Psych Ch. 7 Learning p. 279

Primary Reinforcer:

An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a reponse

Punishment

aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior

In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come ________ the unconditioned stimulus.

before

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli

higher-order conditioning

procedure in which the CS in one experience is paired with a new NS, creating a second and often weaker CS

learning

process of acquiring through experiencing new information or behaviors

Modeling

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

spontaneous recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only have specified number of responses

cognitive learning

acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

acquisition

-classical: initial stage, when one links a NS and an US so that the NS begins triggering the CR -operant: strengthening of a reinforced response

extinction

-diminishing of a conditioned response -classical: US does not follow CS -operant: response is no longer reinforced

operant chamber (Skinner box)

-in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer -attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

associative learning

-learning that certain events occur together -events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)

Conditioned Reinforcer (secondary reinforcer):

A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

How does observational learning differ from associative learning? How many observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?

An observational learning, as we observe and imitate others learn to anticipate of behaviors consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. And associative learning, we merely learned association between different events. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another his brain. Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions as when we observe someone else performing those actions

Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

B.F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, Skinner and others found that the behaviour of rats and pigeons placed in an operant chamber can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired Behavior

Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

BF Skinner was a college English major an aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. It became modern behaviorism is most influential and controversial figure. Expanding on Edward thorndike's law of effect, Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber also known as a Skinner box, can be saved by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of a desired Behavior.

Bandura's Experiment Hypothesis

Believed we learn through observation and imitation Hypothesized that children would imitate aggressive behavior they observed

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Biological constraints Place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

Biological Predisposition

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of anti-social modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is pro-social or antisocial. If the model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of Antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial or antisocial. If a model's are actions and words are inconsistent, Children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves an automatic response to a stimulus Operant conditioning involves learning how to control one's response to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning principles, are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: Peach see she's learned behaviors that ate its survival. Biological constraints also placed limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals revert to the predisposed patterns.

What have been some applications of Pavlov's work to human health and well-being? How did Watson apply Pavlov's principles to learned fears?

Classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. the body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning. Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of little Albert and demonstrated how specific fears might be conditioned.

What did Mary Cover Jones do?

Colleague of Watson Deconditioned 3-year-old Peter from his fears by gradually moving a rabbit (and other things) closer to him while he was eating

Biological Predispositions: John Garcia...

Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness

Cognitive Processes

Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. — even in classical conditioning, it is not only the simple stimulus-response association but also the thought that counts.

How do different reinforcement schedules affect Behavior?

Continuous reinforcement learning is rapid but so is extinction if rewards cease In partial reinforcement initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to Extinction. Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules after an unpredictable number. Fixed interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; Variable interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

Why did Skinner's ideas for controversy and how much is operant conditioning principles be applied at school, and supports comment at work, and at home?

Critics of Skinner's principles believe the approach dehumanize people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more Humane than punishment as a means for controlling Behavior. At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive software and websites to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players skills and self-confidence but rewarding small improvements. And home, parents can reward desirable behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, Reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as Behavior becomes habitual

Why did Skinner's ideas provoked controversy, and how might this operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?

Critics of Skinner's principles believe the approach dehumanize people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more Humane than punishment as a means for controlling Behavior. In sports, coaches can build player skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviour by setting our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.

Why is Pavlov's work still important

He taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. Pavlov's greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.

Ivan Pavlov

He was a Russian physiologist that created novel experiments on learning. His early 20th century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning.

In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating a neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus Begins triggering the conditioned response. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding when the conditioned stimulus no longer signals and impending unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a fully extinguished response, following a resting period. Generalization is a tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a conditioned stimulus. Discrimination is a learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals May learn when to expect an unconditioned stimulus and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In Operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes and learning. Other research shows that excessive Rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect an unconditioned stimulus and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrates the importance of cognitive processes and learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events. This form of conditioning involves operant behavior. In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli, or events it does not control. This form of conditioning involves respondent Behavior. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

What is operant conditioning?

In operant conditioning, behaviors followed by reinforces increase; those followed by punishers often decrease.

What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we wanted to associate two or more stimuli. We associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically. This is called respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our Behavior.

Little Albert Study: Classical Conditioning

NS: white rat UCS: loud banging noise UCR: fear from Albert CS: white rat CR: fear

Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events. This form of conditioning involves operant behavior. In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli which are events that the organism cannot control. This form of conditioning involves respondent Behavior.

Who is Pavlov, and what are the basic components of classical conditioning?

Pavlov created novel experiments on learning. His early 20th century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. And classical conditioning a neutral stimulus is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. An unconditioned response is an event that occurs naturally, in response to some stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers the unlearned response. A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response. A conditioned response is the Learned response to the originally neutral stimulus.

Why does Pavlov's work remain so important?

Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

What was behaviorism's view of learning?

Pavlov's work on classical conditioning supports the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies Behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believe that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect Behavior?

Punishment administers undesirable consequences or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus. This desired consequence increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, and courage and discrimination and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect Behavior?

Punishment and ministers in undesirable consequence, or withdraw something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement remove an aversive stimulus. This desire consequence increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side-effects, such as suppressing rather than change an unwanted behaviors, teasing aggression, creating fear, encouraging discrimination, and fostering depression and feeling of helplessness

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens Behavior. Positive reinforcement as a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of behavior. -4 words that removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary enforcers are and neatly satisfying. No learning is required. Conditioned or secondary reinforcers are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers offer immediate Payback; delayed reinforcers require the ability to delay gratification.

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens Behavior. Positive reinforcement is a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior. Negative reinforcement remove an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of behavior. Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying so no learning is required. Conditioned reinforcers are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers required the ability to delay gratification.

How do different reinforcement schedules affect Behavior?

Reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. And continuous reinforcement, learning is rapid, but so is extinction in forward seats. In partial reinforcement, and this show learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to Extinction. Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement a vuse after a set number of responses; variable ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed interval schedule reinforce behaviors after set time; Variable interval schedules, after unpredictable time period.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Relates to effects of violence and other images on TV and in the movies Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as well as bad ones

Punishment's negative affects

Results in unwanted fears. Conveys no information to the organism. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. Causes aggression towards the agent. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.

Skinner's Experiments

Skinner's experiments extend Thorndike's thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Extrinsic Motivation:

The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

Intrinsic Motivation:

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Operant Chamber

The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal's response.

John Watson Applications of Classical Conditioning

Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the "coffee break" an American custom.

What animal did Watson condition little Albert to fear?

White Rat

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus, and learned through classical conditioning

Watson and Pavlov underestimated the importance of _____________ ________________ and ________________ _____________________.

cognitive processes and biological constraints.

The CS needs to come _______ a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

half

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through __________ others who receive rewards and punishments.

imitating

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a UR

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an US, comes to trigger a CR

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an US

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response

primary reinforcer

innately reinforcing stimuli, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)

learning by observing and imitating others

cognitive map

mental representation of layout of one's environment

shaping

operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of desired behavior

reinforcement schedule

pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

generalization

tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Cognition and Operant Conditioning: Overjustification Effect

the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

law of effect

thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

view that psych (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes

John B. Watson had a _____________ view of psychology.

Behaviorism