Psych 330 Final

Stimulus-value role theory

when partners first meet, their attraction to each other is primarily based on stimulus information. If the relationship progresses beyond these first impressions, partners enter the value stage, in which they share their attitudes and beliefs Only after they have been together for a while they start communicating about roles Not discrete or orderly Be careful not to under or over-share

Castano and Giner-Sorolla study

when people were made to feel a sense of collective responsibility for their ingroup's mass killing of an outgroup, they viewed members of that outgroup as less human Perpetrators of violence reduce dissonance by regarding victims as subhuman and less deserving of moral consideration

Cooper's (1998) study on core motives for sex

5 core motives (descending order) Enhance physical or emotional pleasure Foster intimacy Affirm one's sense of self-worth Cope with negatove emotions Gain partner or peer approval

bystander effect

a person who witnesses another in need is less likely to help when there are other bystanders present to witness the event

Stoner's (1961) study

study: participants decide between taking a risky alternative (high-paying job, but may not last) and a safe alternative (low-paying job, more stable) Manipulation: group or no group Results: made riskier decisions in a group than they did not on their own Concept this shows: risky shift

Multicultrual ideology

- acknowledges and appreciates different cultural viewpoints Embraces diversity People tend to do better when institutions recognize diverse perspectives and contributions Should approach group differences as something to be celebrated

Prisoner's Dilemma

- depicts a social dilemma a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial

Reward model of liking

- people like other people whom they associate with positive stimuli and dislike people whom they associate with negative stimuli EX: Meet new person Begins w/ neutral stimulus Exposure to person is paired w/ a second positive stimulus → positive feelings evoked by the second stimulus start to become evoked by the person Second stimulus is negative → negative feelings from stimulus get linked to the person

the dual process approach

2 processes 1st - stereotypes and biased attitudes are brought to mind quickly and automatically 2nd - people emply reflective or cognitive processes to regulate or control the degree to which those thoughts and attitudes affect their behavior and judgment Requires an awareness of the biases Can keep implicit biases from influencing decisions and judgment EX: Shown picture of black faces for 30 miliseconds → increased activation in amygdala Shown picture of black faces form 250 miliseconds → increased activation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) - responsible for judgment and decision making

Sternberg's triangular model of love relationships

3 basic components of love relationships that in different combinations describe different kinds of relationships Passion Intimacy Commitment Ideal romantic relationships have all three Only passion = infatuation Only commitment = empty love Passion + intimacy = romantic Passion + commitment = fatuous love Intimacy + commitment = compassionate love

the warrior gene

A genetic variant that causes los levels of MAO-A MAO-A is needed to metabolize and secrete serotonin Linked to vioent and antisocial behavior DOES NOT universally predict aggressive behavior DOES so largely in response to enduring and situational stressors EX: los MAO-A levels predicts aggressive behavior only among people who were exposed to maltreatment and excessive stress as a child Higher levels of aggression when people are currently provoked

Self-regulatory strength

A strategy to reduce aggression Minimizing obstacles to self-awarensss and self-control 9(lcohol use, environmental stressors) EX: study on practice controlling behavior Participants who took part in a two-week designed to bolster self-regulatory strength (brushing teeth w/ nondominant hand) reported reduced likelihood of being physically aggressive towards their romantic partner

multisystemic therapy

Addresses what drives individuals to aggress in specific contexts in which they are embedded, such as school and neighborhood Goal: Decrease violence in an individual

the coolidge effect

Animals initially have repeat dintercourse with an available mate Will lose interest over time, but then have repeated intercourse again when introduced to a new sexual partner EX: Bull When bull got tired of cow, they weere moved to a new enclosure and the bull became reenegaged Lesson: injecting novelty and excitement into a relationship, whether by travel, trying new things like an escape room, rock-climbing, and so forth, can bring new life to a relationship Continue to do enjoyable, stimulating things

mortality salience

Awareness of mortality promotes prosocial behavior Gave more money to people after being reminded of their own mortality Especially likely to increase social behavior when the caritabloe action helps connect the person's identity to entities that transcend one's death

Fairness norms

Culturally widespread concern for fairness -involved in many aspects of life (when buying a sandwich, need to trust that the fish was not spoiled and that the clerk did not poison him)

Culture of honor

Culture of honor = people are highly motivated to protect status and reputations EX: Bumping into someone in th hallway North: did not have muhc reaction to the insult South: showed comparative increases in aggressive feelings, thoughts, and physiology

zick rubin's scale

Distinguish feelings of liking Core of liking - positive evaluations of, and perceived similarity to, another person Aspects of romantic love - attachment, caring, intimacy The higher people scored on loving, the more they thought marriage was likely More eye contact = more the relationship progressed over 6 months

collective guilt

Do not feel personally responsible for harm done to another person or group, but feel collective guilt for the role their group might have played in the past or present harms EX: socially advantaged group Feel collective guilt for the less-fortunate group Motivates a desire to make reparations Can redule the likelihood of providing more significant help at a later time

Positive intergroup contact

Encourages people to interact with those who are the targets of their prejudice 4 necessary ingredients Equal status between groups Contact = intimate and varied (people can get acquainted) Cooperation toward a superordianate goal - goal that is beyond the ability of any one group to achieve on its own Institutional support - contact that is approved by authority, law, or custom

Csikszentmihalyi's (1980) study

Flow analysis Love relationships are best when people are in flow, when the challenges of a relationship partner are commensurate with one's relationship-related abilities If satisfying partner is more tha you can handle → relationship is likely to flame out early A partner who does not grow will become boring Long-term relationship is alive for both partners to continue to grow and change so they remain stimulating

Oppositional culture

Group identity that opposes the majority group and its characteristic behaviors, ideas, and practices EX: Ethnic minority students may consider doing well in school or conforming to school rules as "acting white" When they engage in these "white behaviors", they face opposition from their peers and other group members Black students may not put their best effort into school

Illusory correlation

Illusory correlation - tendency to assume an association between two rare occurrences, such as being in a minority group and performing negative actions Two things that are generally rare happen in close proximity to one another EX: News reports about black men accused of violent crimes Minority individual + Undesirable behavior = attention is grabbed

parasocial relationships

Individuals' relationships with people in the media, including celebrities, television characters, and athletes One-sided, lacking interdpenendence 3 components of closeness Believe that they know the media personalities They care what happens to them They are committed to following and supporting them Thinking about a favorable television program buffers people from feeling rejected when their relationships are threatened Parasocial breakup - favorite TV character is killed off can be as emotionally distressing as the breakup in a real relationship

Realistic group conflict theory

Initial negative feelings between groups are often based on a real conflict or competition regarding scarce resources Access to land, water, and jobs are threatened by another group → negative emotions about the rival group

the kernel of truth (allport)

Kernel of truth hypothesis - some (but not all) stereotypes may be based on actual differences in the average traits or behaviors associated with two or more groups Exaggerate any differences that might exist Little support for personality traits EX: African Americans are convicted of more crimes. Does NOT mean they are more violent or immoral by nature

Grabe and colleague's (2008) study

Media depictions of women cause women to have problems coming to terms with their own body shapes and sizes Can contribute to eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia

Eagly and Crowley's 1986

Men More liekly to help in stituation that call for chivalrous behavior or taking action despite possible danger More likely to help a woman w/ heavy packages, hold a door open, willing to pickup a hitchhiker More kileky to help when others will know that they helped Act prosocially as a way to boost their own social status Women More likely to volunteer their time for others Go out of their way to mail a latter that has been left behind

effective leaders

Most effective leaders - focus on the needs of their followers Charismatic - emphasize bold actions and inspire beliefs in the greatness of the group Task-oriented - more practical, achieving group goals Relationship-oriented - foster equality, fairness, harmony, and participation among members None are more effective, depends on the situation

sexual coercion

Occurs when an individual fprces sexual behavior on another person Kissing, condling, sexual penetration Motivations Turned on by idea of dominating women Insecurity and hostility toward women Characteristics Lack empathyNarcissistic & believe rape myths Associate sex with power - low power in lives used sexual aggresion to compensate for inadequacies

Just-world casual attributions

People get what they deserve - people are quick to assume that others deserve their suffering Affects children as young as three-years-old Less likely to help those we believe are responsible for their current need EX: classmate asks for notes Reason for absence is within his control - not likely to help Reason fr absence is out of his control - more likely to help People support charities for cancer or heart disease over charities for obesity or drug abuse Reduced activation in the medial prefrontal cortex

self-serving bias

Pride in one's own group and preference for one's own group over others "If I am great, my group must also be great"

disidentifying with groups

Promoting survival People leave gangs due to fear of injury or death Happens when they or family members experience violence Reducing uncertainty When group changes or acts in a way that violates norms Can result in schisms - subgroups of people break away Bolstering self-esteem When people cannot live up to the group's standards If one member does something embarrassing, you will leave for fear of being in association with them When another group is more successful than one's own group Managing mortality concerns When groups no longer help w/ terror management, people leave them EX: when Latinos think of mortality and are reminded that they are viewed as drug dealers, they like Latino paintings less

Attachment theory's prototypic experience

Prototype experience of love → young child's bond with the primary caretaker Secure attachment style (60%): Child is attentive to mother, but happily plays with toys Stranger enters - child is distressed and relieves stress by returning to mother Mother leaves - distress returns Mothe returns - child greets herm becomes relaxed, resumes exploring toys Anxious-ambivalent attachment style: Child is overly clingy, but does explore toys Mom leaves - cry and protest Mothe returns - child seems angry and resistant (ambivalent), have difficulty calming down avoidant attachment style: Child is not very affectionate Mother leaves - little distress Mothe returns - turns away and avoids her

disadvantaged groups

Relative deprivation theory - disadvantaged groups are less aware of and bothered by their lower status because of a tendency to compare their outcomes only with others who are similarly deprived Keep lower-status groups in the dark

social dominance orientation

Social dominance orientation (SDO)- the world is viewed as a ruthlessly competitive jungle where it is appropriate and right for powerful groups to dominate weaker ones. Society should be constructed as a hierarchy Dislike of disadvantaged groups (disabled, unemployed, homemakers) Some groups are just better than others

Hierarchy in social groups

Social dominance theory - large societies create hierarchies and that people tend to endorse beliefs that legitimatize hierarchy People need to believe in the legitimacy of hierarchies for them to work Legitimizing myths - overly simplistic beliefs about why people succeed or fail in society Anyone can get ahead in life by working hard enough System justification theory Idealizing high status - some members of disadvantaged groups show a preference for higher-status groups over their own Mitigating comparisons - complementary stereotypes Believe in something complementary stereotypes which portray groups with a mix of positive and negative characteristics EX: poor people are happy vs. rich yet corrup

categorization

Steps categorize a person as belonging to a group activate stereotypes associated with the group apply those stereotypes in forming judgments of that person Part of evolution (categorizing between friend and foe) Quick to categorize people as in ingrouper or an outgrouper Stereotypes can affect the way people categorize EX: quicker to categorize an angry face as being Black if the person's race is ambiguous

Stigma consciousness

Stigma consciousness - expectation of being perceived by other people, particularly those in the majority group, in terms of one's group membership High in stigma consciousness = more likely to expect interactions with others to go poorly EX: women who expected a male to be sexist rated his essay more negatively, he then rated their more negatively. The negative review they got confirmed their assumptions of his sexism

THE evln model

Strategies for dealing with conflicts when they arise 2 dimensions Active Passive 2 other dimentions Constructive Destructive EVLN Exit response = active but destructive Voice response = active but more constructive (discussing problems, seeking solutions) Loyalty = passive and entails hoping for improvement (supporting partner, sticking through it, continuing to wear rings) Neglect = passive and destrucitve (letting things fall apart, ignoring partner) Satisfied + committed relationship = constructive response (voice or loyalty)

Pyszczynski's 2006

Study 1: When reminded of their own mortality, Iranian college students showed greater support for suicidal martyrdom against Americans Study 2: Conservative American students who were reminded of their own mortality supported bombing countries that might threaten the United States, regardless of collateral damage

The Robbers Cave Study

Study: 22 boys were assigned two groups "Rattlers" or "Eagles" 1st week - kept separate, prejudice started to grow when they knew about the other group 2nd week - competitive tasks between the two groups (generated hostility, prejudice, violence) Fights, stealing, derogatory language 3rd week - camp water supply was sabotaged Faced w/ common goal Faced a shared threat Manipulation: Groups working against each other vs. working together Results: Working together reduced prejudice and they were able to work together on teh common goal Concept this shows:positive intergroup contact - encouraging people to interact w/ groups outside their own

Darley and Latane's (1967) study

Study: Having a conversation aver an intercom system about challenges of being at college Just you and another student OR part of a group of three or six (each in a separate room) One person talks about history of seizures Same students seems to be having a seizure Manipulation: whether the participant believed they were having a 1:1 conversation or if there were 3 or 6 other people as well Results: Thought they were alone 100% of people got up to help 85% helped within a minute Thought four other people were listening 31% of people tried to help Concept this shows:bystander effect - a person who witnesses another in need is less likely to help when there are other bystanders present to witness the event

Festinger's study on friendship

Study: Interviewed residents in a new apartment building Resdiented were assigned at random Looked at wether proximity influences who makes friends with whom Manipulation: n/a Results: 2x as likely to make friends with next-door neighbors as they were from some one two doors down 1st floor residents = more likely to make friends w/ 2nd floor residents if they lived near the stairwell Concept this shows:proximity - physical nearness of others. It is a major factor determining who we form relationships with

Batson's 1981

Study: Show up to lab and complete an initial preference survey. Either do or do not share the same tastes in magazines and othe preferences with Elaine Elaine has to do a performance task in a stressful situation You have to observe for the entire study OR for the first set of trials Elaine will be exposed to shocks; Elaine is VERY anxious about shocks Experimenter turns to you and asks if you would take Elaine's place Manipulation: whether you matched of preferences for magazines and other preferences or not Results: Didn't feel similar Not likely to feel empathy for her 64% offered to trade places if they had to watch her get shocked 18% helped if they did not need to watch her Felt similar Likely to feel empathy 80 - 90% offered to stay and take her place, regardless of whether they could leave or not Concept this shows:empathy-altruism model - idea that the reason people help others depends on how much they empathize with them. When empathy is low, people help others when benefits outweigh costs; when empathy is high, people help others even at costs to themselves

Bartholow's 2005 study

Study: Looked at hunter's associations with guns Manipulation: n/a Results: Hunters did not show aggressive cognitions and are not more aggressive when exposed to pictures of guns Pictures of guns arouse warm and pleasant cognition Concept this shows: Not all people are more aggressive after being around guns

Correll's study 2002

Study: White participants played a videogame where they were shown pictures of white and black men holding an object. They were told to press "shoot" if the object was a gun and "don't shoot" if they were not holding a gun Manipulation: black or white individual gun or another object Results: Faster to shoot an armed black person than an armed white person Faster to make the correct decision to not shoot an unarmed person if they were White rather than Black The concept this shows:shooter bias - tendency to mistakenly see objects in the hands of Black men as guns

Sinclair 2005

Study: Women had casual conversation w/ a male student and were led to believe that he was either sexist or nonsexist towards women Manipulation: Sexist or nonsexist Results: Women who had a desire to get along with others and make new friends rated themselves in more gender-stereotypic ways when interacting with te guy believed to be sexist Researcher rated the women acting more steretypical Women low in desire to affiliate with others If thought he was sexist: rated themselves as more counterstereotypic Researcher rated them less steretypical Concept this shows: Confirming stereotypes to get along

Katz and Hass's 1988

Study: primed white participants with thoughts of individualism or humanitarianism and then identified their attitudes toward black individuals Manipulation: individualistic or humanitarian priming Results: Individualistic priming Stronger anti-black attitudes NO influence of pro-black attitudes (no different than people w/ out priming) Humanitarian priming More likely to report pro-black attitudes Did NOT influence anti-black attitudes Concept this shows:ambivalent racism - influence of two clashing sets of values on White Americans' racial attitudes: a belief in individualism and a belief in egalitarianism

Cohen 2006

Study: students were assigned to write about either a personally cherished value or a value that others might care about but that was not central to their own lives. Their grades were tracked Manipulation: Personally cherished value vs. value others might care about Results: White students: affirmations had NO affect Black students: those who affirmed their values → less likely to get low grade during semester Concept this shows:self-affirmation - people need to view themselves as good and competent

System justification theory vs the ultimate attribution error

System justification theory - negative stereotypes get attached to groups partly because they help explain and justify why some individuals are more advantaged than others. EX: someone thinks homeless people are dumb, lazy, and dangerous, explains why they suffering, and does not question the hierarchy Ultimate attribution error - tendency to believe that bad actions by outgroup members occur because of their internal dispositions and good actions by them occur because of the situation while believing the reverse for ingroup members Good things = because of us Bad things = because of the situation

the jigsaw classroom

Teacher creates lessons that can be broken down into several subtopics Class is subdivided into racially mixed groups One person in each group is given the responsibility of learning one of the subtopics The student meets with other members from the other groups who were also assigned that subtopic (review, study, become experts, and create a PPT or poster with their new knowledge) They return to their original group and present their topic Why does it work? Task assigned by teacher - authority is sanctioned Are all in charge of their own subtopics - have equal status Graded both individually and as a group - common goal Must cooperate in intimate and varied way to reach common goal

Ethnocentrism

Viewing the world through our own cultural value system and thereby judging actions and people based on our own culture's views of right and wrong and good and bad. EX: Americans will judge people from culture Z for only bathing 2x a week

instrumental aggression

a person intends to harm the othe rperson simply for the sake of doing so Motivated by a string affective or emotional state Often impulsive - fight breaks out in a bar

Commons dilemma

competition for scarce resources Ex: pandemic; people would buy extra toilet paper and the supply begins to run out

interdependence theory

idea that satisfaction, investments, and perceived alternatives are critical in determining commitment to a particular relationship Builds on social exchange model Satisfaction is only one of three critical factors that determine commitment to a particular relationship Higher satisfaction = more likely to stay in relationship investment More investment = the harder it is to walk away Alternatives Comparison for alternatives is low = high commitment Alternatives are highly appealing = commitment wavera individual can be relatively satisfied in a relationship and invest a great deal in it but still decide to leave if he or she suspects that there are better alternatives

intergroup anxiety theory

ingroup pronouns such as us are associated automatically with positive feelings and those outgroup pronouns such as them are associated automatically with negative ones

self-objectification

intense cultural scrutiny of the female body leads many girls and women to view themselves as objects to be looked at and judged Increases body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-disgust Disrupts cncentration + inteferes w/ cognitive performance EX: women wearing swimsuit did worse of math test compared to women wearing sweatshirt

Cognitive neoassociation model

model of aggression that emphasizes three causal factors: stressors, hostile feelings, and cues associated with aggression. Wide range of unpleasant conditions can prompt hostile feelings Hostile feelings are central contributors to affective aggression When people have hostile feelings, features of situations taht prime aggressive cognitions make aggression more likely

Social exchange model -

model which takes an economic perspective and assumes that people approach relationships with an underlying motivation of self-interest Value when both people perceive that they have more to gain than to lose from being in a relationship As log as ups outweigh the downs, the relationship is good Satisfaction = (rewards - costs) - comparison level

triggered displaced aggression

occurs when someone does not respond to an initial frustration → faced w/ a second event that elicits a more eggressive response than would be warranted by the small event on its own EX: trips over a house plant is really angry because they inhibited their original anger at something else

Rejection identification theory

people can offset the negative consequences of being targeted by discrimination by feeling a strong sense of identification with their stigmatized group Pride in one's tethnic identity (gay pride) EX: people of color creates a common identity united by shared experiences in America

system justification theory

suggests that those who have high status in society will often come to view those with lower status as being less intelligent and industrious than their own group to justify their own superior economic position If they did not generate justifications → have to accept that grave injustice exist When the stability of their nation is in question - both higher and lower-status groups believe that the higher group is more intelligent and capable

person-group discrimination discrepancy

tendency for people to estimate that they personally experience less discrimination than is faced by the average member of their group EX: women reporting sexism and racial minorities reporting racism Why? Motivated to deny that prejudice and discrimination affect their lives (tendency to be optimistic) Motivated to sustain fair that the way society is set up is inherently right and good

Hostile attribution bias

tendency to attribute hostile intent to others' actions, even when others' intentions are innocent The degree to which he or she infers that another's actions were committed with hostile intent Strongly predicts whether the person will react aggressively Abuse as a kid predicts a tendency toward the hostile attribution bias

Conjunctive tasks

the group will do only as well as the worst performer EX: if you are mountain climbing- least skilled members make the biggest effort; most skilled members slack off

Gain loss theory

theory of attraction which posits that liking is highest for others when they increase their positivity toward you over time EX: complement from someone who has criticized you in the mast = more surprising and thus more potent than a complement from a friend or spouse who has only good things to say about you Husband compliments wife, means less than when a stranger does

Colorbling Ideology

view people only on their individual merits and avoid any judgment based on group membership Concern: encourages efforts simply to control and biases or prejudices toward an outgroup Inlpies that everyone should conform to the status quo and act as if ethnic differences don't matter More comfortabloe for advantaged group (white people will often avoid describing someone by their race) Should avoid focusing on group identity