Psych Final Exam
Compare activity theory, socioemotional selectivity theory, selective optimization with compensation theory, and the convoy model of social relations.
*Activity theory*: More active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives *Socioemotional selectivity theory*: Older adults become more selective about their social networks -Spend more time with individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships -Classes of goals -Knowledge-related -Emotional -Trajectory for each type of goal is different get more info
Alzheimer's is common in late adulthood yet there is no cure. What causes it? How can it be treated?
*Alzheimer disease* -Gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function -Women are likely to develop Alzheimer disease because they live longer than men -Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine -Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles -Alzheimer's disease is a progressive brain disorder that damages and eventually destroys brain cells, leading to loss of memory, thinking and other brain functions. -It usually develops slowly and gradually gets worse as more brain cells wither and die. -Ultimately, Alzheimer's is fatal, and currently, there is no cure.
What is arthritis? Osteoporosis?
*Arthritis*: Inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems *Osteoporosis*: Extensive loss of bone tissue Causes older adults to walk with stoop
Why do you think there are more centenarians now than ever?
*Centenarians* = Individuals 100 years and older Increasing at the rate of seven percent each year in industrialized countries because of: -Diet -Low-stress lifestyle -Caring community -Activity -Spirituality Maximum life span remains about 120. Possibility is that we can have a better quality of life to the maximum time.
What is climacteric (i.e., menopause)? HRT? Erectile dysfunction?
*Climacteric*: Midlife transition in which fertility declines *Menopause*: Cessation of a woman's menstrual periods -During the late forties or early fifties -May cause hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, and rapid heartbeat *Perimenopause* - Transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all *Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)* -Treatment for unpleasant side effects of menopause -Augments the declining levels of reproductive hormone production by the ovaries -Consists of various forms of estrogen, usually in combination with a progestin *Erectile dysfunction*: Inability to achieve and maintain an erection
Contrast cognitive mechanics and pragmatics?
*Cognitive mechanics*: Hardware of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain Involve speed and accuracy of the processes *Cognitive pragmatics*: Culture-based software programs of the mind -Include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and types of knowledge that help to master or cope with life
What is a contemporary life-events framework and how is this helpful in thinking about the lifespan? Does it integrate well with the life span perspective? How?
*Contemporary life-events approach*: How life events influence the individual's development depends on: 1. Life event itself 2. Mediating factors 3. Individual's adaptation to the life event 4. Life-stage context 5. Sociohistorical context
Contrast fluid and crystallized intelligence. How do they change with age?
*Crystallized intelligence*: Accumulated information and verbal skills -Continues to increase in middle adulthood *Fluid intelligence*: Ability to reason abstractly -May begin to decline in middle adulthood
What is the dual-process model of coping?
*Dual-process model*: Model of coping with bereavement that emphasizes oscillation between following two dimensions -Loss-oriented stressors -Restoration-oriented stressors -Impact of death on surviving individuals is strongly influenced by the circumstances under which the death occurs -Sudden deaths are likely to have more intense and prolonged effects on surviving individuals
What is the empty nest syndrome? Does it describe your experiences with leaving home?
*Empty nest syndrome*: Decrease in marital satisfaction after children leave the home -Parents derive considerable satisfaction from their children -Refilling of empty nest is a common occurrence -Loss of privacy
What is euthanasia and what are some of the issues around it?
*Euthanasia*: The act of painlessly ending the lives of individuals who are suffering from an incurable disease or severe disability *Passive euthanasia*: Treatment is withheld *Active euthanasia*: Death deliberately induced Recent cases - Terri Schiavo and Jack Kevorkian
Describe each of the biological theories of aging: evolutionary, cellular clock, free radical, mitochondrial, and hormonal stress theory.
*Evolutionary theory*: Natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults -Benefits conferred by evolution decline with age because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness *Cellular clock theory*: Cells can divide a maximum of 75 to 80 times -Age makes cells less capable of dividing -Telomeres - Tips of chromosomes; string of DNA sequences that cap chromosomes *Free-radical theory*: People age because normal metabolic processes within cells produce unstable oxygen molecules that ricochet around inside cells damaging cellular structures *Mitochondrial theory*: Aging is caused by the decay of mitochondria *Hormonal stress theory*: Aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease
How does expertise change one's information processing?
*Expertise* -Rely on accumulated experience -Process information automatically and analyze it more efficiently -Have better strategies and shortcuts to solving problems -Are more creative and flexible in solving problems Practical problem solving
What are some changes in cognitive functioning in late adulthood? What is explicit vs. implicit memory?
*Explicit memory*: Facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state -Declines as the person ages *Episodic memory*: Retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings *Semantic memory*: Person's knowledge about the world *Implicit memory*: Without conscious recollection that involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed -Less likely to be adversely affected by aging -Working memory and perceptual speed - Cognitive resource mechanisms that decline as the person ages -Decision making - Preserved rather well in older adults
What is meant by two common responses to stress: fight-or-flight? Tend-and-befriend?
*Fight-or-flight*: Type of behavior men engage in when they experience stress -> Become aggressive, socially withdraw, or drink alcohol *Tend-and-befriend*: Type of behavior women engage in when they experience stress -> Seek social alliances with others
George Vaillant's studies (as well as Helson's) explore stability and change. Summarize their conclusions.
*George Vaillant's* studies Conducted on sample of: 268 socially advantaged Harvard graduates born about 1920 456 socially disadvantaged inner-city men born about 1930 90 middle-SES, intellectually gifted women born about 1910
Helson's Mills College Study is noteworthy for being about women. What does it reveal?
*Helson's Mills College Study* -Three main groups of women 1. Family-oriented 2. Career-oriented 3. Neither path or a mix of both
What happens to the immune system in late adulthood? The senses? body? Sexuality?
*Immune system* -Declines in functioning with age -Extended duration of stress and diminished restorative processes -Malnutrition involving low levels of protein -Exercise improves the immune system, and influenza vaccination is important *Physical appearance and movement * -Most noticeable changes - Wrinkles and age spots -Shorter in height with aging due to bone loss in their vertebrae -Older adults move more slowly than young adults *Vision* -Visual acuity/Color vision/Depth perception Diseases of the eye -*Cataracts*: Thickening of the lens; vision becomes cloudy, opaque, and distorted -*Glaucoma*: Damage to the optic nerve because of fluid pressure -*Macular degeneration*: Deterioration of the macula of the retina, the focal center of the visual field -Hearing: Hearing aids and cochlear implants minimize the problems linked to hearing loss -Smell and taste -Touch and pain -Decreased sessitivity to pain can help coping but also mask injuries Health problems -Probability of having some disease or illness increases with age -Chronic diseases with a slow onset and a long duration are common in late adulthood
What are Kubler-Ross's stages of dying? How should one communicate with someone who is grieving?
*Kübler-Ross' stages of dying* *Denial and isolation* Dying person denies that she or he is really going to die *Anger*: Dying person's denial gives way to anger, resentment, rage, and envy *Bargaining*: Dying person develops the hope that death can somehow be postponed *Depression*: Withdrawal, crying, and grieving *Acceptance*: Sense of peace comes-> Dying person comes to accept the certainty of death
What does Levinson add to our understanding of development? Why do you think his original research was on men?
*Levinson's seasons of a man's life* -Teens -Transition from dependence to independence -20s are a novice phase of adult development -30s are a time for focusing on family and career development -By the 40s, man has a stable career and now must look forward to the kind of life he will lead as a middle adult Transition to middle adulthood lasts - Conflicts Being young vs. being old Being destructive vs. being constructive Being masculine vs. being feminine Being attached to others vs. being separated from them
What is the difference between life span and life expectancy?
*Life span*: Maximum number of years an individual can live Between 120 - 125 years *Life expectancy*: Number of years that the average person born in a particular year will probably live -Differences in life expectancy across countries -Factors such as health conditions and medical care Ethnic differences
What is a living will?
*Living will* - A legal document that reflects the patient's advance care planning
What are the most common mental health issues of people in late adulthood?
*Major depression*: Mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored -Less common among older adults than younger adults Common predictors -Earlier depressive symptoms -Poor health or disability -Loss events -Low social support *Dementia*: Neurological disorder in which primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning 23 percent of women and 17 percent of men 85 years and older are at risk for developing *Alzheimer disease*: Gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function -Women are likely to develop Alzheimer disease because they live longer than men -Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine -Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles *Parkinson disease*: Chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis -Triggered by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain -Several treatments are available
Define religion vs. spirituality. What happens to spirituality across the life span, by gender?
*Religion*: Organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols that increases an individual's connection to a sacred or transcendent other *Religiousness*: Degree to which an individual is affiliated with an organized religion Participates in prescribed rituals and practices Feels a sense of connection with its beliefs Involved in a community of believers *Spirituality*: Experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner Living in a way that benefits others and society
What is the social clock?
*Social clock*: Timetable according to which individuals are expected to accomplish life's tasks
What is wisdom and when does it emerge? Do you agree with Erikson that it emerges in late adulthood?
*Wisdom: Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters* -Personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive or age factors -Late adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to emerge -High levels of wisdom are rare Wisdom is: -Sensitivity to emotional information -Empathic understand -Overall competency -Practical knowledge -Ability to deal with uncertainty
What is the difference between the young-old and the oldest-old?
-*Young-old* - Aged 65 to 84 -*Oldest-old* - Aged 85 or more
What happens to the aging brain? Does the brain adapt? How?
-Brain loses 5 to 10 percent of its weight between the ages of 20 and 90 years -Shrinkage of neurons -Lower numbers of synapses -Reduced length of axon -Slowing of function in the brain and spinal cord begins in middle adulthood and accelerates in late adulthood -Affecting physical coordination and intellectual performance Aging is linked to: -Reduction in synaptic functioning -Production of neurotransmitters
What is the role of conscientiousness in personality in late adulthood, and why?
-Conscientiousness predicts lower mortality risk from childhood through late adulthood -Low conscientiousness and high neuroticism predicts earlier death -Higher conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to a lower risk of earlier death
What is meant by the death system?
-Cultural variations in the death system -Ancient Greeks - To live a full life and die with glory -Most societies have a ritual that deals with death In most societies, death is not viewed as the end of existence as the spiritual body is believed to live on
What are the types of elder abuse and who are the most common perpetrators?
-Fear of victimization, crime, and elder maltreatment -Older adults receive disproportionately fewer mental health services -Mental health care needs to be more available and affordable for older adults -*Physical Abuse -Psychological Abuse -Financial Abuse -Neglect* -It is estimated that between 4 and 10 percent of all individuals over 65 years of age are abused. -Abuse by adult children was less common (24 percent) compared with spouse abuse (58 percent). -Cases that come to the attention of adult protective services are thought to be a small portion of the estimated 1.5 million to 2 million cases of elder abuse and neglect in the United States. Risk Factors and Characteristics -Interestingly, stress factors (poverty, job status, loss of family support, etc.) do not seem to be an important risk factor for elder abuse. -The cycle of violence hypothesis (victims will become perpetrators) has not been supported by research. -Other forms of domestic violence and alcohol are associated with elder abuse. -Research has also found support for codependence (the unhealthy dependency of the perpetrator on the victim and vice versa) and the disturbed psychological state of the perpetrator, impairment of the victim, and social isolation of the family.
How does one grieve well? What is disenfranchised grief?
-Grieving stimulates individuals to try to make sense of their world -A reliving of the events leading to the death is common -When a death is caused by an accident or a disaster, the effort to make sense of it is often pursued more vigorously -Disenfranchised grief - An individual's grief involving a deceased person that is a socially ambiguous loss that can't be openly mourned or supported. Examples: Ex-spouse, abortion, stigmatized death (such as AIDS)
Why do you think that mothers are the mediators of relationships with grandparents? Does that fit your experience?
-Intergenerational relationships -Differences in gender -Mothers and daughters have closer relationships during their adult years -Married men are more involved with their wives' families than with their own -Grandparent-grandchild relationships *Mothers' intergenerational ties were more influential than fathers*
How do you think the current life expectancy, in comparison to 1900, affects development?
-Life expectancy has increased from 47 years for a person born in 1900 to 78 years for someone born today -Location of death - More than 80% of deaths in the U.S. today occur in institutions or hospitals (50% in hospitals; 20% in nursing homes)
What are gender difference in health in middle adulthood?
-Men have higher death rates for all 15 leading causes of death and die on average 6 years earlier than women -Men represent 50% of the work force but 94 of on-the-job fatalities -Men know less about health and take less responsibility for it. -Men are less likely to see themselves as ill or susceptible to disease or injury when, in fact, they are more susceptible. -Whether healthy or ill, women engage in far more health-promoting behaviors than men and have much healthier lifestyles. They have healthier diets, lower blood pressure and do more to control it, sleep more, have larger social networks and more intimate and active social relationships. -Women who smoke are more likely to have a heart attack and develop cancer than men who smoke. Smoking puts a woman at higher risk than a man for diabetes, high cholesterol, and a stroke. Women also have a harder time quitting smoking than men. It is more common for women to be obese than men. -Women seem to report pain more often, have more persistent pain than men -Women are more likely to develop an autoimmune disease than men.
How is religion and spirituality important in old age?
-Older adults are spiritual leaders in many societies around the world -*Older adults have higher levels of life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism* -*Religion can provide some important psychological needs in older adults*
How should one communicate with a dying person?
-Open communication with a dying person is very important because: -They can close their lives in accord with their own ideas about proper dying -They may be able to complete plans and projects, and make arrangements and decisions -They have the opportunity to reminisce and converse with others -They have more understanding of what is happening to them -Good family communications can help reduce the incidence of depression and suicidal thoughts
What are the advantages of good sibling relationships for development?
-Sibling relationships may be extremely close, apathetic, or highly rivalrous -Friendships that have endured over the adult years tend to be deeper *Long-term: Sibling relationships are potentially the longest-lived of any family relationship.*
What is the busy ethic?
-The *busy ethic* facilitates the transition from work to retirement. -Transitions are easier if beliefs are continuous between the two phases. -The transition is facilitated when action in retirement is built upon or integrated with the existing values of the person retiring. -The busy ethic and an ideology of pensions capture moral continuity between work and retirement. -The ideology of pensions is based on the idea that the "inoccupation of retirees is considered to have been earned by virtue of having formerly been productive." The busy ethic serves several purposes: -It legitimates leisure activities. -It defends retirees against negative judgments (senescence, obsolescence). -It provides a definition for retirement. -It "domesticates" retirement by adapting retired life to societal norms. -The retirees themselves, family, friends, and institutions (marketers of products and services, the gerontology profession, and the popular media) support the busy ethic. -The busy ethic is most appropriately applied to the young-old and to individuals who are not incapacitated by chronic illness. Not all retirees subscribe to the busy ethic, although the majority do. Ekerdt stated that "one cannot talk to retirees for very long without hearing the rhetoric of busyness" (p. 244).
Describe the role of family and friends in late adulthood.
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Why is hospice recommended?
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Why do many cultures lack a concept of middle adulthood?
Cultural contexts The concept of middle age is unclear or absent in many cultures It is common in non-industrialized societies to describe individuals as young or old with nothing in between
Contrast the characteristics of early and middle adulthood.
Defining middle adulthood Middle adulthood: 40-45 years of age to about 60-65 years of age Declining physical skills and increasing responsibility Awareness of the young-old polarity Transmitting something meaningful to the next generation Reaching and maintaining career satisfaction Gains and losses and biological and sociocultural factors balance each other Squeeze Generation Late midlife (55 to 65) is likely to be characterized by: Death of a parent Last child leaving the parental home Becoming a grandparent Preparation for and actual retirement
What is demographics? What are the major developmental eras in the US?
Demographics: The structure of population Eras: *Baby boom* 1950-1964 (50-64 years old); baby bust 1930-1940, 1970-1980. *Gen X*: early 1960s to early 1980s (34-54 years old) "lost" gen: best educated, most cynical, 1st gen experiencing high divorce *Gen Y *(millennials) early 1980s to 2000s (14-34 year olds) "echo boomers" (largest cohort since baby boom) Diverse, technologically astute, consumerist oriented *Gen Z* 1995 - 2015 (birth to 20 years old) Heavy users of social media, anxious, suspicious of American Dream, more conservative, more narcissistic, more pragmatic more likely to be in church in young adulthood (42%) than millennials (18%) or Gen Xs (21%) or baby boomers (26%)
What does Erikson mean by generativity?
Erikson's generativity versus stagnation *Generativity*- Adults' desire to leave legacies of themselves to the next generation ->Developed in a number of ways -Biological generativity -Parental generativity -Work generativity -Cultural generativity
What does Erikson's theory suggest about socioemotional development in late adulthood? Be able to name his 8 stages.
Erikson's theory -Integrity versus despair: Involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent -Life review - Looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, and interpreting/reinterpreting them -Reminiscences for pleasure, for self-understanding, to solve present problems -Reminiscence therapy - Discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group -Integrative reminiscences: help people resolve old conflicts and reconcile disappointments and disparity between memories and reality. Leads to acceptance. -Instrumental reminiscences: facilitate coping -Escapist reminiscences "glorify" past memories -Obsessive reminiscences emphasize the negative; lead to guilt, bitterness, despair -Well-being and a positive view of ageing are project factors against the negative effects of age on the organism. AGEISM.
Fowler's theory is derived from Erikson and Piaget: what parallels do you see with Piaget? What does Fowler say about faith development in young adulthood (individuative-reflective faith)? What do you agree with about his ideas and what do you disagree with?
Fowler's Stages of Faith Development Stage 0 - Primal-Undifferentiated Stage 1 - Intuitive-Projective Faith Stage 2 - Mythic-Literal faith Stage 3 - Synthetic-Conventional faith (12-18) Stage 4 - Individuative-Reflective faith (mid 20s - late 30s) Stage 5 - Conjunctive faith (mid-life crisis) Stage 6 - Universalizing Faith
Why are more grandparents becoming parents the second time around?
Grandparent relationships Three grandparenting styles 1. Formal 2. Fun-seeking 3. Distant-figure Grandparent roles and styles -Three prominent meanings -Source of biological reward and continuity -Source of emotional self-fulfillment -Remote role
Is there a midlife crisis? What generally brings one own?
How pervasive are midlife crises? The 40s are a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about the adolescent and adult years Only a minority of adults experience a midlife crisis
When are marriages most happy?
Love and marriage at midlife -Security, loyalty, and mutual emotional interest are more important in middle adulthood -Most married individuals are satisfied with their marriages during midlife -Divorce in middle adulthood may be more positive in some ways, more negative in others
Summarize the major demographic trends revealed by the population pyramids.
More people. World population has passed the 7 billion mark. More people are old. More people are old-old (or very old). People are delaying marriage. The divorce rate is not the highest it has ever been. Some stabilization in the US. Peaked at 50% in the 80s and 90s. Later marriage is helping the divorce rate. United States has tenth highest divorce rate (behind France, Cuba, Estonia, Luxembourg, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary, Portugal, Belgium has 71% divorce rate!) 67% of second marriages and 75% of third marriages end in divorce. "Alternative" families are now the norm.
Who are the people who adjust best to retirement?
Older adults who adjust best to retirement are: -Healthy -Active and have adequate income -Better educated -Have extended social networks and family -Satisfied with their lives before retiring -Flexible and plan key factors
What are the major physical changes in middle adulthood?
Physical changes *Visible signs* -Wrinkling -aging spots -Hair thinner and grayer -Nails thicker and more brittle -Teeth yellow -lose height and gain weight -> Being overweight is a critical health problem *Strength, joints, and bones* -Sarcopenia - Age-related loss of muscle mass and strength -> Cushions for bone movement become less efficient -> Leads to joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement -Progressive bone loss *Vision and hearing* -Accommodation of the eye - Ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina -Experiences sharp declines between 40-59 years -Difficulty viewing close objects -Reduced blood supply decreases visual field -Hearing can start to decline by the age of 40 -> High-pitched sounds are typically lost first *Cardiovascular system* -High blood pressure, high cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease -Metabolic syndrome: Hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance -Exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can often help *Lungs* -Lung tissue becomes less elastic at about age 55, decreasing the lung's capacity *Sleep* -Wakeful periods become more frequent in the 40's -Sleep-disordered breathing and restless legs syndrome
What is successful aging? What shifts does Robert Peck see?
Robert Peck: Aging is a gradual process that starts in middle adulthood Middle Adulthood -*Valuing wisdom* vs. valuing physical powers -*Socializing* vs. sexualizing in human relationships -*Emotional flexibility* vs. emotional impoverishment -*Mental flexibility* vs. mental rigidity Late Adulthood -*Broader self-definition* vs. preoccupation with work roles -*Transcendence of the body* vs. preoccupation with the body -*Transcendence of the ego* vs. preoccupation with the
What is ageism and how can it be minimized?
Stereotyping older adults *Ageism*: Prejudice against others because of their age Policy issues in an aging society -Status of the economy - Concern is that U.S. economy cannot bear the burden of older persons who are generally consumers -Health care - Older adults increases the health care cost considerably -Eldercare: Physical and emotional caretaking for older members of the family
How does self-esteem change across the life span and what is the role of possible selves in this change?
Tends to decline significantly in the seventies and eighties because of: -Being widowed, institutionalized, or physically impaired -Having a low religious commitment -Declining health
What does it mean to "use it or lose it"? What abilities does it apply to?
Use it or lose it -Mental activities can benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills -Reading books, doing crossword puzzles, going to lectures and concerts Mental exercise may: -Reduce cognitive decline -Lower the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease
Why is perceived control so important for longevity?
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