Psych exam 4
5 ways to ensure an interesting presentation
1. Have a plan: make sure it is organized 2. Tell the plan: aids comprehension 3. Start at the beginning 4. Be painfully clear, keep it simple: use the same term 5. End at the end; don't want to go overtime or leaving audience with to many questions
A good researcher will:
1. Know the advantages and disadvantages of a given method 2. Maximize a method's advantages while minimizing its disadvantages 3. Construct a research program using multiple studies that compensate for one another's weaknesses What is a program of research?
How many cells (how many unique experimental conditions are the in a 2 x 2 x 3 completely between-subjects factorial experiment?
12
4. 2 by 2 within subjects experiment with the use of 24 different orders if you use all of them it is
2
If I want to run a 2 by 2 within subjects experiment how many different unique conditions will each of my participants experience
2
In a 2 x 2 factorial study what is the maximum number of the main effects that you could possibly observe
2
Study of causal attribution discussed in the text, the researchers independently manipulated cognitive load (low vs. high) and discussion topics (anxiety-provoking vs. relaxing) Thus, the design of this study was
2 x 2 factorial design
Have a plan
Abstract Does it provide a clear explanation of theory Summary of hypothesis Correctly describe studies Conclusions that were drawn Introduction Do the readers know the theory you are proposing Theoretical justification: have a comprehensive literature review Justification of hypothesis: do readers know the specific predictions being tested and what these tests will tell us Explanation of hypotheses: do readers know exactly what you expect to find in the study Methods Participants: is the sample identified and described correctly Materials and procedure: are the procedure and design of the study clear Dependent measures: are the measures what they were worded clear Control procedures: are any special control procedures discussed appropriately? Examples: random assignment, experimenters/participants kept blind to hypothesis, anonymity of responses, counterbalancing in within-subjects designs Results Statistical tests: anova t-test correct and easy on the eyes Results all corrected results supported like manipulation checks Findings interpreted correctly Discussion Limitations clarifications and interpretations are discussed Practical implications of results: if appropriate, are they discussed? Theoretical implications of results: are they discussed? Were the conclusions appropriately cautious Paper as a whole coherence: are the arguments developed in a logical orderly fashion and are key themes reinforced throughout? Writing: is the writing clear, gender neutral, in the active voice and concise? Originality and accuracy: are others given credit (citations) for their ideas and are all citations and statements about others correct? Predictability: Are the main points established early and used to organize all that follows Are you ready to get comments for revising
Rule 2: Be clear
According to Gilbert, being redundant in a talk is a good way to be clear as possible Try to clear up your error if you do prove to be wrong Writing isn't clear = writer's thinking isn't clear Rework your ideas so they are solid should not be confusing to cover it up Sometimes put themselves in their shoes Use Parallel constructions Counterintuitive to most beginning writers Make it easy for your readers to see whatever logical reason you are trying to point out writers can often increase the clarity of their writing by You can't live with them and you can't live without him Avoid use of abbreviations jargon Scientese: novice writers often adopt overly formal style to sound more scientific that we wouldn't use in every phrases
Slides 18-20
Address manipulation checks What statistical test did you use? Address main effect of IV #1 main effect of IV#2, and whether you have an interaction for each type of DV (significant for high empathy, ns for low empathy) graphs , include F stats Does this support your predictions?
Mixed model designs
At least one independent variable is manipulated on a between-subjects basis and at least one other independent variable is manipulated on within subjects basis Design that incorporates both withinn-subjects and between-subjects enactments of independent variables
Mixed Model (Methods) Design
At least one other IV is manipulated within-subjects At least one other IV is manipulated within-subjects 2 (focus: forecast, experience) x 2 (topic: similarity, difference) White and black participants how will it go and how will it really go and diads the topics are similarity and difference
Rule 6: Be Assertive
Authors who overuse quotations Assert themselves to tell a compelling story Tell rather than list Tone and voice should be written in a active voice
FIX to the anova problem
Averaging across race condition, there was a main effect of mood f(2,133) =-7.26, p= .02, people in the positive mood condition
Main effects
Averaging across type of feedback, There is a main effect of components on paper grades. People who received an encouraging comment earned a better grade than people who did not receive a comment. Averaging across comment conditions, there is the main effect of the type of feedback on paper grades. People who received detailed feedback earned a better grade than people who received general feedback No interaction
Rule 9: be original
Avoid plagiarism: to pass off ideas or writings of another as your own Make sure to clearly state that this is not our own personal definition Write from memory; don't rely on focusing to much on the original source After you written it check again
Partial counter balancing
Choose a limited number of orders ( say 10 or 12) at random from the pool of all possible orders Use random selection to choose sample of orders from the entire population of possible Drawbacks: random chance is still lumpy miss piggy is always first and random selection doesn't always work Researcher hard to keep track of 10 or 12 orders for their data
Compared to what?
Define the limits of the claim. This usually involves adding one or more control groups. For example, if you want to gauge the talent of a psychic you would want to know how good she is compared to experts in the field versus people who claim no expertise or ability.
Slide 16-17
Description of ____ Include sample items and pictures, when appropriate Chronsback alpha is used will actually be spent right there like how did you do it Material: DV
Multi method approach
Different methods to address the same research question asking the same research question Operationalize the IV and DVs in different ways helps construct validity Word search then a time you worked alone
Rule 4: be concise
Don't bore people No unnecessary words Don't run on and on about being concise omit needless words
Start at the beginning
Don't relate to entire history of psychology but don't act like there is no history Tell your reason for talking about it
Within-subjects design a.k.a repeated measure
Each participant serves in more than one (perhaps all of the conditions of a study) Imagining outgroup member not taking the perspective of the person and trying to step in their shows and take their perspective
Between-subjects design
Each participant serves in one and only one condition of an experiment A project you have individual people in each cell in our design and no perspective and a really popular design
End at the End
Ended up to seen if you presenting results and say any questions First, summarize your findings and second show the meaning of your findings for the big picture
The disturbing problem
Half to three-quarters of psychology studies are difficult to replicate; we find something slightly different this could no effect opposite effect and the original study didn't have that effect
Good talk Gilbert
Have a plan Tell the plan Start at the beginning Be painfully clear Talk about one interesting thing Take Charge of the interaction End at the End
Talk about one interesting thing
Have something interesting to say Humor can be useful Talking clearly means not doing certain stylistic things to distract your audience
Rule 8: be creative
Humor flair turned phrase to make it less mundane writing
Choose one or more key questions to guide your research
I use quantitative and mixed methods approaches to investigate prejudice from both the target's and perpetrator's perspective, and apply insights from the intergroup relations literature to other social problems. A connected, secondary line of my research focuses on applied issues
slide 14-15
IV2 Show us ___ and manipulation checks
ANOVA
If there are three possible main effects in the study they would have conducted a three way ANOVA
Main effects
In a 2 x 2 factorial study how many can you observe it is two Can't do three main effects because there are only two independent variables
Can everyone verify the outcome?
In order to be certain of the validity and reliability of a claim, everyone—scientists and regular folks—need to be able to agree that something happened or did not happen. Make sure the operational definitions are clear and can be verified by multiple sources.
What is the type of design?
Is the claim based on correlational, quasi-experimental or experimental design? Answering this question tells you the most common threats to the claims made in the study. It also suggests potential fixes.
Solutions to the problem of replication
It cannot be published and not help there careers and try disseminate Should be able to see if it is Regularly publishes More systematic programs of scientific research is set up to reward "flashy and New" disseminate to the public pragmatic and repitive approach they should replicate their findings and instantly moving on and directly and conceptually JMU became an r2 with how much research they received and the PH.d programs r1 are the most research Sometimes did you have media mentions in r1 schools Change in journals and textbooks inaccurate findings being taught and supported; those are proposed He only published the ones he was intrigued and only got a small picture of his work and what should be seen in the textbooks
Rule 1: be correct
Misinterpreting or misquoting the work of another researcher is probably the most serious error a writer can make Carefully proofread a draft of your paper once and to find additional mistakes is to let the paper sit for a couple of days and read it again Friend or college or spell check can help
Replication
Most of the people you saw dressed as the pirate so you are taking your past observations to predict future behavior and how reliable they are Replication is important to understand the replication of an effect Unknown factors that are not repeatable or simply not knowing what they did There is slim incentive to disprove and much incentive to get funding, fame and money Based on the prediction People must learn to be intelligent consumers of science Journalist need to be educated in this too
Rule 7: Be predictable
Much more predictable in scientific writing Cut to the chase Time savvy readers will have a good idea after the introduction what your results look like Designed to inform so you can be predictable Telling your readers why they should expect to see support for your hypothesis good scientific writing differs from good fiction or poetry in that good scientific writing needs to be highly
The "three-horned dilemma"
No study can address all three: 1. Precision: internal validity element of control that an experiment has over it's variables; time everything carefully measure everything 2. Generalizability to situation: happen in classrooms, coworkers, happen U.S, china brazil; predicting behavior 3. Generalizability to people race, men, women, old young
Sequence effects
Occur when the simple passage of time begins to take its toll on people's responses (bored,tired) In the study you have to read a study with different social identities and all participants that you have to read 8 different essays you wouldn't care anymore and different psychologically How participants respond to later materials might be very different not but because of the simple passage of time
Check the strength of 3 types of validity (construct, internal, external).
Often claims will address one construct buy rely on information about a different construct. Ask yourself, are they manipulating or measuring what they claim? If not, what are they actually manipulating or measuring? Is one variable actually causing another or is there an alterative explanation? Does this claim have a limited scope of effectiveness?
Practice effect
Participant's experience with one task makes it easier for them to perform a different task that comes later in the study Imagining feelings: it's hard for you to put yourself in an emotional state but it is easier over time Mentally rotating objects Diagnoses easier
Causal attributions
People come to understand other people's attitudes and personalities by considering the behavior of other people in it's social context
carryover effects
People's responses to one stimulus in a study directly influences their responses to a 2nd stimulus Please imagine you are traveling Think through the first set of stimuli ex. Please imagine you are traveling alone on vacation and you end up sitting next to the following individual on an airplane this person. During the course of your conversation, you learn this about your neigbor ... how they would feel to sit nexting to this person Since they have to rate all of them it is a within subject designs Brian, jason and jp The character that you imagine first might influence how they report feeling about the 2nd and 3rd character Ex. white man first they might think they are not going to vary from race and sexual orientation Gay prompt to think that it is based on sexual orientation
Rule 3: be Comprehensive (but discerning)
Perform a literature search Be sure to cite studies to give credit and to help tell a coherent story Don't cite to many Citing a study should mean that the study has precise direct relevance to your paper
Distrust of the field
Pre publish because their application is good Many labs in the country and the world because that is how many people Started around 2011 2012 deadrich stople netherlands social psychologists and that he was fabricating his lab and eventually he admitted he fabricated data 30 to 40 published articles retracted that those articles were based on and revoked his PH.d and a civil suit against him and many of his students got there PH.d but some had their impact 2013 published paper that psychic people can predict future events and 10 studies and did this for dozens of years and viewed it as an embarrassment and only bims can create them
Complete counterbalancing:
Present every possible order of all experimental conditions is present in your study Different participants randomly assigned to receive different orders 3 conditions: 3! (3 x 2 x 1) = 6 possible orders A, b, c b,c, a C, a,b C,b,a B,a,c A,c , b Started with conditions now have six possible orders What if you have 6 condition 6! (6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 =720 conditions More than two or three would only work two or three conditions so you might not be able to do that The more conditions we have the bigger the factorial we have and might come up wit more possible orders than we need
Plan a series of studies to answer those questions (programmatically)
Q: How does stereotype content influence subtle forms of discriminatory backlash? Pilot study: online within-subjects study to validate implicit sexism measure 2(prime: businesswoman, housewife) x 3 (word type: hostile, benevolent, control) repeated-measures design Study 1: online between-subjects study: 2(parenthood: parent, nonparent) x 2(gender: woman, man) between-participant design Study 2: in a lab study: actual conversation between a participant and white female confederate. Included qualitative and quantitative DVs Pilot study: quasi-experiment: recruited Loyola students to rate the quality of resume information Study 3: online between-subjects study: 2(race: White, Black) x 2(parenthood: parent, nonparent) x 2(gender: woman, man) between-participants design. Quant and qual DVs Using these different methods help to manage external and internal validity across these studies
Slide 5-6
Refer to supporting articles of empathy and learning
In Defense of Replication Attempts
Replication failure is not bad; good signs is testing a hypothesis and it is important for the theory and the study; taking aim at studies and public perception but there cited heavily knowing that it is trajectory; no ones allowed to cite it anymore Science is exploratory and are trained to make novel claims and good science and these chapters argue that the publications shouldn't make people nervous to take risks Good science should take risks and some findings don't take risks can't say a bad scientists Strengthens science
What is replication?
Replication is the repetition of findings previously presented or published There are two types of replication; trying to repeat See if across time or slightly different materials can you find them Exact or direct replication: replicate the findings of a study everything with their procedures, materials and design and map directly onto what was done in the previous study Conceptual replication: replicate the study with the same hypothesis or predictions might have different, designs or procedures; may move from a field study to an experiment Important to conduct exact tells us if the study results are true and conceptual is behind the theory original study is accurate or inaccurate; allows us to generalize the findings; generalizability does this study hold true in this new time and place; if the theory is true can we make the same conclusions Conceptual replication was somewhat common but exact or direct basically never happened and that is changing; test the same hypothesis but might have different designs; might manipulate the variable Published mass four of the biggest journals in cognitive arguably the experimental psychology and science publishes articles 350 hours to run an experiment so they usually target studies that take less time so these are direct or exact replication Around a ⅓ ish Publish between 12 to 15 articles 36% of the studies replicated One year to collect the data
Advantages of within-subjects
Requires fewer participants than between-subjects 2 X 2 design: 4 cells x 20 people per cell = 80 2 x 2 design: 1 cell x 20 people per cell = 20 Eliminates person confounds by perfect matching Individual differences constant across participants No worries that people differ across conditions because they're the same people!
Rule 11: Be easy on the Eyes
Results revealed that the sociologists (M = 4.34, SD = 1.51) were lower than the psychologists (M = 5.29, SD = 1.57) in terms of self-esteem, t(119) = -14.84, p < .001. What rule of good writing does this sentence violate?
Some rules to writing research paper
Rule 1: be correct Rule 2: Be clear Rule 3: be Comprehensive (but discerning) Rule 4: be concise Rule 5: Be (somewhat Cautious) Rule 6: Be Assertive Rule 7: Be predictable Rule 8: be creative Rule 9: be original Rule 10: Be Gender neutral Rule 11: Be easy on the Eyes
One way design
Simplest possible experimental design One independent variable
Be painfully clear
Strive for clarity Explain your conceptual variables Be redundant You can ask if they are lost Make use of visual aids Present data kindly Take audience's perspective
Nonparallel lines
The effects of one variable are different at different variables of some other variable Crossover interaction Plotted a factorial study using lines whose slopes represent mean differences across different experimental conditions Statistical interaction
Hourglass Approach
The introduction should open up broadly by asking general questions or making a general statement about people Then work your way toward specific research hypothesis by reviewing previous research and making a logical case for the study or set of studies Method and results become more specific Discussion begin to broaden your scope again by offering some theoretical and practical insights about what your findings mean and as broadly end your paper Do not open to broadly or narrowly like entire field of psychology Opening and closing paragraph should have some idea of the same kind of information Litmus test helps with the right level of specificity
Between subjects
The only approach to experimental design Each participant serves in one and only one condition of an experime
Examples of Non-replications in Psychology
The relation between perception and behavior Prime students to be more intelligent Five published attempts cited hundreds of time Primed for replication The influence of spatial distance cues on affect and evaluation Prime people a goal was far away from them or long distance than maintained or deflates or negative affect; so far has not replicated in published attempts A lot of this research is small sample sizes or trouble with double blind studies
Factorial experiments
The researcher observed the presence of statistical interactions Two or more independent variables that are completely crossed
ANOVA
There was a significant difference in the ANOVA such that regardless of group member condition, people in positive moods tended to help more as defined by time spent giving directions (M=5.34, SD=.45 vs. M=3.92, SD=1.03) Don't state the test Need Degrees of Freedom no p-value, Do not talk about
Tell the plan
Transition to tell your audience your plan
Two group design
Two groups of participants one and only one of these two drawings and to rate the character on whatever traits we expected to be influenced by the manipulation involving eyeglasses Simplest possible kind of true experiment design
PowerPoint Tips
Use big font (this is 28 point) Stick to black font, red/green/blue are hard to see Use pictures whenever possible (adds visual interest and memories) and you don't make these publicly available Put few words on each slide Read info on the slide have notes for info that is not on the slide; helps the audience to stick with you Practice! See how long it takes. Aim for a 15-minute presentation (too short don't do that to much don't do that) 5 ish minutes for questions
Latin square Factorial
Use to generate a fixed number of orders Four order such that wach of the four unique conditions appeared A. exactly once in each possible serial position and b exactly twice before and exactly twice after each of the other three conditions Can't do it with odd numbers Example of partial counterbalancing: choosing a limited number of orders
How can you improve the study to strengthen or disprove the claim?
Using what you determined in the previous questions, what would you need to do to be more confident that what they claimed was true? Would you add a control group (what kind and why)? Would you limit the specificity of the claim (how so and why)? This will likely involve adding a piece to the procedure or changing how the study was done. Make sure to clarify any procedural changes in your answer. Thinking about the procedure could also reveal potential problems with demand characteristics or experimenter bias. Be precise in your answers. Don't just say there was a confound—specify the type of confound and say how you would address it.
Counterbalancing:
Vary the order in which participants experience the different conditions of a within-subjects study Eliminates both sequencing and carryover effects Like rating the different muppets
Hypothesis guessing
What your hypothesis might be compared across conditions Look at response in 1st condition won't compare across conditions Structured debriefing Interview immediately after study to see what they thought researchers expected to find 1. first , what was your overall impression of the study? 2. A lot of people in psychology experiments are suspicious that we're hiding something from them or that we are looking at something other than what we said we were looking at. Were you suspicious at all in this study? If yes, what
Take Charge of the interaction
Your talk take control of it by not forcing you to deviate from your plan Requires clarification answer briefly and continue Don't agree until you fully understand and don't be defensive
Which of the following is included under the discussion category in the checklist of concerns for empirical research papers
a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research
a design that incorporates both within-subjects and between-subjects enactment of IV is known as
a mixed model design
The simplest possible kind of true experiment is
a two-groups design
A well written method section must provide
all the necessary information that would allow readers to replicate the study
slide 3 and 4
background on IV#1 Refer to a couple of supporting articles. Explain one in detail
According to Gilbert, being redundant in a talk is a good way to
be clear as possible
Authors who overuse quotation violate the rule of good writing known as
being assertive
Results revealed that the sociologists (M=4.34, SD=1.51) were lower than the psychologists (M=5.29, SD=1.57) in terms of self-esteem t(119) = 14.84 p< .001. What rule of good writing does this sentence violate
being easy on the eyes
Slide 2
big picture (tell me a story why should I care for increasing intergroup helping and could use real world examples) , establish the importance of your research project
Slide 1
catchy title, group members full names
Maurice conducted a 2 x 2 completely within-subjects experiment. He counterbalanced all of his within-subjects conditions by making use of 24 different orders. If he used 24 different orders, which form of counterbalancing must he have used?
complete counterbalancing
Slides 21-22
conclusion Relate to past research, limitations, future research, big picture and implications How will they improve upon it and what does this mean and what does this help people
Disordinal interaction
cross over interaction
Slide 10
design
Which of the following is one of the pieces of advice Gilbert offers for giving a good research talk?
end at the end
Reasons for Non-Replication
falsified data, poor methods, result may only apply to a certain situation, small sample sizes, scientific culture based on innovation rather than getting it right, replication attempt was done poorly
disadvantages of within subjects design
fatigue, attrition, carryover effects, order effects, practice effects Introduces some sources of bias that typically aren't present in between subjects design altogether
Falsified data
few cases psychology who faked data; case psychologist at the University of the Netherlands very prolific author; never witnessed data collected; he claimed to be working with high school students; students got suspicious; took evidence to department and admitted to fraud; the worst; very rare
Simple effect tests are conducted to ______.
figure out the exact nature of a significant interaction
Simple effects tests are conducted to
figure out the exact nature of a significant interaction
Culturally and generationally specific
findings that one person finds that are research percentage are high in more of a conservative school than a liberal arts school might find with their participants; published 2008 collected even earlier trying to replicate them a lot change in that time we had a major economic repression and the first black president or could've been at a southern state school
Reverse counterbalancing
generate a single order (meaningful or random order) Then reverse position of any given condition in a study ABCDE becomes EDCBA Ensures that on average serial position everyone is in the third position is the same How frequently all of our conditions are first or last
Latin square
generates a fixed number of orders by following a few rules ex. : 4 within-subjects conditions (p. 264) Generate 4 orders Each of the four unique conditions appear A. Exactly once in each serial position (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th) B. Exactly twice before and twice after each of the other the unique conditions If you have an odd number of cells you cannot ensure that one does twice before and twice after only complete if you have an even number of conditions
In the introduction to an empirical research paper
gradually become more specific as you build your argument
Gilbert's eight-step plan for a good talk begins with reviewing "some background about the area of research" and ends with discussing "implications for the 'big picture'." Steps 4 and 5 are much more detail-oriented (e.g., provide details of your procedures). On the whole, Gilbert's plan for giving a good talk strongly resembles the ______.
hourglass model
The major limitation of one-way experimental designs is that they only allow researchers to look at one ____ at a time
independent variable
Which of the following is true regarding labeling research hypotheses with numbers
it does not add clarity
Mohammed studies gender, identity and student engagement. He conducts a person by treatment quasi experiment in which he a. Manipulates students on a within subjects basis and b) makes gender his measured iv. So Mohammed's final design is 2 * 2 factorial
it is a mixed model design
According to the text writers can often increase the clarity of their writing by
making use of parallel constructions
Slide 12-13
materials-IV1 Show us ___ and manipulation checks
Poor replication quality:
maybe the sample size and generalizes across cultures and replication effort was done too quickly or wasn't trained actually rather early in dissertations based on false data
is it possible for a statistical analysis to yield three main effects in 2 x 2 factorial study
no, because there are only two independent variables
If you plotted the results a factorial study using lines whose slopes represent mean differences across different experimental conditions, the presence of a statistical interaction would show up in the form of
nonparallel lines
Sample size:
not representative of the population and 40 people in their study that's different; 50 per cell can add up; subject designs you need fewer participants; chance is lumpy
According to gilbert's advice for giving a good talk asking your audience if it is clear so far
not very useful
Order effect
occurs when a question takes on a different meaning when it follows one question than when it follows another Brain is a 27 year old gay white male Jason is a 28 year old white male or Report shame Report guilt Report anger Would report higher on shame
What should writers do to produce concise research papers
omit needless words
Whereas men produced more assertions than women did, women produced more affirmations than men did your text would refer to this statement as a
parallel construction
a Latin square is one specific example of
partial counterbalancing
Slide 9:
participants
In addition to summarizing requirements for specific portions of research paper such as introduction and results, the checklist for an empirical research paper also includes a section called paper as a whole which includes points such as coherence and
predicatability
According to the text, good scientific writing differs from good fiction or poetry in a good scientific writing needs to be highly
predictable
Slide 11
procedure (brief overview)
Slide 7
put the two IVs together and link them to intergroup helping behavior
Advice to be cautious in writing research reports refers to
replicating your results to be sure they are reliable before trying to publish
Rule 5: Be (somewhat Cautious)
replicating your results to be sure they are reliable before trying to publish Hypothesis has no or little previous support say so in your introduction or provide partial support before critics do Significant levels of honesty instead of significant amount of cheating Have an alternate perspective
Incomplete conunterbalancing
reverse and partial counterbalancing
What counterbalancing technique uses only two orders -- while also guaranteeing that the average serial position of any given condition in a study is exactly the same for all the unique conditions?
reverse counterbalancing
Gilbert's paper on giving a good talk suggests that handouts
should be avoided because they often distract the audience from your speech
Gilbert emphasizes the idea that a good talk ______.
should have one and only one
According to the hourglass approach which parts should be highly detailed
specific method and results section
What an effect at one level of second IV but is weaker or nonexistent at a different level of the 2nd IV, the observed pattern is referred to as a
spreading interaction
Slide 8
state your predictions
To find out whether participants figured out what was being manipulated in an experiment, an experimenter is most likely to use a ___ immediately after participants have completed the study
structured debriefing
The hourglass approach to writing research papers is a technique for
structuring and organizing empirical research paper
Which of the following is most appropriate to include in the results section of a research paper
the results of specific statistical tests
According to your text one thing that often gets in the way of clarity in the writing of beginners
they fail to put themselves in the shoes of their readers
In comparison with purely between-subjects experimental designs, one drawback of purely within subjects experimental designs is that
they open the door to problems such as sequence effects or carryover effects
If you overheard research say that each of the three possible main effects in my study was significant you conclude that the the researcher had conducted was
three way anova
According to the text carry over effects are best controlled by
varying the order of presentation of conditions
One of the most important functions of an abstract in an empirical research paper is to let the reader know
what the primary research hypothesis was
Interference effect
when performing one task disrupts people's performance on a second task (opposite of practice effect) Strup test like red being in the color green In this experiment you are required to say the color of the word
One way to write in a gender neutral fashion is to
write in plural whenever possible
Rule 10: Be Gender neutral
write in the plural
