Psych and Soc Ch 7.1 Self-concept and Identity formation

Mores

(more-ays) norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced. ie animal abuse and treason

norms

spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members called norms.

3 powerful influence's on an individual's development of self-concept in addition to how "self" is defined

1. self efficacy 2. locus of control 3. self esteem

Kohlberg's stages of Moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning. an expansion on Jean Piaget's theory of moral development in children. stages cannot be skipped; each stage provides a new and necessary moral perspective and the understanding from each stage is retained and integrated at later stages. Interestingly, most adults attain but do not surpass the fourth stage in which morality is dictated by outside forces (laws, rules, social obligations). Few attain a post-conventional level of moral reasoning. In fact, through Kohlberg insisted that stage 6 exists, he found it difficult to identify people who operated at that level

deviance

Actions that violate the dominant social norms, whether formal or informal, are described as forms of *deviance*. In some cases deviant behavior is seen as criminal, violates public policies; popular among criminologists has important social functions- process of creating deviant labels affirms and reinforces social norms and values through the dichotomous presentation of the acceptable (normative) behavior and unnacpetable (non-normative) behavior. The difference between normal and deviant behavior is maintained through the punishment of transgressions through both formal and informal methods, such as means of criminal justice (for ex, court hearings) and unofficial social processes (for ex, public condemnation causing humiliation and shame) concept is problematic bc is a socail construct; no inherent devaince, is situational and contextual. ex, murder is deviant unless in times of warfare. important concept in the context of healthcare, individuals experiencing illness are considered deviant bc their condition violates conforming behavior and threatens social cohesion through limiting the individual's social contributions

ADRESSING = identity

Age [Power: adults Less Power: children, teens, elders] Disability status [Power: temporarily able bodied Less Power: persons w/ disabilities] Religion [Power: Christian Less Power: Jews, muslims, others] Ethnicity [Power: Euro-American Less Power: PoC] Sexual orientation [Power: Heterosexual Less Power: gay, lesbian, bi] Socioeconomic status [Power: Owning and middles classes (access to higher ed) Less Power: poor and working classes] Indigenous background [Power: non-native Less Power: native] National origin [Power: US born Less Power: immigrants and refugees] gender [Power: Male Less Power: Female, trans, intersex]

George Herbert Mead

American sociologist developed idea of *social* *behaviorism*: the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others. The idea that the mind and self emerge through the social process of communication of use of symbols was the beginning of the *symbolic* *interactionism* school of sociology. Mead believed that there is a specific path to development of the self. During the preparatory stage, children imitates others as they have no concept of how others see things. In the play stage, children take on roles of others through playing. During game stage, children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and can understand the responsibilities of multiple roles. Finally, the child develops an understanding of the *generalized* *other*, the common behavioral expectations of general society. Mead also characterized the "me" and the "I". Me= how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it/ social self. I= response to the me; the I is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others. I= self as subject Me= self as object

Charles Cooley

American sociologist, posited the idea of the *looking-glass* *self* which is the idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of other. people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them. Begins at an early age and continues thru life; we never stop modifying it unless all social interactions cease.

differential association

Edwin Sutherland's argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individs and their communities. involves learning the techniques of deviant behaviors as well as the motives and values that rationalize these behaviors, and it is no different than other learning processes in its mechanism. The principal source of exposure is an individuals closest personal groups such as professional business associates or urban gangs. These groups determine the specific behaviors learned (fraud, insider trading, tax evasion, vandalism, violence) in either case, when an individ participates in communities that condone deviant behaviors, it becomes easier for the individ to learn these behaviors and thus become deviant themselves learning depends on frequency and intensity of interactions Sutherland posits that individs become deviant when their contacts with favorable attitudes toward deviance outweigh their contacts with unfavorable attitudes criticism of this theory: idea that indivds are reduced to their environments; instead of considering people as independent, rational actors with personal motivations, this perspective suggests that devaint behavior is learned from one's environment w/o choice. It fails to consider individual characteristics and experiences and how these considerations affect a person's reaction to devaint influences in their current surroundings.

labeling theory

Howard Becker's suggests that deviance is the result of societys response to a person rather than something inherent in that person's actions; behaviors become deviant through social processes. most important theory in understanding deviance from a social perspective use of neg labels = serious consequences, for our perceptions and the "deviants" self perception For ex, individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self, which can lead to *self-fulfilling* *prophecies* - bc of societal preocupation with labels, the individ might begin to echibit more deviant behaviors to fulfill the expectations associated with specific ascribed labels (a form of conforming behavior). Furthermore, bc deviance is a social construct, there is no absolute set of characteristics that are viewed as deviant; instead, deviance is contextual. In fact, across the same social context, there are often double standards: the same behavior might be viewed as acceptable in one group and unacceptable in another (ex virgin woman vs man) bc this perspective views deviance as a social construct, it is often used in interactionist arguments. the use of social labels also concerns conflict theorists. Those with the most power in societies such as politicians, are able to impose the most severe labels while those with the least power such as criminals, are those whom labels are most often directed toward. Often the dominant (majorities) labeling the subordinate (minorities): men labeling women as less capable in professional contexts or the upper class labeling the lower class as less motivated to achieve economic success. Social structures often contribute to this through allowing the dominant groups the power to enforce the boundaries of normal behavior and thus define the difference between non deviant and deviant behaviors, perhaps institutionalizing these differences through legal policies. these groups are often referred to as *agents* *of* *social* *control* bc of their ability to attach stigmas to certain behaviors. (ex, a doc can define OCD behavior as a mental illness, a form of deviance). The creation of stigmatic roles, in turn, reinforces the power structures and hierarchies inherent in most societies and serves to limit deviant behavior. Furthermore, there is also a functional component to labels, as labeling satisfies the social need to control behaviors and maintain order criticism: the idea that deviance is assumed to be an automatic process: individuals are seen to be influenced through the use of labels, which ignores their abilities to resist social expectattions

learned helplessness

In an extreme situation, in which people are exposed to situations in which they have no control, they may learn not to act bc they believe it will not affect the outcome in any way

Self-reference effect

Old info that is consistent with one's self-concept is easy to remember, and new info coming in that is consistent with one's self-schemas is easily incorporated. This tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves is known as _________ Ex, someone considers themselves smart but receives a low exam score- opposite of their self concept. This person may choose to externalize the new info from her self concept by attributing it to a lack of sleep or an unfair test. It is easier to externalize info that opposes a self-concept by attributing it to an outside factor than it is to internalize the info and adjust one's self-concept

structural strain theory

Robert Merton's purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural. Modern societies have shared perceptions of the ideal life (social goals). These societies also have accepted means of achieving these established goals. Merton specified that anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural or institutionalized means of obtaining these goals. In this state, individs experience social strain; bc existing social structures are inadequate there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure. When the social goals and means are balanced, deviance is not expected ex, economic success is a common goal for most people and societies and the legit means for obtaining this goal include continued education and professional positions that compensate well. However in the US it is known that there is not equal access to resources among social groups. ex, lower class families have less financial resources available to obtain an education. Bc the means are not serving these individs in accomplishing the goal of econ success, the result is structural strain, which in turn leads to deviance. Merton's perspective, then, suggests that lower class individuals are more expected to use deviant methods of researching econ success Criticism: some deviant behaviors, (criminal), persist in excess that are non-utilitarian. Merton's perspective is applicable to fraud and theft for ex, in the cases where the economic structure is not serving individuals as best as possible (for ex, the means of earning is not the best option for the goal of obtaining financial assets) However it is less applicable to deviant behaviors that are malicious and violent, such as forms of sexual assault. This perspective is more applicable to material rather than social goals.

agents of social control

Social structures often contribute to this through allowing the dominant groups the power to enforce the boundaries of normal behavior and thus define the difference between non deviant and deviant behaviors, perhaps institutionalizing these differences through legal policies. these groups are often referred to as *agents* *of* *social* *control* bc of their ability to attach stigmas to certain behaviors. (ex, a doc can define OCD behavior as a mental illness, a form of deviance). The creation of stigmatic roles, in turn, reinforces the power structures and hierarchies inherent in most societies and serves to limit deviant behavior.

Herbert Blumer

The classification of collective behavior is a point of contention. However, Herbert Blumer, a sociologist whose ideas were foundational in the understanding of collective behavior, identified 4 main forms of collective behavior 1. crowds 2. publics 3. masses 4. social movements

Self-efficacy

a belief in one's own competence and effectiveness. How capable we believe we are of doing things studies have shown that simply believing in our own abilities actually improves performance. Can vary from task to task; an individual may have high self-efficacy for a math task and low self efficacy for juggling

anomie

a concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic. often thought of as a state of normlessness developed through the work of famous sociologist Emile Durkheim: used the term anomie as an explanation for the differences in suicide rates between catholics and protestants; research suggested that suicide rates were lower in cultures that valued communal ties, as this provided a form of support during times of emotional distress. Anomie, then, is characteristic of societies where individualism and autonomous decision making predominate, even at the expense of the greater social order. Anomie suggests the disintegration of social bonds between individuals and their communities, which causes the fragmentation of social identites in exchange for an emphasis on personal success. Discrepancies between personal and social values are though to contribute to moral deregulations

Masses

a group whose formation is prompted through efforts of mass media; masses consist of relatively large number of people who may not be in close proximity but nevertheless share common interests

peer groups

agent of socialization as the child grows older, the family becomes less important in social development and peers become more significant. Fashion, style of speech, gender role identity, sexual activity, drug/alc use and other behaviors are affected by peers and by the influence of hierarchies such as popularity

School

agent of socialization explicitly teach children the norms and values of their culture. Can also affect childrens self identities by accentuating those intellectual, physical, and social strengths that society endorses. Ex, schools may differ in how they value logic and linear thinking versus creativity and can influence children toward one or the other. Can reinforce divisive aspects of society, bc the quality and availability of schooling is influenced by socioeconomic status

Mass media/ Technology

agent of socialization extended themselves to influence almost everyone on the planet, through TV, movies, the internet, cell phones and other communications impact of TV on culture through displays of sex, violence, and impossible to achieve ideals has much been debated. Has also influenced positively: educational programming, into to other cultures and lifestyles. Internet can similarly help shrink the world and increase social influences through tools such as online social networking and blogs

religion/ government

agent of socialization influence the course of cultural change by creating rites of passage. In religion: coming of age and marriage. Government: drinking, voting, military age. Laws both influence and are influenced by the societies they apply to. In the US, stricter laws apply to crack than to cocaine and this affects societys perceptions of these drugs and the addicts

workplace

agent of socialization influences behavior through written codes and rules as well as through informal norms. Pressure to fit in at the workplace that often alters behavior; occupation can also be a large part of one's identity.

Family

agent of socialization process of socialization begins shortly after birth and is generally driven by family members that attend to a babys physical needs but also to social development. 1st relationships heavily influence how an individual will interact in future relationships. Family members teach children the customs, beliefs, and traditions of their cultures through both instruction and modeling. also influence the situations to which children are exposed, especially in the early years of life

fad

aka *craze* ex of collective behavior in which something 1. experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation 2. remains popular among a large population for a brief period and 3. experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation driven thru peer pressure and social media clothing, food, language viral videos [Gangnam style and the Harlem Shake] separate from *trends* which are longer lived and often lead to permanent social changes; for ex, the hippie movement created visible trends such as peace signs but also prompted widespread social change

Multiculturalism

aka *pluralism* perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. Promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather than in a hierarchy The US, despite common description as a melting pot, includes elements of hierarchy.= english is dominant language and national holidays tend to reflect Eurocentrism. A+B+C--> A+B+C In true multiculturalism each culture is able to maintain its practices. It is especially apparent in cities such as New York where there exist pockets of separate cultures (Chinatown, little italy, Koreatown). As a practice is under debate. Supporters say it increases diversity and helps empower minority groups. Opponents say it encourages segregation over unity by maintaining physical and social isolation and hinders cohesiveness of a society

Self-consciousness

awareness of one's self

taboo

behaviors that customs forbid. the endorsement of the norm is so strong that its violation is considered forbidden and oftentimes punishable through formal or nonformal methods often a moral or religious component to the taboo- divine penalties ex. eating pork in Muslim countires=taboo. ex, incest, cannibalism, murder, prejudice, discrimination social construct that varies around the world; idea of taboo changes in respose to changes in social structure and there is no universal taboo.

self-schemas

beliefs a person has about his or herself ex: female, white, student, smart, funny, future doctor

Locus of control

can be internal or external. Those with an *internal* *locus* *of* *control* believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions Those with an *external* *locus* *of* *control* perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces. Someone with an internal locus may attribute a strong grade to his or her own intelligence and hard work. The same score may lead someone with an external locus to assume that the test was especially easy or that he or she got lucky. In an extreme situation, in which people are exposed to situations in which they have no control, they may learn not to act bc they believe it will not affect the outcome in any way {*learned* *helplessness*} believing more in an internal locus of control can be empowering and lead to proactivity. An extrenal locus of control and learned helplessness are characteristics of many depressed and oppressed people, and they often result in passivity

Feral children

children who were not raised with human contact or care, and a large part of our understanding about the importance of socialization is derived from what has been learned about their experiences and the terrible consequences of growing up w/o proper human care and contact.

mass hysteria

collective behavior diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat (fear) that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control (panic) the result of public reactions to stressful situations; medical probs and supernatural occurrences ie crop circles. often irrational as a result of emotional excesses and thus mass hysteria has been described as a form of groupthink

social movements

collective behavior with the intention of promoting change. two forms *active* *movements* attempt to foster social change (revolutions) and *expressive* *movements* attempts to foster individual change (support groups) can become established and permanent social institutions

Personal identity

consists of one's own sense of personal attributes (smart and funny)

Social identity

consists of social definitions of who you are; race, religion, gender, occupation

Publics

defined as a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the common usage of the term. The form of collective behavior begins as the discussion begins and ceases as the discussion ceases and there can exist various public to reflect various discussions. People in publics share ideas

crowds

defined as a group that shares a purpose. The crowd is the most agreed upon ex of collective behavior and is the most common in modern life (orchestras, theaters, and other performances) thought to be emotional; non-permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influences indivd behaviors, sometimes reffered to as *herd* *behavior* not all crowd behavior is irrational: stampedes are not irrational if there is a bombing or fire. can be classified based on their specific intention: acting crowds gather for a specific cause or goal (for example, protesters or revolutionaries) casual crowds emerge spontaneously and include people who are not reall interacting (waiting in line), conventional crowds gathered for a planned event (football game), expressive crowds (funeral/ concert goers) can be further classified based on the closeness of the individs (compact vs diffues) and emotions caused (fear, happiness in craze, anger and hostile outburst) *panic* a situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and thus affects entire groups (during disaster situations) *mob* specific ex of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violent cause. ex lynching

outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics

different from collective behavior involve an unexpected increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in a given region, with outbreaks being the most limited and pandemics being the most widespread. ie bubonic plague, H1N1 in contrast mass hysteria= salem witch trials which caused *moral* *panic* a specific form of panic as a result of perceived threat to social order- which lead to numerous executions

riots

ex of collective behavior a form of crowd behavior but with no specific end. occur as a result of general dissatisfaction with social conditions food and bread, police, prison, race, religion, sports, student, urban. some research argues that riots are not irrational as there are examples where the source of dissatisfaction is less political and more fundamental; some riots begin as a response to a lack of basic needs (hunger riots); consequences can lead to the fall of governments increases public participation and attention, due in part to mass media coverage, and certain representations, which were once intended to conceal identities and offer protection (such as facemasks and scarves) have grown to be iconic. Police measures tend to be nonlethal but does lead to occasional injury/death

6 agents of socialization

family, peers, school, workplace, religion/government, and mass media/technology

other examples of collective behavior

fashions, rumors, social movements

Carl Rogers

founder of humanistic psychology perspective according to, personality is composed of the ideal self and the real self. *ideal* *self* is constructed out of your life experiences, social expectations, and the things you admire about role models. the person you ought to be, while the real self is the person you actually are. When the ideal self and real self are similar the result is a positive self concept. However, Roger suggests that the ideal self is usually an impossible standard to meet, and that when the real self falls short of the ideal self, the result is *incongruity*

Informal norms

generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments. One ex is greeting an interviewer with a handshake

Formal norms

generally written down; laws. Precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

trends

longer lived and often lead to permanent social changes; for ex, the hippie movement created visible trends such as peace signs but also prompted widespread social change

moral panic

mass hysteria= salem witch trials which caused *moral* *panic* a specific form of panic as a result of perceived threat to social order- which lead to numerous executions

sanctions

normative behavior is reinforced in everyday social interactions by sanctions- reward and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms.

Folkways

norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior ie style of dress, ways of greeting

Amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group A+ B+C--> D In this case a unique group is formed that is distinct from any of the initial groups

Self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self worth. May be based on different factors for different individuals, depending on which parts of a person's identity he or she has determined to be the most important. For some, self-esteem may rest on intelligence, athletic ability, beauty or moral character. Related to self-efficacy; self-efficacy can improve self-esteem if one has it for an activity that one values. However, if the activity is not one that is valued it may not help self-esteeem ex, a person may have high self efficacy as a soldier but struggle wih low self esteem if this is not his desired occupation. low ______________ increases the risk of anxiety, depression, drug use, and suicide. inflated ________ present in gang members, terrorists, and bullies and may be used to conceal inner insecurities.

Self-concept

or *Self-identity* defined as the sum of an individuals knowledge and understanding of his or herself includes physical, psychological, and social attributes which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs and ideas How one defines themself

Assimilation

process in which an individ forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individ is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group A+B+C--> A A is the dominant group that minority groups B and C work to imitate and become absorbed by. members of the minority group may make great personal sacrifices, such as changing spoken languages, religions, how they dress, and their personal values. US immigrants learn English, adopt values of capitalism and emphasis on the individual and independence- a tough transition for those from collectivist cultures. does not guarantee that one will not be discriminated against

Socialization

process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society; a lifelong sociological process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs, that are reinforced by a particular culture. For older adults, this process often involves teaching the younger gen their way of life; for young children involves incorporating info from their surrounding culture as they form their personalities. Allows a culture to pass on its values from one gen to the next

subculture

segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society. a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. Participate in activities of the larger culture but also have unique slang, such as that used by medical personnel (ex, cabbage for "coronary artery bypass graft) sometimes the result of countercultural backlash, an opposition of views widely accpeted. Hippies would be considered a counterculture bc they opposed certain aspects of the dominant culture such as middle class values and the vietnam war

normative behavior

social behaviors that follow norms and meet the ideal social standard

collective behavior

social norms for the situation are absent or unclear. This concept describes the actions of people operating as a collective group; however, it is important to distinguish collective behavior from group behavior. collective behavior= short lived and less conventional values influence the groups behavior and guidelines for membership collective behavior= do not reflect existing social structures but are instead spontaneous situations in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social norms. loss of individ and independent moral judgement in exchange for a sense of the group. This can be destructive (mobs and riots) or harmless (fads like livestrong wrist bands), depending on the diverse episode. It is important to understand collective behavior to limit its neg consequences- in particular those neg consequences which are the result of human response rather than unpreventable circumstances. ex, an understanding of collective behavior could help establish effective and safe crowd management and design planning to accommodate for potential issues

*generalized* *other*

the common behavioral expectations of general society.

*social* *behaviorism*

the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others. The idea that the mind and self emerge through the social process of communication of use of symbols was the beginning of the *symbolic* *interactionism* school of sociology.

non-normative behavior

viewed as incorrect bc it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion. These behvaiors are seen as abnormal and thus discouraged. Actions that violate the dominant social norms, whether formal or informal, are described as forms of *deviance*. In some cases deviant behavior is seen as criminal, violates public policies; popular among criminologists