Psych Final Exam
agoraphobia
"fear of the marketplace"... fear of situations in which it may be difficult to escape if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack
Heart disease symptoms
"silent killer" -> asymptomatic, agina (chest pain),
Phallic
(3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings... fixation can lead to Oedipus complex or penis envy
Event Schema
(cognitive script) - a set of routine or automatic behaviors... can change among cultures and dictate behavior
Genital
(puberty on) maturation of sexual interests, fixation can result in
1) Trust vs. mistrust
- 0 to 1 year - child will come to trust his environment as well as himself - if mistrust wins, the child will be suspicious of the world
Prenatal Development - Germinal Stage
- first 2 weeks -Mitosis - the fertilized ovum is called a zygote
Teratogen examples
-Alcohol - FAS -Smoking - premature birth, low birth weight -Drugs
Stressor
"Threatening Events"
The Misinformation Effect Study (1974) (Loftus Study)
Asked college students to estimate the speed of cars using different questions, used different words (smashed, hit, bumped) to see if different words influenced participants response... found that implied meaning of a word used influenced the participants memory of the accident
Neuron Firing
At resting potential, Na+ (blue pentagons) is more highly concentrated outside the cell in the extracellular fluid (shown in blue), whereas K+ (purple squares) is more highly concentrated near the membrane in the cytoplasm or intracellular fluid. Other molecules, such as chloride ions (yellow circles) and negatively charged proteins (brown squares), help contribute to a positive net charge in the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge in the intracellular fluid.
Ego
Attempts to balance the id with the super ego, operates on reality principle
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis... psychosexual theory -> believed that childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults, development is discontinuous. unconscious drives influenced by sex, aggression, and childhood sexuality influence personality
Oral
0-1 years, pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing... Fixation- smoking, overeating, nail biting
Anal
1 to 3 years, erogenous zone is bowel and bladder control. If fixated, anal-expulsive (messy, wasteful, or destructive) or anal-retentive (stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive)
2 different visual pathways
1) "What" pathway: - object recognition and identification 2) "Where/How" pathway: - location in space, how one might interact with a particular visual stimulus
Social Learning Theory
1) Attention - focus on the behavior 2) Retention - remember what you observed 3) Reproduction - be able to perform the behavior 4) Motivation - must want to copy the behavior
PTSD Cognitive Theory
1) Disturbances in memory for event 2) Negative appraisals of the trauma and its after math
2 personality dimensions
1) Extroversion/Introversion 2) Neuroticism/Stability
Manic Episode symptoms
1) Flight of Ideas: abruptly switching from one topic to another 2) Grandiosity: Inflated but unjustified self esteem and confidence
How to acquire phobias...
1) Learning (classic conditioning) 2) Vicarious Learning (modeling... seeing someone fear something) 3) Verbal Transmission... hearing how "bad" something is
3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety
1) Moving toward people 2) Moving against people 3) Moving away from people
3 fundamental Social Tasks (Alder)
1) Occupational Tasks 2) Societal Tasks 3) Love Tasks
Why does Prejudice occur?
1) People are treated according to expectation 2) People learn prejudiced attitudes and conform to social norms 3) Self- Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true 4) Confirmation Bias 5)Influence people to act to stereotypical expectations
Process of Scientific Research
1) Scientists form ideas (theories & hypothesis) through deductive reasoning 2) Hypotheses are tested through empirical observations, then conclusions are formed through inductive reasoning
Types of Encoding
1) Semantic Encoding (words and meanings) 2) Visual Encoding (images) 3) Acoustic Encoding (sounds)
Factors affecting Perception
1) Sensory Adaptations (not perceiving stimulus that remain constant) 2) Attention (Inattentional Blindness) 3) Motivation (signal detection theory) 4) Beliefs, values, prejudices, and expectations 5) Life/Cultural Expectations
Auditory Transduction
1) Sound along auditory canal -> tympanic membrane 2) vibration of tympanic membrane-> movement of 3 ossicles (stapes->oval window of cochlea 3) Fluid in cochlea moves-> stimulates hair cells 4) Hair cells->neural impulses->auditory nerve-> brain
Brain Imaging
1) Techniques involving radiation - CT Scan, PET Scan 2) Techniques involving magnetic fields - MRI, FMRI 3) Techniques involving electrical activity - EEG
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1-3 years Develop a sense of independence in many tasks
Requirements for healthy attachment
1. caregiver must be responsive to child's physical, social, and emotional needs 2. caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions
5. Identity vs. confusion
12-18, experiment with and develop identity and roles.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
19-29, Establish intimacy and relationships with others.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
3-6, take initiative on some activities... develop guilt when unsuccessful
Prenatal Development - Embryonic Stage
3-8 weeks, zygote splits into 150 cells and travels down fallopian tubes and becomes embryo
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
30-64, contribute to society and be a part of a family
Latent
6-puberty, sexual feelings are inactive superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed, if fixated... immaturity and inability to form relationships
8. Integrity vs. Despair
65+, Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
7-11, Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.
Prenatal Development - Fetal Stage
9-40 weeks, the baby's brain develops and the body adds size and weight until the fetus reaches full term devlopment
10 personality disorders cluster in 3 groups...
A - odd or eccentric, PS= paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal B - impulse or erratic, PS = Antisocial, narcissistic, borderline, histrionic C - nervous and fearful, PS = avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
Phoneme
A basic sound unit (ah, eh)
Locus of Control
A belief about the amount of control a person has over situations in their life.
Attribution
A belief about the cause of a result... locus of control, stability, controllability
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner... organism learns to associate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
John B. Watson
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Recall
Being able to access information without cues... used for an essay test
Recognition
Being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again... multiple choice test
Just world hypothesis
Belief that people get the outcomes they deserve
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.
Social Norm
A group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members... how they are supposed to behave and think
Dysgraphia
A learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting.
Persona
A mask that we consciously adopt
Schema
A mental construct of a collection of related concepts
major depressive disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food)
Mary Ainsworth Strange Situation Test
A parent-infant "separation and reunion" procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment... identified 4 styles of attachment
permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
Social Roles
A pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting . Typically defined by culturally shared knowledge and can change on the setting
Obsession
A persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring
Scripts
A person's knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a setting... i.e. how you act on the first day of school or in an elevator
Cognitive Dissonance
A psychological discomfort arising from holding 2 or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions... i.e. smoking/addiction
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
A scale of major life events over the past year, each of which is assigned a point value. The higher the score, the greater the chance of having a serious medical event.
uninvolved parenting
A style of parenting in which the parents minimize both the time they spend with their children and their emotional involvement with them and provide for their children's basic needs, but little else.
Representative Sample
A subset of the population that accurately represents the general population
Short-term memory/working memory
A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory information... usually lasts 20 seconds
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
A theory that sees love as having three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment
Motor Skills
Ability to move our body and manipulate objects
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
G.A.S. 2) Stage of Resistance
Body has adapted to stressor... remains alert though (long)
G.A.S. 1) Alarm Reaction
Body's immediate response, analogous to fight or flight (short)
Depression Medication
Boosts serotonin and norepinephrine
GABA (Neurotransmitter)
Brain Function, sleep.... decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
Also where dopamine is produced... mood, reward, addiction
panic disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations, and accelerated heart rate .
Higher-Order Conditioning
An established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being present
Types of Psychophysiological Disorders
Cardiovascular (hypertension and coronary heart disease_, Gastrointestinal (IBS), Respiratory (asthma and allergies), Musculoskeletal (low back pain and tension headaches), and Skin (acne, eczema, and psoriasis)
Accomadation
Change schemata based on new information
Signal Detection Theory
Changes in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state
Compassionate Love
Characteristics of close friendships and family relationships
Neo-Freudians
Childhood experiences matter, less emphasis on sex, focused on social environment and effects of culture on personality
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning: dogs
Carl Jung
Analytical Psychology, Collective Unconscious and archetypes, extroversion vs. introversion
major depressive disorder symptoms
Anhedonia, fatigue, sleep disturbances, changes in appetite, feelings of hopelessness or worthlessness, persistent thoughts of death or suicide, inability to concentrate or make decisions, change in physical activity, psychomotor agitation (figity)
Psychosocial theory
Erik Erikson's theory that emphasized the social nature of development... personality develops across the lifespan
The International Classification of Diseases
Examines general health of a POPULATION to monitor health internationally. Primarily focuses on clinical diagnosis (DSM = Research)
Stroop Effect
Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors. (Sensory Memory)
Ambient Pressure
External factor that causes stress
Mania
Extreme euphoric states, extreme physical activity, excessive talkativeness
Inattentional blindness
Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of lack of attention
Figure-Ground (Gestalt Principle)
Figure- The focus of the visual field Ground- the background ... we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground
Margaret Floy Washburn
First female to receive a doctorate in psychology
Partial Reinforcement Scales
Fixed vs Variable Interval vs Ratio
Piaget
Focused on childhood cognitive development and theorized cognitive abilities develop through specific stages... children develop schemata
Gestalt Psychology
Focuses on humans as a whole rather than individual parts
Behaviorism
Focuses on observing and controlling behavior ... pavlov, koffka, kohler
Clinical/Case Studies
Focuses on one individual
Individual Psychology (Alfred Alder)
Focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority, social motive is force behind thoughts, placed emphasis on social connections
Memory Errors
Forgetting: 1) Transience - Accessibility of memory decreases over time (storage decay) 2) Absent Mindedness- Forgetting caused by lapses in attention 3) Blocking - Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked Distortion: 4) Misattribution- Source of memory id confused 5) Suggestibility 6) Bias Intrusion: 7) Persistence- inability to forget undesirable memories
Temporal Theory
Frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron
William James
Functionalism
Multiple Intelligences theory
Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence... lingusitc, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
Survey
Gather large amounts of data from a sample from a larger population
Causes of Schizophrenia
Genetic factors, Dopamine Hypothesis (too many dopamine receptors are responsible for the onset and maintenance of schizophrenia), Brain Anatomy (enlarged ventricles), events during pregnancy (marijuana, obsteric complications during birth, exposure to influenza)
Norming
Giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups
Schizophrenia Main symptoms:
Hallucinations (perceptual experience occurring in the absence of an external stimulus, delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized/abnormal motor behaviors (catatonic behaviors- decreased reactivity to environment), negative symptoms
Cerbreal Cortex
Higher level processing, broken into 4 lobes, surface of the brain
Noam Chomsky
Cognitive Revolution, need to incorporate mental functioning into focus... also proposed that the mechanisms underlying language are biologically determined
Opponent-Process Theory
Color is coded in pairs black-white yellow-blue green-red
inductive reasoning
Conclusions are drawn from observations (small thought -> applied to all observations)
Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment
Conducted by Phillip Zimbardo, demonstrated the power of social norms, roles, and scripts on human behavior. 700 men volunteered-> 24 mentally fit. Guards were rude to prisoners... study had to conclude.
elaboration likelihood model
Considers variables of the attitude change approach. Considers Central Route and Peripheral Route
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Constant pattern of inattention/hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning
Trial and Error
Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved
Medulla (Hindbrain)
Controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
seasonal affective disorder
Controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during winter months and improved mood during spring.
Wilhelm Wundt
Credited as a founder of psychology. Emphasized structuralism, understanding structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection... suggested personality could be described using 2 major axis: Emotional/nonemotional and changeable/unchangeable
Collectivistic Culture
Culture that focuses on communal relationships. Less likely to commit the F.A.E.
Artificial Concept
Defined by a specific set of characteristics (squares, triangles)
Stress
Demanding or threatening event
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Description of disorders, diagnostic features, diagnostic criteria, prevalence rate, and risk factors
Ruffini Corpuscles
Detect stretch
Place Theory
Different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies
Raymond Cattell
Divided intelligence into fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence and looked at how they change throughout the lifespan
Seligman experiment
Dogs received shocks and jumped to the side with no shocks. They then electrocuted both sides -> Learned Helplessness
Antagnonist
Drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter
Emotion-Focused Coping
Efforts to reduce negative emotion ties with stress (unlikely to change)
Humanism
Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
Why do we forget?
Encoding Failure (never stored in the first place)
Effortful Processing
Encoding of details that takes time and effort
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
In the early 1900's, Alfred Binet created an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school
Harlow's monkey experiment (Attachment)
In this experiment The wire surrogate "mother" provides the food for this infant rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all its time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate. According to Harlow, this demonstrates the importance of contact comfort in attachment.
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions.
Functional Fixedness
Inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for
Anterograde Amnesia (NO NEW INFO)
Inability to remember new information after point of trauma
Assimilation
Incorporates information into existing chemata
social facilitation
Individual performs with audience better than alone. Associated with skilled and practiced tasks. More skilled -> Better Performance
Marshmallow Study
Kids who resisted the temptation to eat marshmallows later had more success in school and socially
Semantic Memory
Knowledge about words, concepts, and language (knowing who the president is)
Biological Perspective of Psychological Disorders
Largely valid and accepted, most disorders do have genetic components. States that genes, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities influence personality disorders.
Karl Lashley and Engrams
Lashely was searching for evidence of an engram (a group of neurons that serve as the "physical representation of memory")... unsuccessful in finding anything
Habituation
Learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change
Relearning
Learning information that you previously learned
Anatomy of the Visual System
Light waves (cornea-> pupil)... pupil/iris... lens-> fovea (part of retina) -> Optic Nerve -> Brain
central route
Logic driven, uses data and facts to convince people of an arguements worthiness.
Perception of Color
Longer wavelengths = reds Intermediate wavelengths = greens Shorter wavelengths = blues and violets
Depersonalization Disorder
Loss of attachment from oneself
Functional Magnetic resonance imaging
MRI that show changes in metabolic activity over time
Schizophrenia
Major disturbances in thought emotion, and behavior
Role schema
Make assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave
Career options for a Psychology degree...
Management positions, sales, social work, human resources, administrative positions, insurance/ real estate, business, marketing, healthcare, finance
Causes of OCD
Moderately genetic, neurotransmitters (seratonin, dopamine, glutamate), hyperactive orbitofrontal cortex (involved in learning and decision making)
Dopamine (Neurotransmitter)
Mood, sleep, learning... increased pleasure, suppressed appetite
Serotonin (Neurotransmitter)
Mood, sleep... modulated mood, suppressed appetite
Reflexes
Motor/Neural Reactions to a specific stimulus
Acetylcholine (Neurotransmitter)
Muscle action and memory... increased arousal, enhanced cognition
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature - intelligence is inherited from parents Nurture- intelligence is shaped by a child's developmental environment... combination of both
Prejudice
Negative Attitude and feeling toward an individual based soley on one's membership to a particular social group.
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
Neo-Freudian who found psychoanalysis negatively biased toward women and believed cultural variables are the foundation of personality development, 3 styles of coping
Retroactive Interference (FORGET OLD)
New information hinders recall of old information
Rods
Night time vision, best in low light conditions, sensitive, perception in movement and peripheral vision, located in periphery of the retina
Attitude
Our evaluation of a person/idea/object
obsessice-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Overlapping disorders that involve intrusive thoughts, and repetitive behaviors
Extended release of cortisol can lead to...
PTSD, Depression, etc.
romantic love
Passion and intimacy with little commitnment
Amplitude
Peak to trough
Informational Social Influence
People conform because they believe the group is competent / has the correct info
normative social influence
People conform to the group norm to fit in/ be accepted
Hoarding Disorder
Persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value
Early Adulthood (20s-40s)
Physical abilities such as muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output reach their peak
positive affect
Pleasant emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest. Can be brief or long
Blind Spot
Point of no receptors where information exits the eye
Operant Conditioning Terminology
Positive - to add something Negative - to take something away Reinforcement - Increasing a behavior Punishment - Decreasing a behavior
Body Dismorphic DIsorder
Preoccupation with imagined or exaggerated defects in physical appearance
Introspection
Processes by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break into its component parts
Critical Period
Proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life
Aaron Beck
Proposed depressed people have depressed schemas. Depressed schemas contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, and worthlessness
To form relationships...
Proximity and Similarity are needed
Dispositionism
Human behavior is determined by internal factors.
Abraham Maslow
Humanism / Hierarchy of Needs, healthy, creative, and productive people tend to share similar characteristics
Carl Rogers
Humanism... client centered therapy... ideal self (person you would like to be) vs. real self (person you actually are)
Light Waves
Humans can see wavelengths ranging from 380-740nm
problem-focused coping
Identifying a stressor then selecting an alternative (controllable)
Equipotentiality Hypothesis
If part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part if the same area can take over that memory function
Wernicke's Area (Temporal Lobe)
Important for speech comprehension. Damage can lead to difficulty in understanding language.
Sucking Reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth
Secondary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that have no inherent value (praise, money)
Thalamus
Relay center of brain
Rumination
Repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressed symptoms rather than ignoring them.
Cognitive Development - 9-12 months
Respond to verbal requests
Triarchic theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions
Endomorph
Round and heavy body type... relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, sociable
psychoanalytic theory
SIGMUND FREUD focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior
PET Scan
Shows activity in different parts if the brain. Injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance
Deindividuation
Situations in which a person may feel a sense of anonymity and therefore a reduction in accountability and sense of self when among others
Late Adulthood (60+)
Skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, muscle strength diminishes, smell, taste, hearing, vision decline
Social Strain Theory
Social relationships are strained... negative attitudes create social strain
Sensory Receptors
Specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli
stereotype
Specific belief or assumption about individuals based soley on their membership in a group, regardless of individual characteristics
Algorithm
Step-by-step problem-solving formula
Order of Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination
Stereotype -> Prejudice -> Discrimination
Procedural Memory
Stores information about how to do things (skills and actions, how to ride a bike, how to drive)
Agonist
Strengthens or mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter
Arousal Theory
Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories
Ebbinghaus (1885)
Studied the process of memorization... 50% after 20 minutes, 70% after 24 hours
Self-Serving Bias
Tendency to explain our successes due to internal (dispositional) characteristics, but explain our failures due to external factors
Anchoring Bias
Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Behavioral Inhibition
Tendency to show fear when presented with an unfamiliar situation
Prenatal Influences
Teratogen - any environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
The skinner box
To study operant conditioning, Skinner placed animals in an operant conditioning chamber. Lever that when pressed causes food to be dispensed as a reward
Memory Consolidation
Transfer of short term memory to long term memory
Stressor Examples
Traumatic Events, Life Changes, Hassles, Job-Related Stress
PTSD Conditioning Theory
Traumatic event (UCS) -> extreme fear and anxiety (UCR) + Traumatic reminders (CS) -> extreme fear and anxiety (CR)
Anatomy of the Auditory System
The ear is divided into 3 divisions: Outer - pinna and tympanic membrane Middle - the three ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes Inner - cochlea and basilar membrane
Flynn Effect
The idea that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last
Acquisition
The initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Just Noticable Difference Threshold
The minimum difference in stimuli required to detect a change or a difference between stimuli
Group Think
The modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus
Persuasion
The process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication
Spontaneous Recovery
The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
Grammar
The set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon
Morpheme
The smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning
Self-Reference Effect
The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
The Halo Effect
The tendency to let the overall impression of an individual color the way in which we feel about their chararcter
Lexicon
The words of a given language
Hippocrates
Theorized personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids ('humors of the body')
Antisocial personality disorder
lack of regard for other's feelings symptoms: do illegal activities, lying, impulsive, reckless, irritable, aggressive, lack of remorse, superficial charm More common in males, mainly genetic based
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) risk factors
lack of social support, trauma, life stress, female gender, low socioeconomic status, childhood adversity, family history
hippocampus (Limbic System)
learning and memory, associated with explicit memory... Patient H.M. - both temporal lobes were removed (including hippocampi) to help control seizures, declarative memory was significantly effected
Observational learning
learning by observing others
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it
threshold of excitation
level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active.... Na+ rushes into the cell, becoming more positive
Self Eficacy
level of confidence in our own abilities
Derealization Disorder
loss of attachment from the world and its surroundings
Retrograde Amnesia (NO OLD INFO)
loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged
Central Trait
make up our personality
Issues to consider in research
manipulating variables, ethics
wavelength
measured from peak to peak
Normative Approach
measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development
Limbic System
mediates emotional response and memory. Made up of Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus
Depolarization
membrane potential becomes less negative making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation).
Hyperpolarization
membrane potential becomes more negative making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition)
Explicit (declarative) Memory
memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/declare... include semantic and episodic
Implicit Memory
memories that are not part of our consciousness, formed through behaviors... procedural memory
Glutamate (Neurotransmitter)
memory, learning... increased learning , enhanced memory
unconscious
mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to access
Supernatural Perspectives of Psychological Disorders
mental disorders are supernaturally occurring. People were possessed with black magic or spirits. Also Dancing Mania - people began randomly dancing and claimed to see demons
absolute threshold
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
Bipolar Disorder
mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes
Asian Cultures
more collectivist, tend to be less extroverted
DSM-5 (cont.)
most used by mental health professionals, provides information about comorbidity
Gross motor skills
motor skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as walking
Discrimination
negative actions toward individuals as a result of their membership in a particular group
difficult temperament
negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change and regulating emotions
distress
negative stress
Pruning Period
neural connections are reduced during childhood and adolescence to allow the brain to function more efficiently
Blooming Period
neural pathways form thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood
Wechsler adult intelligence scale
new IQ test, tapped into verbal/nonverbal skills and is widely used... tests verbal comprehension, visual spatial, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
correlation coefficient
number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r
Frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period... expressed in hertz (Hz)
naturalistic behavior
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Archival Research
uses past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships
Importance of research
validation of claims, tangible evidence, prove certainty,
ectomorph
very think and skinny... anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet
genetic environmental correlation
view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes
continuous development
view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills (adding inches to your height each year)
discontinuous development
view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages
cultural expectations
violating cultural expectations is NOT a way of identifying psychological disorders
Sensory Systems
vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, balance, body position, movement, pain, temperature
Perception
way the sensory information is interpreted, organized, and consciously experienced
Continuity (Gestalt Principle)
we are more likely to perceive things overlapping rather than unconnected pieces
social exchange theory
we help others when the benefits to ourselves are likely to outweigh the costs. Examining the costs and benefits of forming and maintaining relationships
Classic Conditioning
we learn to associate stimuli and anticipate events... conditioned(learned) and unconditioned (unlearned) response... dog and bells
Shaping
we reward successive approximations of a target behavior
justification of effort
we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into (rewarding item)
Closure (Gestalt Principle)
we will perceive something as whole rather than a series of segments
Dependent Variable
what is measured to see the effect of the independent variable
Associative Learning
when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
Observer Bias
when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations
Encoding
when the brain receives information from the environment... 1)it labels it 2)organizes it with other similar information 3) Connects new concepts through 2 types of processing
substantia nigra
where dopamine is produced... control of movement
Optic Chasm
where optic never merges from both eye
Lymphocytes
white blood cells that circulate in the body's fluid... stress leads to less lymphocytes being produced
Most suceptible to traumatic events
women, non-whites, lower socioeconomic groups
Job Strain
work situation involving the combination of excessive job demands and workload with little decision making or job control
Sensorimotor (0-2)
world experienced through senses and actions, D.I. Object permanance and stranger anxiety
generalized anxiety disorder causes
worry represents a mental strategy to avoid other emotions, worrying acts as a distraction, child maltreatment, mostly... genetic
Stages of Language Development
~0-18 months: First Words ~18-24 months: Simple sentences ~2-5 years: Complex sentences
Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)
•Physical decline is gradual. •Skin loses elasticity (wrinkles form). •Visual acuity decreases. •Women experience menopause. •Men and women both tend to gain weight. •Hair begins to thin and turn gray.
Thermoception
temperature perception
Europeans
tend to score higher on neuroticism
Central and South American Cultures
tend to score higher on openness to experience
homphily
tendency for people to form social networks
negative affectivity
tendency to experience negative emotions and moods, feel distressed, and be critical of oneself and others
Confirmation bias
tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs
availability heuristic
tendency to make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision
Representative Bias
tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or something
Hypothesis
tentative and testable statement about the relationship between 2 or more variable -predicts how world will behave if correct - usually if-then - is falsifiable
Object Permanance (Piaget)
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
learned helplessness theory
the belief that one has no control over one's situation based on past experience
percieved control
the belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes
Prototype
the best example or representation of a concept... i.e Gandhi being a prototype for the category of civil disobedience
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
the biological system responsible for the stress response. Hypothalamus alerts pituitary gland which alerts the adrenal glands (cortisol is released)
General Adaptation Syndrome
the body's nonspecific physiological response to stress... 3 stages
Comorbidity
the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information to be remembered
Five Factor Model
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Depth Perception
our ability to perceive spatial relationships in 3D
Population
overall group of individuals that the researcher is interested in
Beta-Endorphin (Neurotransmitter)
pain, pleasure... decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Secure Base
parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety
authoritative parenting
parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making
participant bias
participant expectations skew the results of the study
Choleric (yellow bile)
passionate, ambitious, and bold
archetypes
patterns that exist in our collective unconscious cultures/societies
Selective Migration
people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs
placebo effect
people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation
Proprioception
perception of body position
Kinesthesia
perception of the body's movement through space
Projective Tests
personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind
self-report inventories
personality tests that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior
foot-in-the-door technique
persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one
fight or flight response
the initial reaction of the body to stress. Uses sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system
Fine motor skills
physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. Physical symptoms: small head size & abnormal facial features Cognitive: Poor judgement, poor impulse control, ADHD, learning issues, low IQ
job burnout
physical and mental exhaustion from work stress
Frequency of Soundwaves
pitch... High frequency = high-pitched sound Low frequency = low-pitched sound
Motor Cortex (Frontal Lobe)
planning and coordinates movement (FL)
secondary traits
the less obvious and less consistent traits
elements of happiness
pleasant life (daily pleasures) , good life (using skills for enrichment), meaningful life (contributing to greater good)
easy temperament
positive emotions, adapt well to change, and capable of regulating emotions
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Id
primitive urges, impulsive, operates on "pleasure principle"
Vicarious Punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
Vicarious Reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
Amygdala (Limbic System)
processes fear, and associated with fear memories
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
Franz Gall
proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities
Standardization
the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent
Sematics
the meaning we derive from morphemes and words
Treatment of ADHD
psychostimulants, helps narrow focus
2 dimensions of temperament
reactivity and self-regulation
False Memory Syndrome
recall of false autobiographical memories
Electroencephalography (EEG)
recording of the electrical activity of the brain
Sublimation
redirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels
reaction formation
reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs
Attrition
reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time
Denial
refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant
Broca's Area (Frontal Lobe)
region in left hemisphere essential for language production. Damage to broca's can lead to difficulties producing language (FL)
hypothalmus (limbic system)
regulates homeostasis
Reticular Formation (Midbrain)
regulates sleep/wake cycle
Ways to enhance memory
rehearsal, chunking (organizing into manageable bits), elaborative rehearsal (technique in which you think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory), Mnemonic Device
Fixed Ratio
reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (factory workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured). (eyeglass saleswoman)
Variable Ratio
reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling). (gambler)
Fixed Interval
reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (patients take pain relief medication at set times) (Surgery Patient)
Variable Interval
reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (checking facebook). (restaurant manager)
Primary reinforcers
reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities (food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure)
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Correlation
relationship between two or more variables... if they are correlated one variable changes as the other does
Somatic Nervous System
relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS
Binocular Cues
relies on both of our eyes... binocular disparity refers to the different view of the world that each eye receives
Monocular Cues
relies on one eye, uses... 1) Linear Perspective - when 2 parallel lines seem to converge 2) Interposition - the partial overlap of objects
Experimenter Bias
researcher expectations skew the results of the study
single-blind study
researcher knows participants in experimental group/control group, but participants do not
double-blind study
researchers and participants are blind to group assignments
melancholic (black bile)
reserved, anxious, and unhappy
Merkel's Disks
respond to light pressure
Meisnerr's corpuscles
respond to pressure and lower frequency vibrations
Pacinian corpuscles
respond to transient pressure and high frequency vibrations
Fixed
responses are set and unchanging
Variable
responses vary and change
prefrontal cortex (Frontal Lobe)
responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning... involved in remembering semantic tasks, encoding + retrieval
deductive reasoning
results are predicted based on a general premise. (Large Observation -> Small conclusion)
Regression
returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development
self-discolsure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Ratio
schedule is based in number of responses between reinforcements
Interval
schedule is based on time between reinforcements
Psychopathology
scientific study of psychological disorders
Adrenal Gland
secretes hormones involved in stress response
pancreas
secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar
gonad
secretes sex hormones
Thyroid
secretes thyroxine, regulates growth, metabolism, and appetite
illusory correlation
seeing relationships between 2 things when in reality no such relationship exists
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Neuron
semipermeable membrane allows smaller molecules to pass through, incoming electrical signals received by dendrites which send signal down axon
Cognition
senses and information are received by our brains, filtered through emotions and memories, and processed to become thoughts
Parietal Lobe
sensory and perceptual information, contains somatosensory cortex (processes sensory information)
Nociception
sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain
Pituitary Gland (Endocrine System)
serves as the master gland, controls secretion of other glands
Baddely and Hitch Model
short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received
Resistant Attachment
show clingy behavior, but then reject mothers attempts to interact with them. Child did not explore the toys, became extremely disturbed and angry when mother left, were difficult to comfort when mother returned. Common when caregiver is inconsistent with level of response.
disorganized attachment
show odd behavior around caregiver Behaved oddly when mother left, tried to run away when mother returned common in abused children
CT Scan
shows brain tumors, involves x-rays passing through densities within the brain
Inflammatory pain
signals some type of tissue damage
Reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us
partial reinforcement
the organism does not get reinforced every time they display the desired behavior
American Psychological Association (APA) definition of a psychological disorder
significant disturbances in thought, feelings, and behaviors
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
Interaural timing difference
small difference in the time at which a given sound arrives at each ear
Psychology
the scientific study of the mind and behavior
Positive Punishment
something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. - Scolding a student for texting in class.
positive reinforcement
something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior (High grades, paychecks, praise)
Negative Punishment
something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (taking a toy away when a child misbehaves)
Negative Reinforcement
something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior. (The beeping sound that will only go away when you put your seatbelt on.)
Interaural level difference
sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear
negative symptoms
specific schizophrenic symptoms 1) Avolition - lack of motivation 2) Alogia - reduced speech 3) Asociality - Social withdrawl 4) Anhedonia - removal of the expression of pleasure
Psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
Neutral Stimulus
stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell - does not cause salvation itself prior to conditioning) ... NS and UCS are paired repeatedly
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Sensory Memory
storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes... stored for seconds
Group Polarization
strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within the group. Greater observation in social media. Stronger endorsement when backed by group
Auditory cortex (Temporal Lobe)
strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information
Mood Disorders (Bipolar and Depression) are...
strongly genetic, in depression high levels of cortisol are present, in both: imbalances in neurotransmitters... norepinephrine and serotonin
Longitudinal Research
studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time
Epigenetics
study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes
Dissociative Amnesia
Unable to recall personal information due to trauma
Concrete Operational (7-11)
Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations. D.I. Conversation and Math
Structuralism
Understanding the conscious experience through introspection
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
Preoperational (2-6)
Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning. D.I. Pretend Play, Egocentrism, Language Development
Participants
subjects of psychological research
Random Sample
subset of a population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Sample
subset of individuals selected from the larger population
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
Baillargeon (1987) study
Very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects.
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Repression
suppressing painful memories and thoughts
Theory
Well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
dissociative identity disorder
When a person exhibits 2 or more separate personalities/identities
stimulus generalization
When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination
When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar
Bottom-Up Processing
system in which perception are built from sensory input (sensory input-> perception)
Transactional Model of Hostility
the thoughts and feelings of a hostile person promote antagonistic behavior toward others which in turn reinforces complimentary reactions from others thereby intensifying ones' hostile disposition and intensifying the cyclical nature
Situationism
the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
syntax
the way words are organized into sentences
Figure 15.4 indicates that...
Women are higher in DSM disorders... women are more likely to open up about mental health than men
Type A
Workaholic, always has a deadline, more competitive... more likely to develop heart disease
Rooting Reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
Cardinal Trait
a characteristic or feature that is so pervasive the person is almost identified with it
Persistant Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
a chronic form of unipolar depression marked by ongoing and repeated symptoms of either major or mild depression
Autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind, vaccines do not cause autism
outgroup
a group that one does not belong to or identify with
Flow
a particular experience so worthwhile and engaging that it becomes worth doing for its own sake
Mesomorph
a person with a compact and muscular body build... adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless
inferiority complex (Alfred Alder)
a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society
bystander effect
a phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress
Flash Bulb Memory
a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations
Secure Attachment
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
The Endocrine System
a series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal bodily functions. Hypothalamus links nervous system and pituitary gland
Chronic Stressor
a source of stress that occurs continuously or repeatedly
Acute Stressor
a stressful situation or circumstance that happens in the short term and has a definite endpoint
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
collective unconscious
a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us
Freudian Slip
a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion
Vestibular Sense
ability to balance and posture
Creativity
ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities
Convergent Thinking
ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem
emotional intelligence
ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others
Validity
accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure... does the test measure what it is supposed to measure
crystallized intelligence
acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it... knowing facts
Scapegoating
act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
Misinformation Effect
after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event
Factors connected to happiness
age, family, social relationships, married people, not money... GDP, employed/educated, religion/culture
instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal
hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury
Trichromatic theory of color
all colors can be produced by combining red, green, and blue
Random assignment
all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories (flashbacks), nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
Action Potential
an electrical signal... acts on all or none principle
Proximity (Gestalt Principle)
things that are close together tend to be grouped
similarity (Gestalt Principle)
things that are similar tend to be grouped together
Divergent Thinking
thinking "outside the box"... used when more than one possibility exists on a situation
Cognitive Development - 6-11 years
thinking becomes more logical and organized, understand past, present, and future, can plan and work towards goals, understand cause and effect relationships
peripheral route
an indirect rule that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with a message
Grasping Reflex
an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand
heart disease
any disease of the heart muscle or other working parts of the heart
Traumatic Event
any event that has a stressful impact sufficient to overwhelm your normal coping strategies
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
peripartum onset (postpartum depression)
applies to women who experience major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth of their child
Mental Sets
approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past
diagnosis
appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms
socioemotional selectivity theory
as we get older, our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years.
Displacement
transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target
Range of Reaction
asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall
Temporal Lobe
associated with memory, hearing, emotion, and some aspects of language . Contains auditory cortex and wernicke's area
parasympathetic nervous system
associated with routine day to day operations of the body under relaxed conditions
Occipital Lobe
associated with visual processing. contains visual cortex
Projection
attributing unacceptable desires to others
Moro Reflex
baby spreads arms and pulls them back in when they feel startled/ fell as if they are falling
Gestalt Psychology
based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts, consists of different principles
Instincts
behaviors triggered by a broader range of events... more complex than reflexes
grandiose delusions
beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important
somatic delusions
believes that his body is changing in an unusual way, such as growing a third arm
Phlegmatic (White phlegm)
calm, reliable, thoughtful
Cognitive Development - 6-9 Months
can shake their head no
Concept
categories of linguistic information, images, ideas or memories (i.e. idea of justice or types of birds)
Etiology
cause of disease
Neuropathic pain
caused by damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system
Cause and effect relationship
changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design
borderline perosnality disorder
characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships symptoms: intense and unstable relationships, unstable view of self, reckless
Pheromones
chemical messages sent by another individual... used by species to communicate
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Psychosexual Theory (Freud)
childhood experiences shape our personalities, lack of proper nurturance and parenting during stages lead to a child becoming fixated in that stage
Cognitive Development - 3-5 years
children learning counting, coloring , basic time concepts, time sequencing, enjoy pretend play
locus of
cognitive processes (beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics), behavior, and context all interact
Hopelessness Theory
cognitive theory of depression proposing that a style of thinking that perceives negative life events as having stable and global causes leads to a sense of hopelessness and then to depression
Cognitive Development - 8 months
understand object permenance
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals.
Cross-Sectional Research
compares multiple segments of a population at a single time... i.e. age groups
compulsion
compelling; strong desire that is difficult to control; irresistible impulse... in response to obsession
Pons (Hindbrain)
connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep
Reliability
consistency of measurement... would you get the same results every time?
Hindbrain
consists of Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum
Midbrain
consists of reticular formation, substantial nigra, and ventral tegmental area
Forebrain
contains cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and limbic system
Bipolar Medication
contains lithium... which blocks norepinephrine activity at the synapses
Afterimage
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
Long-Term Memory
continuous storage of information, broken into explicit and implicit memory
Autonomic nervous system
controls internal organs and glands that can be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
Cerebellum (Hindbrain)
controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, important in processing of memory... procedural memories (i.e. how to play the piano) and classical conditioning
Natural Concept
created "naturally" through either direct or indirect experience... i.e. snow
Charles Spearman
creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept
As we age...
crystalized intelligence (information, skills, strategies gathered through experience) remains steady or improves Fluid Intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory) begins to decline
avoidant attachment
unresponsive to parent when present, no distress when she leaves, react to stranger similar as to parent, slow to greet parent when she returns, ~20% show this pattern in the U.S.
Cones (Photoreceptors)
daytime vision, works best in light, high acuity color information, located in fovea
Coping
dealing with problems and troubles in an effective way
Extinction
decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
The Case of Genie
deprived of language until 13 years of age
Operational definition
description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variable and manipulate the independent variables
Superego
develops through interactions with others, learning rules for right and wrong, strives for perfection
psychological disorder
deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors... ATYPICAL
Inattention Signs
difficulty in tasks, failure to follow instructions, disorganization, lack of attention to detail, being easily distracted
Dissociative Fugue
disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity
Personality Disorders
display personality styles different from expectations of their culture
Type B
easygoing, relaxed people
how to reduce prejudice
education, contact, interactions, and building relationships
Suggestability
effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
affective forecasting
efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events
Psychosocial development
emotions, personality, and social relationships
Automatic Processing
encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words... done without conscious awareness
Memory process
encoding, storage, retrieval
Conductive hearing loss
environmental factors that lead to hearing loss
social psychology
examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation
Reuptake
excess neurotransmitters in the synapse either drift away, are broken down, or are reabsorbed. movement of a neurotransmitter from the synapse back to the axon terminal from which it was released
Hyperactivity Signs
excessive movement, fidgeting, failure to remain seated
Frontal Lobe
executive functioning, motor control, emotion, language. contains motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, and Broca's area
Stress reduction techniques
exercise, meditation, relaxation, biofeedback (electronic equipment to measure neuromuscular and anatomic activity)
Dual Attitudes Model
explicit attitudes (conscious and controllable), and implicit attitudes and (unconscious and uncontrollable) ... typically implicit is stronger
Biopsychology
explores the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior
specific phobia
extensive fear for a specific object/person
social anxiety disorder
extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others. These people typically perform safety behaviors.
Congenital Deafness
failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles, hearing aids, caused by age, genetics environmental effects
Sensorineural Hearing loss
failure to transmit neural signals from cochlea to brain
Functionalism
focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment
Formal Operational (12+)
formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning. D.I. Abstract logic, moral reasoning
Heuristic
general problem-solving framework... i.e working backwards- begin the problem by focusing on the end result
Cause of ADHD
genetics with some evironment maybe
Biopsychology studies...
genetics, structure and function of nervous system, nervous system x endocrine system
In Group
group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
Norepinephrine (Neurotransmitter)
heart, intestines, alertness... increased arousal, suppressed appetite
Defense mechanisms
used by ego to restore balance between the id and superego
Hypertension
higher than normal blood pressure (blood pumps harder)
Lawrence Kohlberg
identified three stages of moral development
immunosuppression
immune system breaks down and is unable to do its job
Dyslexia
impairment of the ability to read
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
individual asked to make up a story about each of a series of ambiguous drawings
Rorschach inkblot test
individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's unconscious feelings and struggles
Immanuel Kant
individuals could be categorized into one of 4 temperaments and developed a list of traits to describe the temperaments
Bowlby and attachment theory
infants and caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments
Independent Variable
influenced/ controlled by experimenter... difference between control/experimental
Episodic Memory
information about events we have personally experienced (your fifth birthday party, the who, where, when of an event
Temperament
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment
The Diathesis-Stress Model
integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder
Top-Down Processing
interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts.
paranoid delusions
involve the false belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
involved in stress-related activities and functions; prepares for fight or flight
Egocentric Bias
involves enhancing our memories of the past
Stereotypical Bias
involves racial and gender biases
sanguine (red blood)
joyful, eager, and optimistic
Secondary Appraisal
judgment of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness
Rationalization
justifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons
Internal Factors
An attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperament
Primary Appraisal
judgement about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail
Little Albert
John B. Watsons classical conditioning experiment on a baby that caused the baby to fear of the stimulus alone
Harmful Dysfunction
Occurs when an internal mechanism (cognition, perception, and learning) breaks down and can no longer perform its normal function.
Sensation
Occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli... energy detected converted into action potential
Proactive Interference (FORGET NEW)
Old information hinders recall of new information
Fluid Intelligence
The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems... knowing how to do something
Retreival
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. 3 ways to retrieve information -> recall, recognition, relearning
Conditioned Response (CR)
The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus (Bell (CS) -> Salivation (CR))
How can Cognitive Dissonance be removed?
1) Changing Discrepant Behavior 2) Changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial 3) Adding a new Cognition
individualistic culture
A culture that focuses on individual achievement. A person's disposition is an explanation for their behavior. People of individualistic cultures commit the highest F.A.E.
Eustress
A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal
Implicit Association Test
Acts for "In group", confirms subconscious racial bias
G.A.S. 3) Stage of Exhaustion
Body no longer adapts to stressor and the stress takes a toll in the organism
How people bully
Boys: Physical... Girls: Social
Physiological effects of stress
elevated heart rate, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, pupils dilating, muscles tense, sweat, quickened respiration
Cognitive Effect of stress
Difficulty making decisions
Consummate Love
Healthy relationship, has intimacy, passion, and commitment
The effect of Initiation
Idea that difficult initiation influences us to like the group more
Walter Cannon
Identified body's reaction to stress and fight or flight response
Actor-Observer Bias
Phenomenon of attributing people's behavior to internal factors while attributing our own behavior to situational forces.
fundamental attribution error
Tending to fail to recognize when the behavior of another is due to situational variables and thus to a person's state
Hans Selye
Tested the effect of stress on mice and observed their responses... General Adaptation Syndrome
Yale Attitude Change Approach
The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the message, and the nature of the audience
heart disease risk factors
aging, education, income, employment, unhealthy diet, tobacco, etc.
fatuous love
passion + commitment
Stanley Milgram's Experiment
tested obedience to an authoritative figure. The "shocking experiment".
Asch Effect
the influence of the group majority on an individual's judgement. Some influences can be the size of the majority, presence of another dissenter, public/private nature of response
health psychology
the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health
Social Loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
