Psych 314 Exam 2

Why do psychologists argue against using punishment to control behavior?

Causes a lot of negative emotions The relationship between the two people may suffer Encourages use of aversive stimuli with others

Lepper et al (1973): What did they do, and what did they find?

Children were asked to draw pictures for 6 minutes in a separate room. There were three conditions. 1. Expected reward (certificate). 2. Were given a surprise reward (certificate). 3. No reward expected The rewarding group was least likely to draw. This finding has been replicated with hundreds of different groups and situations.

What are the three constructs that define it (choice)?

Choice - Do you have flexibility in choosing to act or not? Ranges from... o Free to: I desire this. o Coerced to: I have to do this. If you have choice, choose you to do it.

Glucksberg (1962): What did they do, and what did they find?

Participants completed a creativity task under one or two conditions. - No reward (just timed) - Rewarded for fast performance ($5 if good or $20 if the best). The rewarded group took on average three and a half minutes longer to solve the problem.

What role does the environment play in satisfying psychological needs?

People are not passive in how they interact with the environment. Nature of interactions between the person and the environment is very active. Transformational activity: there's a constant process of each changing the other.

What does this have to say about motivating people effectively?

People have to assess behaviors and decide if they are consistent with one's values. Then they are more likely to... - Internalize: make regulation more internal - Integrate: Incorporate the behavior into one's sense of self.

Why are television and social media not always the best use of time?

People spend more time on TV than most other leisure activities Watching TV is not a particularly rewarding activity. We often compare our lives to others in order to evaluate ourselves. If the other person is better (upwards comparison), it can be depressing. Research has shown that social media encourages upward comparisons.

How are psychological needs different from physiological needs?

Physiological Needs - Responding to a deficit - Reactive Psychological Needs - Seeking out growth - Proactive

Can you give examples of each and recognize when they are influencing behavior?

Positive Reinforcement - Adds to well-being Negative Reinforcement - Reduces suffering Positive Punishment - Adds to suffering Negative Punishment- Reduces well-being

What are some better options?

Prevent rather than punish. Let the person know that you care and want to help. Promote more effective behaviors and response. Encourage person to internalize good behaviors.

Which relationship satisfies relatedness most effectively?

Students who satisfy their relatedness needs are more engaged with their school work. Substantial benefits for one's physical and emotional health (often due to social support). It has been said that satisfying this need is absolutely essential for lifelong happiness.

Ariely et al (2005): What did they do, and what did they find?

Studied rewards and performance in rural India. There were 87 participants. Studied performance on skill-based tasks like... - Tennis ball tossing, Unscrambling anagrams, and Digit recall Three reward levels - Small (4 rupees, 1 day pay), Medium (40 rupees, two weeks' pay), and Very large (400 rupees, five months' pay). Worst performance? Very large rewards.

What have research studies found regarding the power of habits?

THE POWER OF CUES Only 5% of U.S. soldiers who use heroin in Vietnam were addicted to it when they returned home (cues were gone form the environment). Wood et al (2005): College transfer students maintained their exercise and TV habits only if they had similar cues at their new school.

What have research studies found regarding the power of cues?

THE POWER OF HABITS Quinn and Wood (2005). - Studied a variety of behaviors over time and location. - Found 45% of everyday behaviors tend to be repeated in the same location almost every day. Neal and Wood (2006). - Participants had their willpower depleted. - Non-habitual behavior disappeared, but participants still engaged in their habits.

What are the steps involved to change a habit?

1. Select a routine you want to change 2. Analyze your current habit loop - What is the cue for the routine? - What is the reward from the routine? 3. Pick a new routine that can respond to the same cue and provide the same reward.

What's the process involved in the Person-Environment Dialectic?

1. The environment either fulfills or frustrates the psychological needs of the individual. 2. This can change how the individual is motivated 3. The individual then interacts with or changes the environment accordingly. 4. Go back to step 1.

What is an incentive and how is it different from reinforcement / punishment?

An expectation that behaviors will lead to certain consequences. (Incentives). Anticipated consequences and precede behavior. Reinforcement and Punishment refers to real consequences of your behaviors. Actual consequences and follow behavior.

Positive Punishment

Any stimulus that decrease the likelihood of a behavior by either being applied positive. Ex- Wrong answer to a Q = given a shock if wrong

Negative Punishment

Any stimulus that decrease the likelihood of a behavior by either being withdrawn negative. Ex - putting a kid in timeout (taking away play time) - taking away a teens phone - speeding ticket (taking away your money)

What are the benefits of living in the moment?

Be more likely to experience flow and the subsequent boost to long term well-being. Will be more likely to satisfy their psychological needs and experience more life satisfaction Will be more likely to not live life on auto-pilot and engage with their world in a meaningful way.

What is mindfulness?

Being completely focused in the moment during your daily life. "Mindfulness is about monitoring one's present moment experience with acceptance."

What is flow?

Being completely focused in the moment while working on a challenging activity Complete immersion in activities that stand out as some of the best experiences in your life.

How are flow and mindfulness related?

Both mental states require... o Complete focus on the moment o Ignoring all distractions o Loss of self-awareness

What is a habit, and how do they work?

An automatic behavior you perform when you experience cue (a trigger) in your environment. You perform the behavior without thinking

What was Thorndike's law of effect?

> Responses followed by a rewarding state of affairs - will be strengthened, > Responses followed by an aversive state of affairs - will be weakened

What did Henry Harlow find regarding primates and their motivation to solve puzzles?

>The monkeys started solving the puzzles without any external incentives. -They appeared to be engaged and having fun. -The monkeys were driven by intrinsic (internal) interest, BUT, once they were doing it for rewards or punishments they were no longer interested. *Rewarding the monkeys with raisins for solving the puzzles caused them to perform the behavior less frequently & quickly compared to not having a reward*

Positive reinforcement

Adding of a stimulus that increases the likelihood of behavior. Ex - Answer correctly = Extra credit

How do we develop habits?

At first, you consciously chose to respond to a cue with a behavior. You then experienced a reward in response, which made you likely to choose it again. After enough repetitions, you started performing the routine without even thinking. Our brain conserves resources. Habitual behavior requires no cognitive energy or willpower to perform. It just happens. - Habits allow us to have extra cognitive energy to think about more important things - We could be miserable if we always had to think carefully about every choice we made.

What are psychological needs?

Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness.

What are the two essential components of mindfulness?

Complete focus on what you are experiencing Nonjudgmental acceptance of what you're experiencing.

How can mindfulness improve coping with stress?

Coping with stress An event is stressful if you perceive a high negative impact and you feel you don't have the resources to cope with it. We often automatically over-react to stress, and mindfulness improves coping by helping people keep appraisals of the stressor reasonable.

What are the benefits of supporting someone's autonomy needs?

Other than supporting an important psychological need, it benefits related ness and competence. Helps people achieve high levels of engagement and performance. Increase well-being.

What is an organismic need, and why is it called that?

Organism depend on their environment to thrive (need food, safety). Organisms can leave or change their environment if it isn't satisfying their needs Organisms need to grow and develop new ways to interact with the environment

What are some of the benefits of being intrinsically motivated (creativity)?

Creativity - People experiencing intrinsic motivation tend to be more creative when solving problems.

What are some of the benefits of being intrinsically motivated (engagement)?

Engagement - Intrinsic rewards lead to more engagement with the task. People are more likely to work harder at a task. Their approach will be more curious and playful.

What is engagement, and how is it related to satisfying psychological needs?

Engagement refers to how actively involved the person is in the activity at hand. Psychological need satisfaction fuels engagement.

What are the benefits of need satisfaction?

Engagement, Personal Growth, Intrinsic Motivation, Internalization, Health, and Well-Being

What happens when you're in flow?

Focus is so complete that you have no energy for distracting thoughts or feelings.

What's the difference between exchange and communal relationships?

Exchange Relationships - Acquaintances or people you do business with - Interact with them but no closeness - Their welfare is not your priority - You must reciprocate any rewards or gifts. Communal Relationships - Friends, family, and romantic partners. - Monitor and keep track of other's needs. - Don't have to reciprocate if given something.

Why are mindfulness and flow often difficult to achieve?

Experiencing mindfulness and flow requires training, effort, and practice.

What are these types of extrinsic regulation: external?

External - No self-determination. Rewards and punishment completely guided behavior. Associated with poor outcomes.

How do intrinsic and extrinsic motivation differ?

Extrinsic motivation: Behavior is coerced by external sources, e.g., grades, money, or approval of others. Intrinsic motivation: Behavior is not coerced by external sources; motivation is inherent in the activity.

Intrinsic rewards are generally better than extrinsic, but why are extrinsic rewards still necessary?

Extrinsic rewards have less of an effect on intrinsic motivation if they are... - Unexpected (unaware while preforming task) - Verbal (instead of tangible)

What are the benefits of flow?

Flow can increase experiences of positive emotion The immediate experience of flow is typically not associated with strong emotions because the person is so focused and low in self-consciousness. However, research on flow shows that it's associated with strong positive emotions after the experience is over.

How can flow increase learning?

Flow is a "magnet for learning." o In order to experience flow, you may need to increase your skills to match a challenge (train or learn). o In order to maintain flow, you need to increase the challenge (seek new experiences). Either way, pursing the flow experience often motivates people to improve themselves.

What is required in order to feel competence (feedback)?

Giving yourself a challenge is not enough to satisfying your need for competence. You also need feedback on your performance. Otherwise, your performance is meaningless. Challenge + Positive Feedback = Competence

What are the benefits of mindfulness?

Greater intrinsic goal orientation and subjective well-being Greater empathy and compassion for other people. Lower stress levels; better coping; less over-reaction to stress. Hedonic (joy) and eudaimonic (meaning) well-being.

What is the habit loop? What are the different parts of the habit loop (cue, routine, reward)?

Habits are an automated script that goes like this: "When I perceive a CUE (a trigger), I will perform a ROUTINE (a behavior), that I know will result in a ROUTINE (payoff)." The reward reinforces the habit and REWARD it.

In regard to psychological needs, what's a good day?

Having experiences that involve and satisfy our psychological needs - Feeling in control (autonomy). - Feeling good at what you do (competence). - Feeling connected to others (relatedness).

Why is how we spend our time important?

How you spend your time will ultimately determine the overall quality of your life A good life consists of good experience, and good experiences require time. One of the most important decisions you will make is how you choose to spend your time.

What are these types of extrinsic regulation: identified?

Identified - You've internalized the behavior, but only because it's important or useful. You don't want to perform the behavior, but you do it because of what it can do for you. You freely choose to perform the behavior.

When do extrinsic rewards increase performance?

Incentives can increase performance if the task doesn't require creativity or careful thought. In other words, you can do the job well but not find it fun or rewarding to do.

What should you do if you're seeking flow and there's a skill-challenge mismatch?

Increase your skills to match the challenge - Get a teacher or mentor - Practice Lower or increase the challenge to match your skills

What are the best ways to support a person's competence needs?(Tolerate Failure)

Increased challenge means increased failures, and if a person fears failure, they won't seek challenges Create an environment that tolerates failures - Let people know that failure is educational - Help people find new approaches after failure.

What are these types of extrinsic regulation: integrated?

Integrated - You have completely accepted the behavior, and you want to perform it. The behavior reflects your true beliefs. Associated with positive outcomes.

Which produce the best results? (external, introjected, identified, and integrated)

Integrated Regulation

What are these types of extrinsic regulation: introjected?

Introjected - Don't internalize the behavior, but you don't want to disappoint someone, so you do it. Important people or culture guides behavior, using guilt as a motive. Behavior is not part of your identity.

Punishment

It allows you to escape something bad. Escaping the stimulus is motivating. The mere anticipation of negative reinforcement can affect behavior.

How can you tell in advance if something will function as a reinforcer?

It decreases a drive (food). It decreases arousal (drugs). It Increases arousal (music). It's attractive to the person ($). It feels good (causes pleasure). It makes it possible to do something fun (floss teeth then play a game).

What defines amotivation?

It is a state of motivational apathy in which people possess little or no reason (no motive) to invest the energy and effort that is necessary to learn or to accomplish something.

What are some of the benefits of being intrinsically motivated (learning)?

Learning - Enhances conceptual learning (instead of rote learning). Promotes flexible thinking, Students tend to learn more.

What are the three constructs that define it (locus of control)?

Locus of Control - Where is the cause of your behavior? Ranges from... o Internal: you cause your actions o External: environment causes your action If your locus of control is internal, you are in charge

In general, what's the best way to motivate someone to perform a dull or uninteresting task?

Make the task less boring - Help set a goal for the task - Add interesting things (music, co-workers). Again, helps build engagement with the task.

What is intrinsic motivation?

Motivate behavior that occurs when there is no obvious external consequence as a result of the behavior. Reflects our natural tendency to seek activities that satisfy.... Need to explore or curiosity Development of interests and personal growth.

What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation that *the environment*, not the person, *creates.*

What does a person need in order to satisfy it?

Relationships that offer us warmth, support, and caring You satisfy this need when you get close to another person.

How can mindfulness improve self-regulation?

Self-Regulation A mindful person... o Is less likely to be guided by (often bad) habits. o Is more aware of their available choices. As a result, a mindful person is more likely to demonstrate self-control and pursue goals that matter to them.

What is a quasi-need and how is it different from a genuine need?

Similar to needs • Powerful motive to act • Produces tension to reduce • Often produces urgency Dissimilar to needs • Source is external • Unrelated to genuine needs • Disappears when satisfied

Based on what we know regarding flow, how should we approach work and leisure time?

Some people are dissatisfied with their jobs, but they can improve this. If you can find a challenge in your job, you can find a source of flow, which can increase job satisfaction. To experience satisfaction, you need to challenge yourself with active entertainment. Passive entertainment is not particularly satisfying, especially watching TV. Flow is cheap. Activities that cost money are not always linked to experiencing flow.

What are the five myths regarding habits?

Some people have a Lot of Willpower An app can help me change my habits It takes 21 days to create a habit Set realistic goals to create a habit Knowledge about a behavior will help habit change

What is required in order to experience flow?

The activity is active, engaging, and challenging Your skills match the challenge of the activity. The activity provides clear feedback on performance. The activity is enjoyable for its own sake (autotelic). You are completely focused on the activity.

What needs to happen in order to experience flow?

The activity is challenging, but you have the skills to match the challenge.

What is the need for autonomy?

The need to control how and when we act Our preferences influence if we choose to engage in an activity or not, not someone else's State in which you feel in control and unpressured by other people.

What is the need for competence?

The need to feel that we are effective interacting with the environment. This leads us to improve our skills and seek out appropriate challenges. We feel interested and happy when we experience competence.

What is the need for relatedness?

The need to form close emotional bonds and attachments with other people. We want to be connected to other people and involved in good relationships We naturally gravitate towards people and form relationships to satisfy this need.

Negative Reinforcement

The withdrawal of a stimulus that increases the likelihood of behavior removing a stimulus that will decrease a desired behavior Ex- alarm clock - teacher exempts student from taking exam if they have perfect attendance

What is operant conditioning?

The process of learning behavior is shaped by the effect of the behavior on the environment.

What is "the self"?

The self consists of a variety of psychological processes related to how you see yourself and how you act on the world.

What are the best ways to support a person's competence needs?(Good Feedback)

The task may provide immediate feedback, and simple praise can build competence. Constructive feedback and instruction are needed - Enhances skills - Improved performance satisfies competence.

What are the consequences of need frustration?

Thwartive relationships and social contexts

Reinforcement

There's and opportunity for personal gain. You feel positive emotions regarding the behavior. However, not all rewards will work as positive reinforcers.

What is Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and what does it have to say about motivating people effectively?

Using autonomy and competence needs to choose rewards. External events will affect intrinsic motivation to the degree they emphasize controlling or information.

What are the three constructs that define it (volition)?

Volition - Do you really want to perform the behavior? Ranges from... o Want to: completely my choice o Have to: not all my choice If you have volition, you want to do it.

What are some of the benefits of being intrinsically motivated (well-being)?

Well-being - Enjoy job and do it well. More happy and productive. Experience Vitality. Satisfied with life. Feel energized.

How does it feel to satisfy it?(intrinsic motivation)

Whatever you're doing is fun and you genuinely enjoy doing it. It's the primary way we experience genuine happiness and satisfaction. Satisfies needs like autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

What are the best ways to support a person's autonomy needs?

When it's informational. - Person understands your needs and values - "what kinds of foods do you like?" When it's not controlling - The choice isn't being used to control you. - "You can eat your broccoli or sit at the table."

What is amotivation?

Without motivation

What is flow?

You are completely engaged and focused on a challenging activity. The challenge of the activity matched your skills at it. This is something people deeply enjoy and try to repeat the experience.

When do they not?

You can be given choices that really aren't options you're interested in. - "Would you like broccoli or cauliflower?" - "Would you like to go to the opera or symphony?"

When are choices demotivating? When do choice support autonomy?

You can be given too many options to choose from, which can lead to dissatisfaction - Choosing ice cream - Cheesecake factory.

How do you change a habit?

You can't eliminate a bad habit, but you can replace a bad one with a better one At a minimum, expect habit change to require at least two to three months of effort. Habit change is difficult, but it will get easier as the routine becomes automatic

What are the best ways to support a person's competence needs?(Support Flow)

You need to function as a mentor and help people build their skills so they can meet the challenges you have for them.

What does it feel like to satisfy a psychological need?

You will feel interested in what you're doing. You will enjoy what you're doing. We are motivated to feel this. These feelings are the primary reason we interact with our environment.

What happens when you're mindful?

You're completely in the moment, fully focused. You're not evaluating yourself, other people, or the situation you're in - you just experience it. You tend to not engage in habitual responding. You take a minute before reacting.

What are some of the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation (interference with learning)?

interference with learning - Students focus on the reward and not the act of learning. Students tend to focus on factual information and not conceptual understanding. Students are less likely to be engaged with the material and challenge themselves.

What are some of the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation (lack of autonomous self-regulation)?

lack of autonomous self-regulation - People are less likely to take the initiative and regulate their behavior without rewards. Gradually lose sense of autonomy

What are some of the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation (less creativity)?

less creativity - Creativity requires engagement and conceptual thinking and a playful attitude. Making a task all about rewards can interfere with this process.

What are some of the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation (less positive behavior)?

less positive behavior - Less altruism. - Rewards make an act of giving feel less rewarding - Titmuss (1970) found that rewarding blood donors led to fewer donations. More unethical behavior. - Cheating in college - Bank misbehavior (Wells-Fargo)

What are some of the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation (lower performance)?

lower performance - Does the task require creative thought? Less engaged with the task. Less Creative. Focused on the reward.

How are incentive different from reinforcement / punishment?

o Incentives. >Anticipated consequences. >Precede behavior. o Reinforcers and punishers. >Actual consequences. >Follow behavior.