assumed that tan animal behaves in order to attain a satisfying state and to remove a dissatisfying state emphasized the pleasure or satisfaction derived from the cat's escape
Self-control vs. impulsiveness.
see below greater self control provides benefits such as better academic achievement brief self control scale
The difference between a drive and a need.
see below mechanism refers to how we do something
Positive vs. negative incentives.
see next incentives and goals with higher values of attraction or repulsion are more motivating than those with smaller values thus if the value of an incentive can be determined, then its motivational power is known
What's the difference between reductionism and emergence in how they explain causes of behavior? Why is it important to make this distinction?
see next cards although they are opposite they are not equivalent important to make distinction because: ex: both hunger sensations and recognizing emotions in others can be reduced to and can emerge from actions of the neurons in the brain. conversely, the psychological sensation of hunger emerges into consciousness as a surrealist of the brain's monitoring activity the mind vs. brain distinction is important because scientists sometimes use the bind and sometimes the brain in order to explain the motivation of behavior
self control
self discipline describes those who can choose larger but delayed rewards
Psychological Energy
self-regulation/self-control processing resources
emotions
serve to motivate specific actions in order to alleviate their unpleasantness there are other distinct feelings that also motivate behaviors - they are known as emotional feelings or affect such as happy, love, sad, anger, fear, shame, and disgust emotion - means to move out from latin word emovere emotions serve as motives, when person experiences an emotional feeling she is ready to act in a manner that motivates her to accomplish the goal of the emotion
main Freudian instincts
sex (eros) death (thanatos) ego preservation
there are three groups of instincts in our mind
sexuel or life instincts are those that operate to maintain and transfer life to successive generations death instincts manifests themselves as aggressive and destructive impulses sexual and death instincts mix and fuse together in liven creatures but also compete for supremacy so that at times one instant is dominant and then the other a third type includes the ego or self preservation instincts freud saw motivation as an increase and decrease of instinctual excitation invading our minds an increase in excitation produces unpleasure (pain) and a decrease produces pleasure the ultimate pleasure is to keep execution as low as possible or at least keep it constant low execution is the aim of the death instinct people also experience pleasure form an increase in execution such as that occurring with heightened sexual tension and its sudden release there are instances when tension could be pleasurable and that the lowering of tension in some cases could be painful
Current trends: Love
solves the commitment problem. Love keeps us committed to a partner which helps when raising children. Love keeps us committed to children when they are difficult and vulnerable. Helps children survive. may be genetically determined Helps children survive and thrive
The multifaceted definition of emotion, and what you experience when you have an emotion.
special case of a push motivation fear, anger, disgust, and sadness push individuals toward end states defined by the aim o the emotion those end states also act like goals and pull the individual a universal functional reaction to an external stimulus event, temporarily integrating physiological, cognitive, and phenomenological, and behavioral channels that facilitate fitness enhancing environment shaping responses to the current situation _______ involves physiological changes that make behavior possible while it also guides thought process and provides the "feel" of the ___ second, the integrated set of response is designed to aid survival as individuals deal with environmental demands such as danger, a blocked goals, or a significant loss finally, _____ are universal which implies that all people experience them similarly
internal dispositions
specifies the nature of the end state of an action they may consist of biological motives like hunger, psychological motives like need to belong, or a value system that confers worth o a university degree a person's values determine the pulling power of a particular incentive or goal such as the value placed on a university degree either by push, pull, or both individuals are moot ate toward the appropriate end where motives and goals become linked together
incentives
stimuli that attract or repel.
drive
stimulus that induced behavior and keeps behavior going even if stimulus is now absent. guides our behavior even if there are no stimulus in the environment
Evolutionary psychology
study of the link between our evolutionary past and our current behavior.
case studies
studying one person in depth. ex: Phineas Gage
self control
tendency to choose delayed rewards, influenced less by nearness of reward.
impulsiveness
tendency to choose immediate reward, influenced more by nearness of reward.
incentives
the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment
emergence
the brain's neuronal activity uses forth mental processes - that is, the mind is an emergent property of the brain
Processing resources.
the capacities that allow the mind to carry out operations that are necessary for the motivation of behavior information form the environment impinges on the human senses and is briefly held in sensory memory, where some of it is elected and sent along for further processing g the incoming info is combined with other knowledge that is retrieved from long term memory the combined info provides the basis for developing preferences, making decision, developing goals, and eventually taking action
habits
the expectation or anticipation of end state receives little attention or occurs below the level of awareness _____ are examples o behaviors that occur with little conscious awareness of they end-states psychologists have used various types of analyses to account for motivate in terms of expecting an end state or goal
action readiness
the impulse for action of emotion-relevant behavior.
unconscious
the large room represents this, "in which there various mental excitations are crowing up on one another, like individual beings" this part of the mental apparatus is unavailable to the person, it contain instinctual impulses, repressed thoughts, and other mental stimuli.
reductionism
the mind's mental processes can be reduced to the activity of the neurons in the brain
experimental variable
the one manipulated by the experimenter to create different levels or values participants are randomly assigned to the conditions representing the levels on this variable
final cause
the overall purpose of performing the behavior that is likely more long term.
ego
the part of you that deals with reality
formal cause
the process by which the object functions or works mechanically.
hedonism
the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain today often refers to sensory pleasures derived from food, drink, and sex, for philosophers the term mean striving for the greater good the phrase "the pursuit of happiness" comes from this
Psychological science.
the push pull metaphor of motivation suggests that internal and external sources combine to motivate behavior in both animals and humans. this joint effect is illustrated by the combined effects of a thirst drive (motive) and a water reward the study of motivation is to determine how internal states and value systems link up with external events - these links motivate behavior psychology as the science of behavior can help answer certain questions
Evolutionary history as an explanation of behavior.
the remote past, refers to the effects of millions of years of natural selection in shaping motives and emotions that aided surveil of the individual and the species as a consequence of natural selection, relevant motives or emotions increase in frequency in the population ex: motives that promote eating gan drinking aid the surveil of the individual, while motives that promote sexual behavior help perpetuate the human species. the emotions of fear, motivates individuals to avoid danger or dangerous animals see evolutionary psychology
hobbes' view of motivation
the roots of incentive motivation can be found in his writing incentives are anticipated events that are approached if pleasurable and avoided if painful our ability to anticipate that an incentive will be pleasant or unpleasant depends on our remembrance of a smilier incentive which produced that feeling in the past he reasoned that a feeling of pleasure leads us to approach the situation responsible for that feeling, while an unpleasant feeling leads us to avoid the situation that produces it
positive psychology
the scientific investigation of possible factors that promote people, groups, and institutions to function at their best these factors may provide people with a prescription for what is good for them
Unconscious motivation.
there are instances when the motives and incentives for some action are tacit or are incorrectly stated inaccessibliity to on's motives characterizes ______ _________
What does Witz et al (2003) have to say about our ability to engage in affective forecasting?
they asked several university students two weeks and again two to four days before a spring break trip how much they expected to enjoy, expected to have fun, and expected to be satisfied with their trip students anticipated more enjoyment than they actually experienced, they also remembered their trip as being more enjoyable than it actually was. they remembered other positive feelings (happy, pleasant) more intensely than those feelings actually were and remembered negative feelings (irritated, unpleasant) less intensely than they were the spring trip was both anticipated and remembered as being more enjoyable than it actually was the best indicator of whether students would repeat the same trip again was based on what they remembered of their subjective experiences. affective forecasting does motivate behavior but its predictive accuracy is probably lower than what actually occurs on the trip
Why do people who study motivation study emotions?
they study emotions because they act like push motivations, to understand why we feel something and why we are motivated to do things
current views of the law of effect
thorndike's law of effect accepted today but with an emphasis on the observable consequent of behavior which are referred to as reinforcers and punishers the law avoids the subjective and unobservable nature of hedonism reinforcers - observable stimulus consequences that increase and maintain behavior punishers - a stimulus consequence of behavior that reduces the frequency o the behavior many psychologists accept the view that human behavior is determined by the law of effect, it emphasizes the objective nature of motivation : some stimuli increase behavior and other stimuli decrease it; there is no claim in the law of effect that the stimuli we approach provide some degree of pleasure or that those we avoid produce varying degrees of discomfort or pain if we fail to do so. two principles emphasize different sources of motivation - internal and external
repression
those mental excitations that have made it to the doorway and have been turned back by the door keeper if some mental events haver gained entry, then they may yet be driven out if found to be unacceptable or anxiety provoking makes them capable of becoming conscious freud conceived it as a means of protecting us form the uneasier that would result if we became aware of some of the impulses residing in our unconscious
instrumental behaviors
those motivated activities in which a person engages to satisfy a motive. ex: working for money, studying to pass a test, and acting kindly toward people aspects of this that reflect motivation include duration, frequency, and intensity.
motivation definition
to be moved into action or to decide on a change in action
Reductionism
to explain the mind's psychological processes in terms of activity of neurons in brain. Example: Hunger sensations result from brain's hypothalamus registering a decline of glucose in blood.
Temporal motivation theory
today the effects of daly on incentive value are organized by this in this theory as well as in lewis's incentive value increases with amount and decreases with delay an added feature of temporal motivation theory however is that the effects of deadly depend upon individual differences
Bargh (1996)
today unconscious refers to the inflects of effects of stimulus processing got which one is not aware current trend certain deliberations carried out by the brain are not accessible to consciousness but yet those deliberations affect behavior there are several ways of examining how unconscious processes can influence behavior one way is to measure the reaction between a person's conscious intention to respond and the brain's preparation for that response the brain prepares for a response prior to a person's conscious intention for doing so as if a person is not conscious of this preparation
Sublimation
turning the energy of the impulse into something useful or productive.
Current trends in unconscious motivation.
unconscious motivation for Freud - favors push orientation current trends = emphasized a pull rather than push orientation - goals are in the uncoils or below the level of awareness. when goals are activated into consciousness they are then acted on today unconscious refers to the inflects of effects of stimulus processing got which one is not aware
experimental research
usually conducted in a laboratory involves manipulating a motivational variable to determine the effects on any behaviors; these effects are indicative of motivation
Psychological Variables
variables refer to momentary properties of a person's mind (e.g., feeling lonely). Need to belong: characteristic that motivates a person to form close relationships with others.
Thinking About the Future Cognitive motivation
visualize end state as a concrete goal (e.g., a pizza restaurant). Next, execute a plan or follow a script to achieve the goal (e.g., go to the restaurant).
Bentham's view of motivation. Principle of utility.
we are the servants of pain of pleasure described motivation in terms of the positive and negative consequences of our actions he anticipated the notion of cognitive motivation and affective forecasting described earlier cognitive motivation for him involved the perception o fan external even that could happen motivation results from the prospects or the anticipated consequences of a person's action with references tow at was forecast; either unpleasant or pleasant anticipated consequences determine the likelihood of our behavior if there is more than one possible outcome, the individual has the choice of which one to bring about the outcome of weighing both the visualized events and accompanying affect determines a person's decision also used the principle of utility
pleasure principle
we often act in ways that help reduce tension generated by the id.
Freudian Slips
you say one thing but mean another.
id
your basic, unconscious urges
law of effect
your behavior changes because of its consequences. Satisfying consequences strengthen behavior. Dissatisfying consequences weaken behavior. -Important idea for the field of behaviorism.
reality principle
your ego deals with real world and may restrain your impulses. Can result in delaying gratification.
superego
your moral values
