Psych Ch. 5
111. Latent learning is A. unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. B. based on insight and generalizations. C. highly susceptible to extinction. D. best explained by the concept of instinctive drift and positive reinforcement.
A. unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.
115. _____ is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden understanding of a problem's solution. A. Classical conditioning B. Insight learning C. Latent learning D. Instinctive drift
B. Insight learning
100. Which of the following is true of observational learning? A. It focuses on automatic, involuntary behaviors. B. It often takes less time than operant conditioning. C. It was first conceptualized by Ivan Pavlov. D. It usually begins with reinforcement and ends with extinction.
B. It often takes less time than operant conditioning.
19. Which of the following is the best example of an unconditioned response? A. throwing a temper tantrum B. sneezing after sniffing pepper C. raising your hand before asking a question in a classroom setting D. learning to ride a bike by watching your older brother do so
B. sneezing after sniffing pepper
38. Marcia is no longer romantically involved with John as they broke up after a three-year relationship. They have no interaction with each other. One day in the mall, she suddenly gets a whiff of the cologne that John always wore. All the former good feelings come pouring back. The sudden onset of good feelings triggered by the cologne is an example of A. emotional amnesia. B. spontaneous recovery. C. discriminatory learning. D. contingency learning.
B. spontaneous recovery.
6. In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two A. organizations. B. stimuli. C. motives. D. considerations.
B. stimuli.
22. You feel fine at the picnic until a spider very similar to the one that bit you last year and made you sick starts to walk onto your picnic blanket. This reaction is most likely a(n) A. unconditioned stimulus (US). B. unconditioned response (UR). C. conditioned stimulus (CS). D. conditioned response (CR).
D. conditioned response (CR).
128. Shawn is trying to teach his son Cameron how to hit a baseball. Shawn begins hitting some baseballs to show his son how to swing. Cameron watches several hits and then goes up to bat to try it out for himself. According to Albert Bandura's model of observational learning, what four processes must occur for Cameron to learn how to hit a baseball?
First, Cameron must pay attention as his father models the technique of hitting a baseball. Second, Cameron will need to retain or remember his father's model. Next, Cameron will need to engage in motor reproduction. In this example, Cameron will need to imitate his father's movements. The final component in Bandura's model focuses on reinforcement. If Cameron sees that the model is rewarded (e.g., if other people say "nice hit" to his father), he will be more likely to repeat the hitting behavior.
124. Describe the distinction between primary and secondary reinforcers. Give an example of each
A primary reinforcer is innately satisfying; that is, a primary reinforcer does not require any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable. Food, water, and sexual satisfaction are primary reinforcers. A secondary reinforcer, on the other hand, acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer. We encounter hundreds of secondary reinforcers in our lives, such as getting an A on a test and a paycheck for a job.
125. Discuss the fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. For example every 10th doughnut you buy at Doughnut World is free. A variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior on an unpredictable basis. For example, a slot machine may pay off on average every 20th time, but the gambler does not know when this payoff will be.
31. _____ in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. A. Generalization B. Discrimination C. Spontaneous recovery D. Latent learning
A. Generalization
90. Which of the following is true of a variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning? A. It produces high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than other schedules. B. It is a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. C. It rewards behavior each time it occurs. D. It is determined by the time elapsed since the last behavior was rewarded.
A. It produces high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than other schedules.
89. Which of the following is true of a fixed-interval schedule in the context of operant conditioning? A. It reinforces the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed. B. It produces a high, steady rate of behavior that is more resistant to extinction than the other schedules. C. It reinforces a behavior after a variable amount of time has elapsed. D. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
A. It reinforces the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed.
18. In Pavlov's experiment, the dog automatically salivated to food because food is a(n) A. unconditioned stimulus (US). B. conditioned stimulus (CS). C. unconditioned response (UR). D. conditioned response (CR).
A. unconditioned stimulus (US).
93. _____ is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur. A. Punishment B. Extinction C. Discrimination D. Generalization
A. Punishment
4. Which of the following is true with regard to the principles of behaviorism? A. Understanding the causes of behavior requires looking at the environmental factors that produce them. B. The principles of learning are different for both animals and humans. C. Internal states such as thinking, wishing, and hoping are of greater importance, in comparison to observable behaviors. D. Learning is defined as a rapid and unobservable change in behavior.
A. Understanding the causes of behavior requires looking at the environmental factors that produce them.
81. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. C. an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation. D. a desired behavior receives reinforcements in successive approximations.
A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency.
104. In the context of observational learning, retention is a process in which A. a learner encodes the information to reproduce a model's actions. B. a learner withdraws attention from the model's actions. C. a learner's behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence. D. a learner imitates the model's actions.
A. a learner encodes the information to reproduce a model's actions.
102. According to Bandura's model of observational learning, what are the four primary processes involved in observational learning? A. attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement B. attention, retention, generalization, and discrimination C. acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination D. unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
A. attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
7. Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when we see lightning, we often anticipate that we will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. observational learning. C. operant conditioning. D. stimulus experience.
A. classical conditioning.
41. In John Watson's experiment on classical conditioning, a white rat was used as a(n) _____ to condition Albert. A. conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. conditioned response D. unconditioned response
A. conditioned stimulus
30. The extent to which the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) occur close together in time reflects A. contiguity. B. contingency. C. proximity. D. synergy.
A. contiguity.
84. Carol gives her dog, Spike, a chew stick each time Spike gets the ball back at her command. Carol is using a _____ schedule to train her dog to get the ball back on command. A. continuous reinforcement B. variable-ratio C. fixed-interval D. partial reinforcement
A. continuous reinforcement
87. Matt wants to train his dog, Buster, to sit on command. He gives Buster a biscuit each time Buster sits when commanded, but only for the first 10 trials. He then changes the rules. Buster now has to sit on command three times before he gets a biscuit. In this case, Matt used a _____ schedule first, and then a _____ schedule to train Buster. A. continuous-reinforcement/fixed-ratio B. fixed-ratio/continuous-reinforcement C. fixed-interval/continuous-reinforcement D. continuous-reinforcement/fixed-interval
A. continuous-reinforcement/fixed-ratio
98. Positive and negative punishment are meant to A. decrease behaviors. B. reinforce behaviors. C. strengthen behaviors. D. increase behaviors.
A. decrease behaviors.
32. Mark's dog, Gus, sits whenever he says, "Sit." Mark now wants to teach Gus a new trick. He wants to teach him to bark each time he says, "Speak," but whenever Mark says, "Speak," Gus sits. The dog's behavior is most likely an example of A. generalization. B. habituation. C. contiguous occurrences. D. contingent occurrences.
A. generalization.
49. Classical conditioning can produce _____, which is a decrease in the production of antibodies that can lower a person's ability to fight disease. A. immunosuppression B. depression C. habituation D. conditioned oppression
A. immunosuppression
117. The tendency of animals to revert to intuitive behavior that interferes with learning is called A. instinctive drift. B. instinctive learning. C. preparedness. D. conceptualization.
A. instinctive drift.
107. Which of the following describes the reinforcement element in observational learning? A. judging whether to repeat a behavior depending on the consequences of the behavior B. encoding the information and keeping it in memory so that it can be retrieved later C. imitating and enacting a model's actions to achieve similarity in reproduction of the set of behaviors initially observed D. attending to what the model is saying or doing
A. judging whether to repeat a behavior depending on the consequences of the behavior
113. Tolman demonstrated that rats can learn to run a maze correctly even though they were never reinforced for successfully running through it. This demonstrated that the rats called on their _____ to help them reach the end of the maze more quickly. A. latent learning B. vicarious reinforcement learning C. insight learning D. trial-and-error learning
A. latent learning
69. Liam is studying in his room for an exam but is disturbed by the loud music from his neighbor's house. He closes the window so that he can no longer hear the loud music. In this scenario, Liam's behavior demonstrates _____ in operant conditioning. A. negative reinforcement B. positive reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment
A. negative reinforcement
66. The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior is called A. negative reinforcement. B. positive reinforcement. C. positive punishment. D. negative punishment.
A. negative reinforcement.
76. A _____ reinforcer is a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience. A. secondary B. primary C. tertiary D. intermediary
A. secondary
57. In operant conditioning, A. the consequences of behavior produce change in the probability of the occurrence of the behavior. B. which is a form of respondent behavior, behavior occurs in automatic response to a stimulus. C. neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses. D. behavior is a consequence of the conditioned stimulus (CS).
A. the consequences of behavior produce change in the probability of the occurrence of the behavior.
24. Before the bell was ever presented, Pavlov's dog salivated each time food was presented. In this situation, salivation is the A. unconditioned response. B. conditioned stimulus. C. unconditioned stimulus. D. conditioned response.
A. unconditioned response.
129. What is insight learning?
Answer: Insight learning is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution. Insight learning appears to entail both gradual and sudden processes, and understanding how these lead to problem solving continues to fascinate psychologists. Insight learning requires thinking "outside the box," setting aside previous expectations and assumptions. One way that insight learning can be enhanced in human beings is through multicultural experiences.
121. Discuss the distinction between associative learning and observational learning.
Associative learning occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events. Conditioning is the process of learning these associations. There are two types of conditioning: classical and operant. In classical conditioning, the organism learns an association between two stimuli. In operant conditioning, the organism learns a connection between a behavior and a consequence. Observational learning involves watching and modeling or imitating another person's behavior. Observational learning is different from the associative learning described by behaviorism because it relies on mental processes: The learner has to pay attention, remember, and reproduce what the model did. Observational learning is especially important to human beings.
45. _____ is a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus. A. Instinctive drift B. Aversive conditioning C. Expectancy learning D. Generalizing
B. Aversive conditioning
2. _____ is a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable actions and responses. A. Psychoanalysis B. Behaviorism C. Humanism D. Endosymbiosis
B. Behaviorism
15. _____ is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. A. Operant conditioning B. Classical conditioning C. Latent learning D. Observational learning
B. Classical conditioning
29. _____ means that the conditioned stimulus (CS) must not only precede the unconditioned stimulus (US) closely in time, but it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the unconditioned stimulus (US) is on its way. A. Contiguity B. Contingency C. Synergy D. Reliability
B. Contingency
33. _____ in classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. A. Generalization B. Discrimination C. Spontaneous recovery D. Latent learning
B. Discrimination
28. Which of the following is true of acquisition in classical conditioning? A. During acquisition, the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented followed by the conditioned stimulus. B. During acquisition, the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented very close together in time. C. During acquisition, the conditioned stimulus loses its significance once the association between the two stimuli has been formed. D. During acquisition, the unconditional stimulus loses the ability to elicit any kind of response from the subject.
B. During acquisition, the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented very close together in time.
36. Pavlov's dog salivates each time he hears a bell. Now, however, after several trials of salivating to the bell and not receiving any food, the dog stops salivating. Which of the following best explains the change in the dog's behavior? A. Unconditioned response was triggered. B. Extinction has occurred. C. Generalization has occurred. D. Spontaneous recovery wasn't triggered.
B. Extinction has occurred.
83. Which of the following is true of a fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning? A. It reinforces a behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. B. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. C. It produces high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than the other schedules. D. It is determined by the time elapsed since the last behavior was rewarded.
B. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
67. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? A. Martha improves her grades in English and Math so that her mom can take her shopping as she had promised earlier. B. Jeff wakes up a few seconds before his alarm clock goes off in order to avoid the obnoxious alarm sound. C. Rodney mows the lawn more than once a week so as to get $10 from his mother every time he mows the lawn. D. Barney rapidly increases the sales of his product and ensures complete sale of his stock so that he can get the full 20% bonus as promised by his employer.
B. Jeff wakes up a few seconds before his alarm clock goes off in order to avoid the obnoxious alarm sound.
59. Identify an accurate statement related to operant conditioning. A. Operant conditioning is unaffected by the contingency factor. B. Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning. C. Operant conditioning was first described by Ivan Pavlov. D. Operant conditioning is also known as observational learning.
B. Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning.
51. Leonard is addicted to heroin, but is very careful about overdosing. He always uses a specific amount and takes it only in his apartment. On Friday, he became desperate for the drug while visiting with another drug user. This was the first time he had used heroin outside his own apartment. He injected his normal "safe" dose of heroin but almost died of an overdose. According to the principles of classical conditioning what led to Leonard's condition? A. Leonard's friend switched his drugs in order to teach him not to use drugs by switching his unconditioned stimulus (US) with his conditioned stimulus (CS). B. The effect of the heroin was increased because Leonard injected it in a strange environment and his body was not prepared to take the effect under the new setting. C. Leonard's drug tolerance had reached its limits and his US was confounded with his CS and UR. D. Leonard took his dose too soon and his body already had too much.
B. The effect of the heroin was increased because Leonard injected it in a strange environment and his body was not prepared to take the effect under the new setting.
63. In the Water Kingdom Amusement Park, when two sea lions throw and catch balls on their nose, they are rewarded every time with fish after they successfully complete their act. The sea lions have been trained to perform this behavior through A. generalization. B. shaping. C. contiguity. D. extinction.
B. shaping.
40. In the experiment with little Albert conducted by Watson and Rayner, _____ was used as an unconditional response for conditioning Albert to fear a white rat. A. fire B. a loud noise C. pain D. a sealskin coat
B. a loud noise
80. In operant conditioning, discrimination occurs when A. a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency. B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. C. an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation. D. an organism reverts to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
B. an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
103. In observational learning, the first process that must occur is A. motor reproduction. B. attention. C. reinforcement. D. retention.
B. attention.
60. According to Thorndike's law of effect, A. species-specific biological predispositions favor some learning styles over others. B. behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened. C. negative behaviors can be easily extinguished through classical conditioning. D. an organism will recover a previously conditioned response when placed in a novel context.
B. behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened.
50. Taste aversion is an example of A. immunosuppression. B. classical conditioning. C. observational learning. D. habituation.
B. classical conditioning.
8. Sarah feels sick every time she travels by air. She associates flying with physical illness and, as a result, hates air travel. She also finds it difficult to watch movies with airplanes or read books about airplanes because they make her uncomfortable. This scenario illustrates the learning process of A. operant conditioning. B. classical conditioning. C. observational learning. D. implicit learning.
B. classical conditioning.
20. Dr. Meyer is known for his difficult pop quizzes. Typically, before he conducts a pop quiz for his students, he shuts the classroom door. Students soon learn to anticipate a pop quiz whenever Dr. Meyer closes the classroom door. In this case, closing the door has become a(n) A. unconditioned stimulus (US). B. conditioned stimulus (CS). C. unconditioned response (UR). D. conditioned response (CR).
B. conditioned stimulus (CS).
92. Jose's employer pays him every other Friday. This is an example of which of the following schedules of reinforcement? A. variable-ratio B. fixed-interval C. variable-interval D. fixed-ratio
B. fixed-interval
53. Classical conditioning helps to explain _____, which refers to the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations. A. immunosuppression B. habituation C. aversive conditioning D. counterconditioning
B. habituation
70. In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement A. is followed by a desirable stimulus. B. has hardly anything to do with "good" and "bad" behavior. C. is always followed by something unpleasant. D. decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
B. has hardly anything to do with "good" and "bad" behavior.
112. One day, on the way home from work, you decide to explore a side street that you'd passed on several occasions. You are surprised to find that it runs parallel to the expressway and realize that it could be used as an alternate route to and from work. Several weeks later, there is a major accident on your usual travel route and you remember the side street alternate route. You happily take this route home. This is an example of A. discrimination learning. B. latent learning. C. operant learning. D. associative learning.
B. latent learning.
97. Larry is grounded each time he hits his little brother. After a few times of being grounded, Larry's misbehavior toward his little brother decreases. Grounding Larry is an example of A. positive punishment. B. negative punishment. C. negative reinforcement. D. positive reinforcement.
B. negative punishment.
9. Organisms learn about the consequences of behavior through A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. latent learning. D. discovery learning.
B. operant conditioning.
65. The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior is called A. negative reinforcement. B. positive reinforcement. C. positive punishment. D. negative punishment.
B. positive reinforcement.
68. Jennifer accidentally plays a radio channel that she has never heard before. She loves the music it plays and as a result, she plays only that channel whenever she wants to listen to music. In the context of operant conditioning, Jennifer's behavior has most likely been learned through A. negative reinforcement. B. positive reinforcement. C. positive punishment. D. negative punishment.
B. positive reinforcement.
74. A _____ reinforcer is innately satisfying and it does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable. A. secondary B. primary C. tertiary D. intermediary
B. primary
109. Tolman focused on cognitive mechanisms in studying the A. discreetness of behavior. B. purposiveness of behavior. C. concept of associative learning. D. concept of operant learning.
B. purposiveness of behavior.
17. Tina's eyes water every time she chops onions. Her response is an example of a A. habit. B. reflex. C. conditioned response. D. voluntary behavior.
B. reflex.
1. Psychologists who examine learning from a behavioral perspective define learning as A. the result of mental activities such as thinking and reasoning. B. the relatively stable, observable changes in a person's actions. C. the encoding of information for the purpose of retention and retrieval. D. a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into a problem.
B. the relatively stable, observable changes in a person's actions.
23. In classical-conditioning situations, the _____ is unlearned, but the _____ is learneD. A. unconditioned stimulus/conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned response/conditioned response C. conditioned response/conditioned stimulus D. conditioned stimulus/unconditioned stimulus
B. unconditioned response/conditioned response
47. In aversive conditioning experiments to treat alcohol addiction, every time a person drinks an alcoholic beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture that induces nausea. In classical-conditioning terminology, the nausea-inducing agent is the A. conditioned stimulus. B. unconditioned stimulus. C. neutral stimulus. D. reinforced stimulus.
B. unconditioned stimulus.
91. A hitchhiker most likely gets rides on a _____ schedule of reinforcement. A. continuous B. variable-ratio C. fixed-ratio D. fixed-interval
B. variable-ratio
34. _____ in classical conditioning is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. A. Generalization B. Discrimination C. Extinction D. Latent learning
C. Extinction
46. Robert drank too much tequila last night. He spent much of this morning vomiting. According to the principles of classical conditioning, how will Robert likely react today when he tastes or smells the tequila bottle that he drank out of last night? A. He will feel happy about what a great time he had last night. B. He will want to drink more tequila right away. C. He will find the scent and taste of tequila aversive. D. He will invite all of his friends over that night for another party.
C. He will find the scent and taste of tequila aversive.
116. Which of the following is true with regard to insight learning? A. Psychologists have confirmed that insight learning is essentially the same as learning through trial and error. B. Insight learning appears to entail only gradual processes. C. Insight learning requires thinking "outside the box," setting aside previous expectations and assumptions. D. Exposure to other cultures does not influence insight learning.
C. Insight learning requires thinking "outside the box," setting aside previous expectations and assumptions.
88. Which of the following is true of a variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning? A. It reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. B. It rewards behaviors an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis. C. It reinforces a behavior after an inconsistent and unpredictable amount of time has elapsed. D. It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
C. It reinforces a behavior after an inconsistent and unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.
114. _____ is defined as a type of learning that occurs without reinforcement. However, this learning is not demonstrated until the person or animal is reinforced to do so. A. Classical conditioning B. Insight learning C. Latent learning D. Instinctive drift
C. Latent learning
77. _____ is considered a secondary reinforcer. A. Food B. Water C. Money D. Sexual satisfaction
C. Money
13. Which of the following is true of observational learning? A. In observational learning, the learner does not reproduce the actions of another person. B. In observational learning, there is no relatively permanent change in behavior. C. Observational learning is one way in which human infants acquire skills. D. Observational learning helps the learner form associations between events.
C. Observational learning is one way in which human infants acquire skills.
11. Which of the following is true regarding learning through operant conditioning? A. Organisms learn the association between two stimuli. B. Organisms learn behaviors implicitly, without being reinforced. C. Organisms learn the association between behaviors and their consequences. D. Organisms learn to act by imitating others.
C. Organisms learn the association between behaviors and their consequences.
119. _____ is the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. A. Instinctive drift B. Instinctive learning C. Preparedness D. Conceptualization
C. Preparedness
61. Which of the following statements about B.F. Skinner is FALSE? A. Skinner conducted many of his studies with animals as opposed to human subjects. B. Skinner made every effort to study organisms under precisely controlled conditions. C. Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning among humans are different than the mechanisms of learning among animals. D. Skinner trained pigeons to pilot missiles during World War II and congratulated himself on the degree of control he was able to exercise over the pigeons.
C. Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning among humans are different than the mechanisms of learning among animals.
3. Your psychology assignment is to observe and list any behaviors of your relatives that indicate learning. Which of the following should be included on your list? A. Your sister bumps into a door when she has a high fever. B. Your father falls asleep watching TV. C. Your little brother whines whenever he wants something. D. Your mother takes a nap after spending long hours surfing the Internet.
C. Your little brother whines whenever he wants something.
16. Salivating at the presentation of food is an example of A. latent learning. B. a learned response. C. a reflex. D. insight learning.
C. a reflex.
39. Watson and Rayner used _____ along with an unconditional stimulus in order to condition fear in little Albert. A. a loud noise B. a sealskin coat C. a white rat D. a rabbit
C. a white rat
10. Classical and operant conditioning involve learning through _____, whereas observational learning involves learning through _____. A. observation and imitation/association B. conscious behaviors/observation and practice C. association/watching and imitation D. conscious thoughts/unconscious thoughts
C. association/watching and imitation
5. Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection between two events is called A. latent learning. B. observational learning. C. associative learning. D. rote learning.
C. associative learning.
108. According to E. C. Tolman, A. people learn by observing others' behavior. B. punishment increases undesirable behavior. C. behavior is goal-directed. D. reinforcement is ineffective.
C. behavior is goal-directed.
52. Which of the following helps to explain drug habituation? A. operant conditioning B. latent learning C. classical conditioning D. discovery learning
C. classical conditioning
110. Tolman said that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, an organism acquires certain A. rewards. B. reinforcements. C. expectations. D. values.
C. expectations.
75. Which of the following is the best example of a primary reinforcer? A. praise B. money C. food D. attention
C. food
56. Classical conditioning most effectively explains how neutral stimuli become associated with A. learned behavior. B. instrumental behavior. C. involuntary responses. D. conditioned responses.
C. involuntary responses.
82. In operant conditioning, continuous reinforcement A. is particularly resistant to extinction. B. is that which characterizes most life experiences. C. is the type of reinforcement in which organisms learn rapidly. D. is the type of reinforcement in which a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time.
C. is the type of reinforcement in which organisms learn rapidly.
72. Experience with unavoidable negative stimuli can lead to a particular deficit in avoidance learning called _____, in which the organism, exposed to uncontrollable aversive stimuli, learns that it has no control over negative outcomes. A. instinctive drift B. extinction C. learned helplessness D. learned generalization
C. learned helplessness
73. Shirley repeatedly ends up receiving bad grades in algebra no matter how hard she studies. Eventually, Shirley stops studying for algebra tests and accepts that nothing she does will enable her to get good grades. In the context of operant conditioning, Shirley's behavior exemplifies A. habituation. B. instinctive drift. C. learned helplessness. D. preparedness.
C. learned helplessness.
94. Which of the following best illustrates positive punishment in operant conditioning? A. forbidding a child from watching television because he broke a glass B. forbidding a teenager from leaving the house because he got drunk C. lecturing and reprimanding a child for being rude to his or her teachers D. refusing to give his or her favorite toys to a child who refuses to eat
C. lecturing and reprimanding a child for being rude to his or her teachers
26. In Pavlov's classic study on classical conditioning, the bell was the _____ before conditioning and the _____ after conditioning had occurred. A. conditioned stimulus/neutral stimulus B. conditioned stimulus/unconditioned stimulus C. neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus D. neutral stimulus/reinforcer stimulus
C. neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus
101. Your psychology professor wants to help students learn how to write a high-quality research paper, so she posts an example of a research paper on the course website. You use this example as a model when writing your own paper. Which of the following concepts best describes how you learned to write your research paper? A. classical conditioning B. operant conditioning C. observational learning D. insight learning
C. observational learning
12. Miranda is learning to play tennis. For her first lesson, her instructor models serving and backhand returns while Miranda patiently watches. Miranda then tries to imitate the sequence of swings and motions made by her instructor. Which of the following concepts best describes Miranda's learning process? A. operant conditioning B. classical conditioning C. observational learning D. latent learning
C. observational learning
14. The adage "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" best reflects which of the following types of learning? A. operant conditioning B. classical conditioning C. observational learning D. latent learning
C. observational learning
85. Fred's parents are very inconsistent with their childrearing rules. Most of the time Fred can climb on the furniture but sometimes he is punished. Fred's parents can't understand why he isn't a well-behaved child. Fred's parents are reinforcing his negative behaviors on a(n) A. internal-reinforcement schedule. B. external-reinforcement schedule. C. partial-reinforcement schedule. D. continuous-reinforcement schedule.
C. partial-reinforcement schedule.
95. Spanking is a form of _____; time-out is a form of _____. A. negative punishment/positive punishment B. positive reinforcement/negative reinforcement C. positive punishment/negative punishment D. negative reinforcement/positive reinforcement
C. positive punishment/negative punishment
64. The process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again is called A. generalization. B. extinction. C. reinforcement. D. specialization.
C. reinforcement.
42. Little Albert was conditioned by John Watson to fear a white rat. Eventually, however, Albert became fearful of any stimulus that looked white and furry. He became scared not only of rats, but also of rabbits, dogs, and even sealskin coats. This study illustrates A. extinction. B. stimulus acquisition in classical conditioning. C. stimulus generalization in classical conditioning. D. spontaneous recovery.
C. stimulus generalization in classical conditioning.
25. Pavlov's dog salivated to the sound of a bell because A. the bell had become a reflex. B. the bell had become a conditioned response. C. the bell had become associated with food. D. the bell had become an unconditioned stimulus for food.
C. the bell had become associated with food.
122. Your fraternity brother knows that you are a psychology major and asks you to explain to him why he keeps going back to smoking after quitting on several occasions. Describe in detail the classical-conditioning components involved in smoking (the conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, and unconditioned response) and how spontaneous recovery can cause the reoccurrence of the smoking habit.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) = stimuli associated with smoking (being around friends who smoke) Unconditioned stimulus (US) = physiological aspects of nicotine inhalation Unconditioned response (UR) = body responses to nicotine Conditioned response (CR) = body responses to nicotine Extinction: Not inhaling nicotine in the presence of the CS (stimuli associated with smoking) until the presence of the CS no longer brings about a CR Spontaneous recovery: After extinction followed by a pause, during which time your fraternity brother does not see his other smoking friends, he sees them again and this CS elicits the CR.
130. How does culture influence learning?
Culture can influence the degree to which certain learning processes (e.g., classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning) are used. Culture can also influence the content of what we learn about. Learning requires practice, and certain behaviors are practiced more in some cultures than in others.
118. Which of the following is an example of instinctive drift? A. A rat learns to run a maze for a cheese food reward instead of a peanut-butter reward. B. A rabbit learns to play with children in the park. C. A pigeon learns to guide a warhead to its target. D. A pig shoves an object on the ground instead of learning to carry it in his mouth.
D. A pig shoves an object on the ground instead of learning to carry it in his mouth.
27. _____ is the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired. A. Generalization B. Spontaneous recovery C. Extinction D. Acquisition
D. Acquisition
43. Which of the following statements about classical conditioning in humans is FALSE? A. Classical conditioning provides an explanation of fears. B. Classical conditioning can produce immunosuppression. C. Classical conditioning can explain drug habituation. D. Classical conditioning is based on observing and imitating others.
D. Classical conditioning is based on observing and imitating others.
44. _____ is a classical-conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response. A. Reinforced conditioning B. Generalizing C. Expectancy learning D. Counterconditioning
D. Counterconditioning
71. Jacky did not score well in her "pre-med" course at the university level. She started studying hard to improve her grades and got into medical school. Even after getting the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), she still works hard for everything and is successful in all her endeavors. Which special kind of response to negative reinforcement is evident in Jacky's case? A. instinctive drift B. observational learning C. learned helplessness D. avoidance learning
D. avoidance learning
54. While watching television, you can see how advertisers cunningly apply classical-conditioning principles to consumers by showing ads that pair something pleasant with a product in hope that you, the viewer, will experience those positive feelings toward the product. In this situation, the product is the A. unconditioned response. B. conditioned response. C. unconditioned stimulus. D. conditioned stimulus.
D. conditioned stimulus.
79. Bubba, a very smart German shepherd, has learned that if he barks at the neighbors while they're grilling, they will throw him a candy. However, his owner, Paul, does not want Bubba to eat candy as it is not good for his health. He does not allow Bubba to eat candies from the neighbor. When Paul is in the yard, Bubba never barks at the neighbors. According to operant-conditioning principles, Bubba is demonstrating that he can A. generalize. B. substitute secondary reinforcers when primary reinforcers are not available. C. learn a partial-reinforcement schedule. D. discriminate.
D. discriminate.
35. In the context of classical conditioning, _____ occurs when the conditioned response dissipates after the anticipated reward is withheld. A. spontaneous recovery B. generalization C. insight learning D. extinction
D. extinction
120. Ally, an athlete, believes she does not have the ability to improve her running time, despite her practicing every day. Which of the following explains Ally's attitude? A. growth mindset B. instinctive drift C. preparedness D. fixed mindset
D. fixed mindset
86. A worker is paid $25 for every 20 wind chimes that she builds. On which schedule of reinforcement is she being paid? A. fixed-interval B. variable-ratio C. continuous-ratio D. fixed-ratio
D. fixed-ratio
78. In operant conditioning, _____ means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. A. rationalization B. extinction C. discrimination D. generalization
D. generalization
55. Which of the following is more effective in explaining voluntary behaviors? A. discovery learning B. latent learning C. classical conditioning D. operant conditioning
D. operant conditioning
58. Some bears kept in the zoo allow veterinarians to routinely give them total body checkups. These bears open their mouths for teeth cleaning and present their paws for nail clipping. Your friend wonders how anyone could ever get these dangerous animals to be so cooperative without anesthesia. You, however, a psychology student, quickly surmise that the bears had most likely undergone A. discovery learning. B. classical conditioning. C. secondary reinforcement. D. operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
99. Applied behavior analysis is based on the concept of A. classical conditioning. B. observational learning. C. latent learning. D. operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
21. A father takes his baby out for a walk. The baby reaches over to touch a pink flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, the baby's mother brings home some pink flowers. The mother removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. The baby cries loudly as soon as she sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus in this scenario is the A. baby's crying. B. bumblebee. C. mother. D. pink flower.
D. pink flower.
96. Todd is scolded each time he bullies his little brother by taking away his toys. His mother notices that the frequency of bullying has decreased. Scolding Todd is an example of A. negative reinforcement. B. negative punishment. C. positive reinforcement. D. positive punishment.
D. positive punishment.
106. According to Bandura's model of observational learning, which final component determines whether or not an imitated or modeled act will be repeated? A. attention B. motor reproduction C. replication D. reinforcement
D. reinforcement
62. In operant conditioning, _____ refers to rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior. A. contingency B. extinction C. contiguity D. shaping
D. shaping
48. Miguel has been unable to sleep for the past one week. His wife gives him a vitamin pill and tells him that it will help him sleep at night. The next morning, Miguel is thrilled because he has slept better than ever before. In this scenario, Miguel's response to the vitamin can be attributed to A. the schedules of reinforcement. B. aversive conditioning. C. spontaneous recovery. D. the placebo effect.
D. the placebo effect.
105. _____, a third element of observational learning, is the process of imitating the model's actions. A. Attention B. Motor reproduction C. Replication D. Reinforcement
Motor reproduction
126. Patricia wants to decrease the frequency of her teenage daughter's misbehavior. Give examples of positive and negative punishment techniques Patricia might consider in order to encourage her daughter to behave properly
Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur. In positive punishment, a behavior decreases when it is followed by a (typically unpleasant) stimulus. In negative punishment, a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it. Making her daughter do extra chores would be one example of a positive punishment technique. Taking away her daughter's car keys and grounding her would be two examples of negative punishment.
127. What is the difference between positive reinforcement—negative reinforcement and positive punishment—negative punishment?
The fine distinctions here can sometimes be confusing. With respect to reinforcement, both types of reinforcement are intended to increase behavior, either by presenting a stimulus (in positive reinforcement) or by taking away a stimulus (in negative reinforcement). Punishment is meant to decrease a behavior either by presenting something (in positive punishment) or by taking away something (in negative punishment). The words positive and negative mean the same things in both cases.
123. Explain the significance of Thorndike's law of effect.
Thorndike's law states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. The law of effect is important because it presents the basic idea that the consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior's recurrence. Quite simply, a behavior can be followed by something good or something bad, and the probability of a behavior's being repeated depends on these outcomes.
