Psych Final!!
2 main anxiety disorders of children
"school phobia" and generalized anxiety disorder
Gray matter volume peaks in the temporal lobes at age...
16 for both boys and girls (due to language development)
more than 7 in 10 girls in the united stated have been pregnant at least once before age
20!!!
older women in the United States outnumber older men by nearly
3 to 2 (this disparity increases with advancing age)
brains in children with ADHD tend to grow in a normal patters, but the process is delayed by about _____________ years in certain areas of the brain (especially the frontal cortex)
3!
puberty generally lasts
3-4 years (begins at about age 8 in girls and age 9 in boys)
in 2011, birthrates for teens dropped to their lowest yet...
313 per 1,000 women ages 15-19 years old
percentage of girls in the United States that are concerned about their weight at the age of 11
47%
categorization: seriation
arranging objects in a series according to one or more dimensions (children become increasingly better at seriation for dimensions such as time- earliest to latest- length- shortest to longest- and color- lightest to darkest)
outcomes for girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia
as children, girls have female gender identity but tomboyish behavior (high energy expenditure play); as adults, decreased sexual interest and below average engagement in heterosexual relationships (confounding factors)
ages of the development of conservation
at age 7 or 8- conservation of matter; ages 8-9 correctly solving conservation of weight tasks; before age 12 can preform tasks involving conservation of volume displacement
amount of children and adolescents that have diagnosed mental disturbances severe enough to cause impairment
at least 1 in 10 children
gender identity
awareness of one's femaleness or maleness and all it implies in one's society of origin (important aspect of the developing self-concept)
sexual identity
awareness of sexuality is an important aspect of identity formation (seeing oneself as a sexual being, recognizing one's sexual orientation and feeling romantic/sexual attachments)
Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy- gender stability
awareness that gender does not change (children base gender judgments on superficial appearances and stereotyped behaviors
why writing so difficult for young children
because it requires a child to judge independently whether the communicative goal has been met; child must also keep in mind a variety of other constraints (spelling, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization, as well as the basic physical task of forming letters)
during adolescence a person's sexual orientation generally,
becomes more clear (teens may hold varying identity statuses as they form their sexual identity)
socialization begins
before a conscious understanding of gender forms (gradually children no longer need praise or a model to act in socially appropriate ways; in addition children feel good when they live up to their internal standards and bad when they do not
secular trend of timing of puberty
beginning about 100 years ago, a drop in ages when puberty begins and when young people reach adult and sexual maturity (across U.S.; Western Europe and Japan) *healthier, better nourished and better cared for children might be expected to mature earlier and grow bigger
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development- Social learning approach
behavioral feedback!! aka children acquire gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior (models can be their parents and other adults along with peers); gender behavior precedes gender knowledge *criticisms- how can children differentiate between boys and girls before they have a concept of gender? what initially motivates children to acquire gender knowledge?
adverse health effects of childhood obesity
behavioral problems, depression, low self-esteem, and falling behind in physical and social functioning *also puts child at increased risk for high blood pressure, high cholesterol, high insulin and childhood diabetes
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- solitary independent play
child plays alone with toys that are different from those used by nearby children and makes no effort to get close to them
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- cooperative/organized/supplementary play
child plays in a group organized for some goal- to make something, play a formal game, or dramatize a situation; one or two children control who belongs to the group and direct activities; by a division of labor, children take on different role and supplement each other's efforts
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- parallel play
child plays independently but among the other children, plays with toys like the ones used by other children but not necessarily playing with them in the same way; plays BESIDE rather than with that other children (parallel player does not try to influence the other children's play)
play and imagination are essential for the development of...
cognitive and socio-emotional skils
2 ways to classify children's play
cognitive complexity and social dimension
in a randomized study of children with ADHD, a combination of behavior modification with what combined with it was more effective than just just behavior modifications
combination with Ritalin (but caused slower growth in height and weight)
one out of seven people with recurrent depressive disorder
commits suicide
Parten's social dimensions of play- imaginary companions
common type of dramatic play, normal phenomenon seen most often in firstborn/only children; more likely with girls than with boys; children can still distinguish between fantasy and reality; play more imaginatively than other children and do not lack friends
during middle childhood, children gauge their abilities more realistically and gain a clearer sense of self-efficacy by
comparing themselves with others their age
decoding words
complicated/difficult skill used to remember the distinctive features of letters, recognize the different phonemes by breaking down words into their constituent parts
age where children enter Piaget's concrete operational stage of development (and can therefore use mental operations- like reasoning- to solve concrete problems)
about age 7; children can begin to think logically (take multiple aspects of a situation into account; thinking will still be limited to real situations in the here and now)
children are more apt to follow their parents' wishes when they believe their parents
are fair and concerned about their welfare and that they may "know better"; parents who enjoy being with their children tend to raise children who feel good about themselves and about their parents
children adopted in infancy...
are least likely to have adjustment problems (but may suffer problems during middle childhood or adolescence, when they become more aware of differences in ways families are formed
adolescents who believe their parents disapprove of smoking
are less likely to smoke (and having an alcoholic parent significantly increases the risk of early alcohol use and later alcohol problems)
isolated symptoms of eating disorders (binge eating, purging or fasting)...
are more common than the disorders themselves
expressions of disappointment
are more effective in motivating responsible behavior than is harsh punishment
well-liked preschoolers/kindergarteners are those who
are rated by parents and teachers as socially competent
Kohlberg's moral reasoning: post conventional mortality (level 3)
people recognize conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgements on the basis of principles of right, fairness and justice (people generally do not reach this level of moral reasoning until at least early adolescence or more commonly in young adulthood, if ever)
in middle childhood self-esteem becomes more realistic because of...
personal evaluations of competence based on the internalization of parental and societal standards that begin to shape and maintain self worth
in encouraging weight concerns, parental attitudes and media images
play a greater part than peer influences
social criterion of diagnosing a mental disorder
psychopathology is whatever a particular society defines as deviated (considerations are situational context and cultural relativity)
effective short term treatment of depression
psychotherapy (effects last no more than a year)
young people's growing autonomy and the shrinking areas of perceived authority
redefine the types of behavior adolescents are expected to disclose to
Language development in middle childhood
consists of vocabulary (grows during the school years), grammar and syntax (becomes more sophisticated with age)
the relatively few deeply troubled adolescents tend to come from disrupted families and as adults,
continue to have unstable family lives and reject cultural norms
Mildred B. Parten (1932)
contributed to the idea of the social dimension of play; thought that as children get older their play becomes more social, interactive and more cooperative (at first, children play alone, then alongside other children, then finally together) *children of all ages also engage in all of patron's categories of play
parenting issues that arise during middle childhood tend to stem from the shift from
control to co-regulation (control of behavior shifts from parents to child gradually during this stage)
developmental crisis people face during adolescence thought by Erickson
crisis of identity versus identity confusion
Asian American children's strong scholastic achievement seems to be explained by their...
cultural emphasis on obedience and respect for elders (importance Asian American parents place on education as a route to upward mobility and the devotion of Asian American students to hw and studying)
sexuality is a biologically driven process with
culturally defined expressions
Aggression in middle childhood
declines and changes in form during the early school years (after age 6/7 most children become less aggressive because they grow less egocentric, and more empathetic, cooperative and better able to communicate)
during middle childhood, friendships...
deepen and become more stable in middle childhood, reflecting cognitive and emotional growth (girls tend to have fewer, more intimate friendships than boys)
adolescent girls (especially those who mature early) are more likely than boys to be
depressed (could be due to biological changes connected with puberty, the way their socialized that causes increased stress in a relationship, anxiety, abuse and neglect, a history of depression and body-image problems and eating disturbances)
the whole-language approach to learning how to read/write
emphasizes visual retrieval and the use of context cues; children can learn to read and write naturally, much as they learn to understand and use speech; uses visual based retrieval (child looks at the word and then retrieves it); children learn to read with more enjoyment
best way to encourage sharing (a type of prosocial behavior) among children
encourage young children to take turns (concrete behavior) rather than share (more abstract concept)
European industrialized countries have provided universal, comprehensive sex education for a much longer time than the United States which
encourage young teenagers to delay intercourse but also aim to improve contraceptive use among sexually active adolescents
birth complications can also play a role in ADHD
especially prematurity, alcohol or tobacco use of mother and oxygen deprivation
Literacy
established once a child can translate marks on a page into patterns of sound and meaning (can also develop increasingly sophisticated strategies too understand what they read) *can use written words to express ideas, thoughts and feelings
socialization: peer influences
even in early childhood, peer group is major influence on gender-typing (influence of the peer group increases with age); children who play in same-sex groups tend to be more gender-typed than children who do not; play choices strongly influenced by peers
criticisms of the social learning theory of gender development
examines multiplicity of processes; very complex (difficult to establish clear casual connections between the way children are raised and the way they think and act- aspects of home and peer culture that promote gender typing? parents/peers treat boys and girls differently bc they are different or bc culture says they should be different? differential treatment produce or reflect gender differences?)
separation anxiety disorder
excessive anxiety for at least 4 weeks concerning separation from home or from people whom the child is attached (impacts about 4% of children and young adolescents; children often come from close-knit, caring families)
socialization: family influences
experiences in the family reinforce gender-typical preferences and attitudes (boys tend to be more gender-socialized concerning play preferences than girls- ex. fathers feeling discomfort if a boy plays with a doll than if a girl plays with a truck)
socioeconomic status affects educational achievement through its influence on...
family atmosphere, choice of neighborhood, parenting practices and on parents' expectations for children
primary sources of social influences on gender
family, peer and cultural
most effective treatment for depressed adolescents might be combination of
fluoxetine (SSRI) and cognitive behavioral therapy
recess also benefits children due to...
improving motor skills and promoting health benefits (active children tend to become active adults
the gender gap between men and women in life expectancy is widest
in high-income industrialized nations (due to improvements in prenatal and obstetric care)
time in development where rough/tumble play peaks
in middle childhood (boys engage in higher levels of it than girls)
at age 13 or 14 popular adolescents may engage
in mildly antisocial behavior to demonstrate to their peers their independence from parental rules
Development in middle childhood: executive skills (number and mathematics)
includes developing attention span/selective attention; working memory; metamemory and mnemonics
physiological definition of discipline
includes punishment, techniques such as rewarding desired behaviors and drawing attention to how actions affect others *discipline is a powerful tool for socialization with the goal of developing self-discipline
role of body fat in triggering puberty
increase in obesity among young girls could lead to earlier puberty
influence of older siblings and their friends tends to...
increase the likelihood of tobacco and alcohol use
short term effects of amphetamines
increased vigor and stamina, wakefulness, decreased appetite and feelings of euphoria
Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning suggests the reasoning underlying a person's response to a moral dilemma
indicates the stage of moral development (two people who give opposite answers may be at the same stage if their reasoning is based on similar factors)
type of aggression most frequently used by girls
indirect social aggression (aka relational aggression) *can be damaging/interfere with relationships, reputation and psychological well being; examples are teasing, manipulation and ostracism
diagnosis of mental disorders in children is important because these disorders can
lead to psychiatric disorders in adulthood (half of all mental disorders begin by age 14)
8 types of intelligence suggested by: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial (all are also measured by IQ test); along with bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, interpersonal and naturalistic (suggests that all of these intelligences are independent of one another)
Gray matter (closely packed cell bodies and dendrites of neurons in the cerebral cortex) in middle childhood brain development experiences...
loss in density (maturational change that reflects the pruning of unused dendrites- connections that are used remain active, the unused connections disappear/ brain becomes "tuned" to the experiences of the child)
when foreign adoptees reach adolescence they may experience feelings of
loss of their native culture and grow in awareness of racism and discrimination in their adopted culture
peer rejection and friendlessness in middle childhood may have long-term negative effects such as
low self-esteem in young adulthood and showing signs of depression
changes in gray matter in adolescent brain
major increase in gray matter in the frontal lobes begins around puberty (after growth spurt, however, the density of gray matter declines particularly in the prefrontal cortex; unused synapses are pruned)
inductive reasoning
making observations about particular members of a class and drawing conclusions about the class as a whole (tentative because it is always possible to come across new information)
evolutionary approach: gender development
male competitiveness/ aggressiveness and female nurturance develop as preparation for their adult roles; girls also tend to be better at controlling/inhibiting their emotions and refraining from impulsive behavior bc while caring for children they will often need to put a child's needs and feelings ahead of their own
which of these two methods of teaching are recommended with teaching a child how to read
many experts suggest a blend of both methods (pulling the best features from each approach); this way children can learn phonetic skills along with strategies to help them understand what they read (may be drilled in sound-letter correspondences and may also be asked to memorize certain common words) *children who can summon both visually based and phonetic strategies become better readers
criticisms/evaluation of piaget's theory
many late adolescents and adults (1/3 or 1/2) seem incapable of abstract thought *suggests Neo-piggetian research (when children/adolescents are asked to reason within the context of familiar situations or objects they perform at higher levels; prior knowledge also affects their ability to reason formally)
the cognitive control network...
matures gradually into early adulthood and involves the prefrontal cortices
gonadarche
maturing of the sex hormones (triggers a second burst of DHEA production) *girls ovaries increase their output of estrogen *boys testes increase the production of androgens, especially testosterone these hormones stimulate the growth of genitals, body hair, and muscle mass (for boys)
evolutionary approaches are not deterministic
meaning that gender roles are not preordained and are flexible (ex men can care for children and women can be aggressive); evolution biases sexes in one direction or another that can be minimized or maximized by cultural and environmental influences
discipline
methods of molding character and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior
criticism of Baumrind's model
model suggests there is one "right" way to raise a child; Baumrind's findings are correlatinal (not causation); does not consider innate factors (temperament)
Kohlberg came to believe that moral development was a consequence of
moral reasoning that depended heavily on cognitive development (he also believed that moral reasoning was fundamentally concerned with sound reasoning about PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE)
through friendships, children learn...
moral values and gender-role norms
our self descriptions tend to get _________ accurate with age
more (however adults still tend to overestimate their positive qualities)
family influence in socialization and gender development- division of labor in a household matters!!
parents who adhere to traditional gender schemas are more likely to have strongly gender-typed children; fathers engaged in household and child care is associated with decreased gender-typing
bullies are at increased risk of
participating in delinquency, crime and alcohol abuse (physical bulling declines with age but other forms increase at ages 11-15)
hospitalization is recommended during adolescence when
patient does not respond to outpatient treatment, has substance dependence, psychiatric problems (hallucinations and delusions) and suicidal ideation or attempts
psychiatric diagnoses rely on
patient's description of symptoms, examiner's observations, detailed natural history (course of the illness over time) and the response to treatment
negative effects of peer relations
peer groups can reinforce prejudice and foster antisocial tendencies
increased amounts of children/adolescent suicide in the U.S. through 2002 has resulted in
reductions in the use/prescription of SSRIs (however, this reduction in prescriptions have led to increased rates of suicide among this age group) *SSRI medication might outweigh the risks (adding to fluoxetine therapy could enhance the safety of medication therapy)
factors that affect prosocial behavior: relationships
relationships with siblings, peers, and teachers can also model/reinforce prosocial behavior
evolutionary theory of aging
reproductive fitness is the primary aim of natural selection (if trait favoring reproductive output in the young is present, it will be spread throughout the population; energy resources are allocated to protect and maintain the body until reproduction but not necessarily after)
suicide emergency warning signs
require someone to call 911 or seek immediate help from a mental health provider if someone threatens to hurt/kill themselves, someone is looking for ways to kill themselves (seeking access to pills, weapons, or other means) and someone talking or writing about death, dying or suicide
type of language girls tend to use more during early childhood
responsive language (such as praise, agreement, acknowledgment and elaboration)
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
results from girls having high prenatal levels of androgens; causing them to develop ambiguous sex organs (intersex appearance); can be treated with surgery and androgen blockers
First stage of moral reasoning (ages 2-7)
rigid obedience to authority; young children cannot imagine that there is more than one way of looking at a moral issue; they also believe that rules cannot be bent or changed, behavior is either right or wrong and that any offense deserves punishment, regardless of intent
type of self-esteem held by children who become demoralized when they fail and attribute poor performance to their personality deficiencies (believe they are helpless to change)
success continent self-esteem
as infants of teen mothers age, they tend to...
suffer from developmental/academic problems, be depressed, engage in substance abuse and early sexual activity, engage in gang activity, be unemployed and to become adolescent parents themselves
for people 15-35 years old in the United States...
suicide is the 2nd leading cause of death; suicide is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States
adolescents who resolve the identity crisis satisfactorily develop the virtue of fidelity or
sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of belonging to a loved one, friends or companions (also, identification with a set of values, an ideology, a religion, political movement or ethnic group)
self-concept
system of descriptive and evaluative representations about the self that determines how we feel about ourselves and guides our actions
by preschool age children can...
talk about their feelings and read the feelings of others; they also know that experiences can elicit emotions and they understand that people are happy when they get something they want
external reinforcement
tangible (treats, playtime); intangible (smile, praise); child must perceive the reinforcement as rewarding; the reinforcement must also be received fairly consistently after the desired behavior
socialization: cultural influences
television (major format for the transmission of gender stereotypes) *along with movies and children books (other sources of gender stereotypes)
disruptive conduct disorders
temper tantrums and defiant, argumentative, hostile or deliberately annoying behavior common among 4 and 5 year olds (typically outgrown by middle childhood because children get better at controlling these behaviors)
prosocial children
tend to act appropriately in social situations; be relatively free from negative emotion and core with problems constructively
children who are low in effortful control of emotional self- regulation
tend to become visibly angry/frustrated when interrupted or prevented from doing something they want to do (cannot hide signals; higher risk for later behavioral problems)
the small minority of children who do not learn to control physical aggression
tend to have social and psychological problems; however, aggressive boys tend to increase in social status by the end of fifth grade
those raised in homes with a positive family atmosphere tend to come through adolescents with no serious problems and as adults,
tend to have solid marriages and lead well-adjusted lives
cases such as these (congenital adrenal hyperplasia and ambiguous sexual organs/cloacal exstrophy) suggest...
that gender identity is rooted in biological factors and is not easily changed
brain development in middle childhood impact structure and functioning
that results in faster and more efficient information processing (and an increased ability to ignore distracting information)
Development in middle childhood: causality
the ability to make judgements about cause and effect (improves as children age); older children from ages 5-12 tend to better predict how balance scales work
categorization: class inclusion
the ability to see the relationship between a whole and its parts (and to understand the categories within a whole
most important people in young children's worlds
the adults who take care of them
life expectancy
the age to which a person born at certain time an place is statistically likely to live, given his or her current age and health status
area of the brain involved with strong emotional reactions
the amygdala (matures faster than the prefrontal cortex)
changes in white and grey matter in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex in the adolescent brain
the areas of the brain involved with feeling strong emotions (amygdala) matures prior to the area that is responsible for making thoughtful decisions (prefrontal cortex)
senescence
the decline in body functioning associated with aging
amphetamine blocks...
the dopamine transporter (DAT) which prevents then reuptake of DA
relationships with parents during adolescence are grounded in
the emotional closeness developed in childhood (and adolescent relationships with parents, in turn, set the stage for the quality of the relationship with a partner in adulthood)
DHEA influences
the growth of pubic, axillary and facial hair; contributes to faster body growth, oilier skin and body odor
children with high self-esteem tend to have parents and teachers who give specific, focused feedback rather than...
those who criticize the child as a person
prosocial moratorium
time-out period during which young people take on adult responsibilities but are not fully independent (ideal time for the development of identity)
adolescence is a time
to figure out exactly who you are
parents of young adolescents must strike a delicate balance between
too much freedom and too much intrusiveness (arguments most often concern over everyday personal matters such as chores, schoolwork, dress, money, curfews, dating and friends)
the phonetic (code-emphasis) approach to learning to read/write
traditional approach; child sounds out word, translating it from print to speech before retrieval from long term memory; child must master phonetic code that matches alphabet; involves rigorous, teacher-directed tasks focused on memorizing sound-letter correspondences
T/F girls and women tend to do better than boys and men on timed tests
true
T/F recovery rates from bulimia are a bit better than anorexia patients
true (average 30-50% recovery after cognitive behavioral therapy)
T/F girls tend to do better in school than boys
true (they receive better grades, on average, in every subject, are less likely to repeat grades, have fewer school problems, and outperform boys in national reading/writing assessments)
T/F alcohol/drug use and sexual activity are more likely to lead to depression in girls than boys
true!
T/F brain imaging research shows a moderate correlation between brain size (or amount of gray matter) and general intelligence (and especially reasoning and problem solving abilities)
true!
T/F there is no evidence that IQ differences among ethnic, cultural or racial groups are hereditary
true!
T/F dyslexia is more common in boys than girls, tends to run in families and can cause problems with writing, spelling, grammar, understanding speech, and reading
true!! *people with dyslexia also tend to not develop phonological awareness and have difficulty breaking speech sounds into their constituent parts!!
recognizing that adolescence may be a difficult time can help parents and teachers put
trying behavior in perspective
Kohlberg's moral reasoning: pre conventional mortality (level 1)
typical of children ages 4-10; people act under external controls (they obey rules to avoid punishment or reap rewards, or they can act out of self-interest)
Kohlberg's moral reasoning: conventional morality (level 2)
typically reached after age 10; people have internalized the standards of authority figures and are concerned with being "good", pleasing others and maintaining social orders (many people never move beyond it, even in adulthood)
age differences related to fear
young children are more likely to be frightened by something that looks scary than by something actually capable of doing great harm; some children's fears are more realistic (being kidnapped) and self-evaluative (failing a test)
how gender schemas promote gender stereotypes
by influencing judgements about behavior
60% of legal adoptions are
by stepparents or relatives (usually grandparents)
when/how should a punishment be administered
calmly, in private, and aimed at eliciting compliance not guilt (most effective when accompanied by a short, simple explanation)
Parten's dimensions of play- solitary play
can signify shyness, anxiety, tearfulness, or social rejection (or it can be normal)
an important aspect of individuation is
carving out boundaries of control between self and parents (may entail family conflict)
Development in middle childhood: categorization
categorization involves a series of abilities (including seriation, transitive inferences and class inclusion)
Second stage of moral reasoning (ages 7/8- 10/11)
characterized by increasing flexibility; as children age they develop their own sense of justice based on fairness or equal treatment for all; they can consider more than one aspect of a situation
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- unoccupied behavior
child does not seem to be playing but watches anything of momentary interest
other intelligence theories (other than IQ) that suggest that there is more to intelligence than just the abilities that allow children to do well in schooling
*Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences *Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence
statistical criterion of diagnosing a mental disorder
*psychological variables are normally distributed in the population (psychopathology is everything that deviates from normality!) *the elements that constitute psychopathology are present in normality (psychopathology is an excess or defect of normal psychological traits)
highest/lowest ethnic groups/genders to commit suicide in adolescence
*Native American boys are at highest rates *African American girls are at the lowest
common fears in children
*animals, especially dogs (2-4 year olds) *the dark (by age 6) other common fears: thunderstorm, doctors and imaginary creatures
changes that occur during adolescent growth spurt
*boys become larger overall (shoulders wider, legs longer relative to trunk, and forearms longer relative to his upper arms and height) *girl's pelvis widen and layers of fat accumulate under the skin (more rapidly in girls than boys)
three elements of sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence
*componential element *experiential element *contextual element (focuses on the processes involved in intelligent behavior; and believes that everyone has these three abilities to a greater or lesser extent- people can also be strong in one, two or all three)
the two aspects that understanding of a disease is based on
*etiological factors (microbes, toxins, or genetic risks) *pathogenesis (mechanisms by which etiologic agents produce disease) however, the etiology and pathogenesis of most mental disorders have not been determined yet
cognitive levels of play
*functional *constructive *dramatic *games with rules CERTAIN TYPES OF PLAY MORE COMMON AT PARTICULAR AGES
70% of suicides
*have depressive disorder and have seen their primary care physician within 6 weeks of suicide
parental behaviors related to aggression of child
*insecure attachment/lack of maternal warmth and affection (indication in infancy that can predict aggressiveness in early childhood) *manipulative behaviors (such as withdrawal of love and making a child feel guilty or ashamed; may foster social aggression in child) parents can moderate the effects of frustration by modeling nonaggressive behavior!!
2 main methods of learning to read/write
*phonetic (code-emphasis) approach *whole-language approach
Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning
*preconventional mortality (level 1) *conventional mortality (level 2) *postconventional mortality (level 3)
prosocial behavior: three preferences for sharing resources
*preference to share with close relations *reciprocity (preference to share with people who have shared with you) *indirect reciprocity (preference to share with people who share with others)
T/F overweight children often suffer emotionally and may compensate by indulging themselves with treats
True!!
evaluations/criticisms of Kohlberg's theory
*some children can reason flexibility about such issues as early as age 6 *people who have achieved a high level of cognitive development do not always reach a comparably high level of moral development (certain level of cognitive development is NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT for comparable level of moral development *not always a clear relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior *generally more advanced adolescents in moral reasoning do tend to be more moral in their behavior and better adjusted and higher in social competence (antisocial adolescents tends to use less mature moral reasoning)
advances that occur in selected cognitive abilities during middle childhood
*spatial thinking *cause and effect thinking *categorization *Seriation and transitive inference *conservation *inductive and deductive reasoning *number and mathematics
gender differences can be valid for large groups of boys and girls
but not for individuals
Three steps of neo-piagetian analysis regarding changes in self-definition
1. single representations (age 4) 2. Representational mappings (ages 5-6) 3. Representational systems (middle childhood)
three social groupings of older adults
1. young old (65 to 74); usually active, vital and vigorous 2. the old old (ages 75-84) 3. the oldest old (age 85 and above) more likely to be frail and infirm, more likely to have difficulty managing activities of daily living and consume a disproportionate number of resources)
Gray matter volume in parietal lobes peaks at age...
11 for girls; 12 for boys (represents spatial understanding)
three interrelated aspects of gender identity (that cause boys and girls to meet differing experiences and social expectations from birth)
1. Gender roles 2. Gender-typing 3. Gender stereotypes
three stages of gender constancy (according to Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory)
1. gender identity 2. stability 3. consistency
Three main categories of discipline
1. inductive techniques 2. power assertion 3. withdrawal of love
percentage of children that use alcohol among 8th, 10th and 12th graders
11% of U.S. 8th graders; 27% of U.S. 10th graders and 42% of 12th graders
at age 15?
62%
Gray matter volume in the caudate peaks at age...
7 for girls; 10 for boys (this change in volume is due to the control of movement and muscle tone and mediates higher cognitive functions, attention and emotional states)
eating disorders are less frequent among
African Americans in the United States
development of playmates/friends- age when children start to develop friendships
Age 3; toddlers play alongside each other up until that point
when children reach the third stage of self-concept development
Age 7-8 (middle childhood); judgements about self become more conscious, realistic, BALANCED, and comprehensive
T/F schooling seems to increase tested intelligence
True; children whose school entrance was significantly delayed lost as many as 5 IQ points each year (some of these losses were never recovered); IQ scores also drop during summer vacation!!
style of parenting that enhances children's social competence
Authoritative parenting; they set sensible expectations and realistic standards with clear and consistent rules to let children know what is expected of them
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development- cognitive approach (2 theories)
Kohlberg's cognitive- development theory and the gender-schema theory
Three steps of neo-piagetian analysis regarding changes in self-definition: Stage 1- Single Representations (age 4)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL representations about the self; impossibility to consider different self dimensions at the same time (all-or-nothing and one emotion at a time); cannot acknowledge that the REAL SELF is not the same as the IDEAL SELF (b/c failure of conservation)
Moral reasoning (according to Piaget)
Piaget suggested that moral development occurs in three stages (and that children move gradually from one stage to another, at varying ages)
some children with ODD may later be diagnosed with...
a conduct disorder (persistent, repetitive pattern of aggressive, antisocial acts such as truancy, setting fires, habitual lying, fighting, bullying, theft, vandalism, assaults and drug or alcohol use)
T/F African American and Mexican American girls generally enter puberty earlier than white girls
TRUE! (by 7 years old 15% of hispanic girls, 23.4% of African American girls but only 10.4% of white girls
T/F scores on IQ tests taken during middle childhood are fairly good predictors of school achievement and more reliable than IQ scores measured during preschool years
TRUEE
T/F sex segregation is common among preschoolers and becomes more prevalent in middle school and is universal across cultures
True
T/F: ADHD is often manage with drugs, sometimes combined with behavioral therapy, counseling training in social skills and special classroom placement
True
T/F children learn more from being reinforced for good behavior than recieving punishment for bad behavior
True (times when punishment is necessary is if child runs out into traffic or hits another child and should be consistent, immediate and clearly tied to the offense)
cloacal exstrophy
XY born with functional testes but without penises (neonatally are reassigned to the female sex and are raised as girls)
in recent years there has been a rise in life expectancy
a baby born in the United States in 2010 can expect to live to 78.7 years old (which is 29 years longer than a baby born in 1900 and more than 4 times longer than a baby born at the dawn of human history)
puberty results from
a cascade of hormonal responses (hypothalamus releases elevated levels of GnRH; which then stimulates pituitary to release more luteinizing hormone/LH and follicle-stimulating hormone/FSH) *in girls FSH leads to menstruation *in boys LH initiates the release of testosterone and androstenedione
the search for identity as described by Erikson
a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values and beliefs to which the person is solidly committed
primary aging
a gradual inevitable process of bodily deterioration that continues through the years of irrespective of what people do to starve it off (aging is an unavoidable consequence of getting older; natural process governed by BIOLOGY)
homosexuality was once considered
a mental disorder
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence: contextual element
ability to decide what actions are most appropriate for a given situation
prevalence of eating disorders among high-school and college-aged women
about 1% for anorexia nervosa and up to 4% for bulimia nervosa
how many preschoolers, kindergarteners and first graders show a "learned helplessness" pattern (causing children to oftentimes feel ashamed and give up or not bother to try)
about 1/3-1/2
mortality rates among anorexia patient
about 10% of cases (however, less than half of the surviving anorexia patients make a full recovery- 1/3 improve, 20% remain chronically ill)
people with bulimia are not usually overweight
but they are obsessed with their weight and shape (they also tend to have low-self esteem and may become overwhelmed with shame, self-contempt, depression)
risk factors for eating disorders
accepting society's attitudes about thinness, being a perfectionist, being female, experiencing childhood obesity, feeling increased concern/attention to weight and shape; having eating/gastrointestinal problems during early childhood, having a family history of addictions or eating disorders, having parents who are concerned about their weight/weight loss and having a negative self image
an important component of pregnancy prevention in European countries is
access to reproductive services (contraceptives are provided free to adolescents in many countries)
from first grade through at least fourth grade, interest, attention and active participation are positively associated with...
achievement test scores and teachers' marks/evaluations
gender-typing
acquisition of a gender role (that takes place during early childhood); can vary greatly in degree among children
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development- the psychoanalytic approach
acquisition of gender identity involves the identification with the parent of the same sex; identification occurs when the wish to possess the parent of the opposite gender is repressed and the child adopts the characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviors of the parent of the same sex (difficult to test theory- little to no research to support it)
recess is beneficial for children's development due to...
activities promote growth and agility along with social competence and fostering the adjustment of kids to school
piaget's stage of formal operations
adolescence enter highest level of cognitive development; they move away from their reliance on concrete, real world stimuli and develop capacity for ABSTRACT THOUGHT (can use symbols to represent other symbols-can learn algebra and calculus! better appreciate the hidden messages in metaphor and allegory, can think in terms of what might be, not just what is and imagine possibilities and form/test hypotheses!)
eating disorders have onset during
adolescence or young adulthood (anorexia typically has an earlier onset-early teens- than bulimia nervosa-usually early 20s)
2 stages of puberty
adrenarche and gonadarche
age where boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls (in all cultures studied)
age 2!
age when children generally play in sex-segregated groups that reinforce gender-typed behavior
age 3 (preschool aged)
influence of peers peaks around
ages 12-13 (but declines in middle/late adolescence)
instrumental aggression
aggression used as an instrument to reach a goal (most common type of aggression in early childhood; between 2.5-5 years of age children frequently struggle over toys and control of space)
cognitive levels of play- functional
aka locomotor play; begins during infancy; involves repeated practice in large muscular movements (rolling a ball, jumping, running, throwing etc.)
cognitive levels of play- constructive
aka object play; use of objects/materials to make something (a house, blocks, a crayon drawing etc.)
cognitive levels of play- dramatic
aka pretend, fantasy or imaginative play; involves imaginary objects, actions or roles; rests on the symbolic function (developed late in the second year); involves a combination of cognition, emotion, language and and sensorimotor behavior; complex play = driven by and the driver of cognitive development; peaks during the preschool years, increasing in frequency and complexity (declines as school-aged children become more involved in formal games with rules but many children continue to engage in pretending well beyond the elementary school years)
learning disabilities
are disorders that interfere with specific aspects of school achievement (such as listening, speaking, reading, writing or math) *children with LD often have near-average to higher-than-average intelligence and normal vision/hearing capabilities *performance substantially lower than would be expected given a child's age, intelligence and amount of schooling
subjective criterion of diagnosing a mental disorder
algedonic criterion (personal suffering) and suffering caused to others
richard morton
an English physician that is generally credited with describing the syndrome of anorexia nervosa in 1694
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence: componential element
analytic aspect of intelligence; helps people solve problems, monitor solutions and evaluate the results
aggression surfaces most during social play
and children who fight the most also tend to be the most sociable and competent (normally declines as children learn to ask for what they want)
Amphetamine is also taken up into the terminal by the DAT
and interferes with the DA transporter of the synaptic vesicles (VMAT); in addition it blocks the enzyme MAO
excessive concern with weight control and body image may be signs of...
anorexia and/or bulimia nerves (these chronic disorders occur mostly in adolescent girls and young women)
the other common emotional disorder that children have (not disruptive conduct disorders)
anxiety and/or mood disorders (feeling sad, depressed, unloved, nervous, fearful or lonely)
factors related to anxiety disorders
anxiety disorders tend to run in families, are 2xs as common among girls as among boys, may be neurologically based
depression in young people may not appear as sadness
but as irritability, boredom and or anhendioa (danger of suicide)
gender roles
behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills and personality traits that a culture considers appropriate for males and females (had by all societies; western cultures have acquired more diverse and flexible gender roles); across most cultures however, men are usually seen as providers/protectors and women have been expected to devote most of their time to the home
third stage of moral reasoning (age 11 or 12)
belief that everyone should be treated alike gives way to ideal of equity, of taking specific circumstances into account; increased focus on the intentions of the actor
students with high self-efficacy...
believe they can master schoolwork and regulate their own learning (and are more likely to succeed than students who do not believe in their abilities)
Piaget thinking regarding inductive and deductive reasoning
believed that children in concrete operational stage of cognitive development only used inductive reasoning and that deductive reasoning did not develop until adolescence (however, evidence has been found to discover the presence of inductive and deductive reasoning earlier than he predicted)
support of Baumrind's model
benefit of authoritative parenting has been repeatedly supported
treatment of bulimia
best treated with cognitive behavioral therapy; individual, group or family psychotherapy can help both anorexia and bulimia patients; these patients are also at increased risk for depression and suicide *most of these patients are treated with antidepressant drugs and psychotherapy (combined); any treatment program for adolescents must also involve the family
the majority of high school students who drink engage in
binge drinking (which may affect thinking and memory by damaging white matter and are more likely than other students to report poor school performance and engage in other risky behavior
the most prevalent eating disorder in the general population
binge-eating disorder (3.5% of women and 2% of men affected)
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development
biological; evolutionary; psychoanalytic; cognitive and social learning
1 in 5 people who experience bouts of depression in childhood or adolescents are at risk for developing
bipolar disorder (episodes of depression and mania- increased energy, euphoria, grandiosity and risk taking)
amphetamine further enhances activity by...
blocking the reuptake of catecholamines and by providing an alternative target for MAO
adolescents are more vulnerable than adults to...
both immediate and long term negative effects of alcohol on learning and memory
intelligence test scores show no gender differences
boys and girls typically do equally well on tasks involving basic mathematical skills (boys math skills vary more than girls, with more boys at both the highest and the lowest ends of the ability range)
how aggression differs between boys and girls during middle childhood
boys continue to engage in more direct aggression; girls increasingly likely to engage in social/indirect aggression
gender differences beginning by age 2
boys tend to have a higher activity level, superior motor performance and greater propensity for physical aggression (especially after puberty)
gender differences during recess-time play
boys tend to play more physically active games; girls favor games that include verbal expression or counting aloud (such as hopscotch and jump rope)
gendered play styles
boys- tend to engage in more exploratory play girls- enjoy more symbolic and pretend play
formal operational thinking results from a combination of
brain maturation and expanding environmental opportunities (formal reasoning is a learned ability that is not equally necessary or equally valued in all cultures)
psychological interventions in ADHD
break down tasks into smaller "chunks"; providing frequent prompts about rules and time; diving frequent immediate rewards for small accomplishments
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- associative play
child plays with other children; they talk about their play, borrow and lend toys, follow one another and try to control who may play in the group; all children play similarly, if not identically (no division of labor and no organization around any goal); each child acts as he/she wishes and is interested more in being with the other children than in the activity itself
Parten's categories of social/nonsocial play- onlooker behavior
child spends most of their time watching other children play; onlooker talks to them, asking questions or making suggestions, but does not enter into the play; observes particular groups of children rather than anything that happens to be exciting
internalizing behaviors
child turns anger inward (causes anxiety, fearfulness and depression)
externalizing behaviors
child turns anger outward (causes aggression, fighting, disobedience and hostility)
self-concept becomes clearer with the developmental tasks of
childhood, adolescence and adulthood
divorce is both stressful for
children and parents
changes in emotional development: ages 7-8
children are aware of feelings of shame and pride (understand conflicting emotions)
Three steps of neo-piagetian analysis regarding changes in self-definition: Step 3- Representational systems (middle childhood)
children begin to integrate specific features of the self into a general, multidimensional concept; all-or-nothing thinking declines; self-descriptions become more balanced and realistic
how children start to demonstrate co-regulation shift
children begin to request certain types of experiences, negotiate for desired objects and communicate their shifting needs to parents
Development in middle childhood: inductive and deductive reasoning
children can use particular premises and general premises to arrive at an answer/conclusion
gender schema development: ages 4-6
children construct and consolidate their gender schemas (they notice and remember only information consistent with these schemas; tend to misremember information that challenges gender stereotypes; young children are quick to accept gender labels
gender schema development: ages 5 and 6
children develop a repertoire of rigid stereotypes about gender that they apply to themselves and others
positive effects of peer relations in middle childhood
children develop skills needed for sociability and intimacy; gain a sense of belonging; learn leadership and communication skills, cooperation roles and rules
self-esteem: developmental changes in self-esteem
children do not TALK about concept of self worth until about age 8 (younger children show their self-worth through their behavior); young children's self esteem is not based on reality (result of feedback from other people) and are often unidimensional (but in middle childhood, self esteem becomes more realistic)
Development in middle childhood: Conservation
children in concrete operational stage can solve various types of conservation problems by WORKING OUT THE ANSWERS IN THEIR HEADS!
Three steps of neo-piagetian analysis regarding changes in self-definition: Stage 2- Representational mappings (ages 5-6)
children make logical connections between aspects of the self; image of self is still expressed in completely POSITIVE, all or nothing terms (cannot see how one can be good at some things and not at others)
prosocial behavior (in middle childhood)
children tend to become more empathetic and inclined to participate in prosocial behavior in middle childhood
how does the pattern of development of the prefrontal cortex impact intelligence/IQ test scores
children w/ average IQ- prefrontal cortex peaks in thickness by age 8 (then gradually thins as unneeded connections are pruned) in most intelligent 7-year-olds, the cortex does not peak in thickness until age 11 or 12!
contingent self-esteem (aka the "helpless" pattern)
children w/ high self-esteem are generally motivated to achieve; when self-esteem is contingent on success, children may view failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth and may feel helpless to do better (in other words, they learn helplessness)
in middle childhood, children tend to look for friendships with
children who are like then in age, sex and interests (though cross-racial/ethnic friendships are associated with positive developmental outcomes)
children at high risk of being a victim of bullying
children who exhibit high levels of internalizing behaviors (anxiety and depression) early in their school years; bullying oftentimes makes them feel even more depressed and anxious; many of these victims are small, passive, weak and submissive and may blame themselves for being bullied
generalized anxiety disorder
children worry about everything (grades, storms, school, hurting themselves on the playground); and that also tend to be self-conscious and excessively concerned with meeting the expectations of others (and need constant reassurance) *this worry also seems to be independent of performance or how they are regarded by others
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
chronic condition usually marked by persistent inattention, distractibility, impulsivity, and low tolerance for frustration (rate of children it impacts in the U.S. is about 4.7%)
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
chronic, severe, persistent irritability that is incongruent with a child's developmental stage and is causing significant impairment
discipline categories: inductive techniques
designed to encourage desirable behavior or discourage undesirable behavior (most effective method to get a child to accept parental standards); involves setting limits and demonstrating logical consequences of an action (explaining, discussing, negotiating, and getting ideas from the child about what is fair); appeals to consider how actions affect others' feelings; inductive reasoning tends to arouse empathy for the victim of wrongdoing
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence: experiential element
determines how people approach novel tasks
dyslexia
developmental language disorder in which reading achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ or age (most commonly diagnosed with LDs- about 4/5 children with LDs will also be diagnosed as dyslexic!)
addiction and tolerance to amphetamine and methamphetamine...
develops rapidly (requiring even larger doses leading to sleepiness, severe weight loss and general deterioration of mental and physical condition)
authoritative parenting seems to lead teens to
disclose more information to their parents
56% of children diagnosed with mental disorders have
disruptive conduct disorders (such as aggression, defiance or antisocial behavior
components of Anorexia nervosa
distorted body image, oftentimes are good students (perfectionist behavior common, also more likely to be withdrawn or depressed); anorexia is deliberate and involuntary
teenage mothers are more likely to
drop out of school and have repeated pregnancy (they and their parents may also lack maturity, skills and social support to be good parents)
girls dissatisfaction with their bodies (due to the normal increase in body fat that occurs during puberty) increases
during early to mid adolescence
when children develop strong internal standards of self-worth
during middle childhood
when the self-concept begins to come into focus
during toddlerhood
negative emotions and mood swings are most intense during
early adolescence
when do children make key advances to understand and regulate their emotions
early childhood
a substantial decline in teen pregnancy has accompanied a steady decrease in
early intercourse and sex with multiple partners; increase in contraceptive use
most young teenagers are more concerned about their appearance than about any other aspect of themselves, which can lead to
eating disorders
parenting styles: Authoritarian (high control and low warmth on Baumrind's model)
emphasizes control and unquestioning obedience; parents who follow this style often try to make children conform to a set standard of conduct, punish children forcefully for violating their standard of conduct and are less warm than other parents *children of authoritarian parents tend to be more discontented, withdrawn and distrustful
among 15-19 year olds in the U.S. suicide is the ___________ leading cause of death
fourth *girls are more likely to use hanging, boys are more likely to use firearms
2 prominent clinical manifestations of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
frequent severe temper outbursts (verbal or behavioral) and chronic, persistently irritable or angry mood that is present between the severe temper outbursts *children with this disorder are also at risk for other mood, anxiety and substance use disorders (and is more common in younger children and boys)
adolescents begin to rely more on their
friends than on their parents for intimacy support
secondary aging
from disease, abuse and disuse (within personal control and the result of nurture or the environmental insults that occurs over the course of a lifetime)
gray matter in the _____________ varies widely among individuals and is linked with differences in IQ
frontal cortex
students who do not believe in their ability to succeed tend to become...
frustrated (and have depressed feelings that make success more elusive)
Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory says the acquisition of gender roles hinge on...
gender constancy; when a child realizes that his or her gender will always be the same- once this is realized, children are motivated to adopt behaviors appropriate to their gender
same-sex peer groups may help children learn
gender-appropriate behaviors and incorporate gender roles into their self-concept
what causes gender segregation among young children
gendered play styles (boys tend to participate in more active/physically aggressive play while girls tend to prefer more nurturing play styles)
characteristics of girls pretend play/stories
generally focus on social relationships and nurturing, and highlight domestic roles (like in playing house)
sexual orientation seems to be at least partly __________ in cause
genetic (the more older biological brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay)
how gender influences play by age 3
girls are more likely to play with dolls and tea sets boys prefer toy guns and trucks
age of adolescent growth spurts
girls' growth spurts usually occurs 2 years earlier than that of boys (girls ages 11-13 tend to be taller, heavier and stronger than boys the same age)
emotional self-regulation helps children...
guide their behavior and contributes to their ability to get along with others
emotions (related to the self) are usually developing by the end of the 3rd year of a child's life
guilt, shame and pride (they also gain self-awareness and accept the standards of behavior their parents have set)
the life expectancy in the United States in common decades may __________________
halt its upward trend and even decline (due to a rise in obesity-related diseases offsets gains
young people who consider or attempt suicide tend to
have histories of emotional disorders (think poorly of themselves, feel hopeless, and have poor impulse control and a low tolerance for frustration and stress); have suffered from maltreatment in childhood, have severe problems with relationships, are often alienated from their parents and have no one outside the family to turn to; have attempted suicide before or have friends or family members who did so and have a tendency toward impulsive aggression *protective factors: sense of connectedness to family and school, emotional well-being and academic achievement
authoritative parenting fosters
healthy psychosocial development (overly strict, authoritarian parenting may lead an adolescent to reject parental influence and to seek peer support and approval at all costs)
long-term effect of amphetamine on ANS
high blood pressure, tremor, dizziness, sweating, rapid breathing, and nausea
teenage pregnancy and birthrates in the United States are
higher than in other industrialized countries, despite similar levels of sexual activity (teenage birthrates are nearly 5 times as high in the U.S. as in Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy etc.)
U.S. has one of the _______ divorce rates in the world
highest (more than 1.5 million children involved in divorce each year)
suicide help warning signs
hopelessness, rage, anger, seeking revenge, acting reckless or engaging in risky activities without thinking, feeling trapped (or like there is no way out), increasing alcohol or drug use, withdrawing from friends, family or society, anxiety, agitation or the inability to sleep/sleeping all the time, dramatic changes in mood, feeling that there is no reason for living and having no sense of purpose in life
through friendships/interactions with casual playmates, young children learn
how to get along with others, how to solve problems in relationships and how to put themselves in another person's place
functional age
how well a person functions in a physical and social environment in comparison with other of the same chronological age
discipline categories: withdrawal of love
ignoring, isolating or showing dislike for a child *less effective and possibly harmful technique
treatment of anorexia
immediate goal of treatment is to get patients to eat and gain weight; family therapy (parents take control of child's eating patterns) and cognitive behavioral therapy (seeks to change a distorted body image)
many studies attribute ethnic differences in IQ to...
inequalities in the environment (such as income, nutrition, living conditions, health, parenting practices, early child care, intellectual stimulation, schooling, culture, the effects of oppression and discrimination that can affect self-esteem, motivation, and academic performance
anxiety/depressive disorders are also related to...
insecure attachment, exposure to an anxious/depressed parent and exposure to early experiences that make children feel a lack of control over what happens around them
discipline categories: power assertion
intended to stop or discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control (such as demands, threats, withdrawl of privileges, spanking etc.) *less effective and possibly harmful technique
reasons why children are fearful
intense fantasy life (children's imaginations get carried away- making them worry) and tendency to confuse appearance with reality
children who are exposed to family conflict at home tend to respond by showing behaviors of
internalizing or externalizing
mechanisms of aging: epigenesis
involves genes being turned on and off (do not involve changes in the genetic code and are dynamic and modifiable by environmental influences)
categorization: transitive inferences
involves the ability to infer a relationship between two objects from the relationship between each of them and a third object (example: if a < b and b < c, then a < c)
psychometric approach to assessing intelligence
involves the quantitative measurements of psychological variables; most widely used individual test is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) which can be used for children from ages 6-16 and measures verbal and performance abilities (can help pinpoint a child's specific areas of strength and problem areas)
individuation
involves the struggle for autonomy and differentiation, or personal identity; this begins in infancy and continues throughout adolescence
risk taking during adolescence
is higher in the company of others than when alone
the socio-emotional network...
is more active at puberty and involves parts of the limbic system including the amygdala
psychological therapies for children
is usually more effective when it is combined with counseling for the parents (family therapy)
while play does not seem to serve any obvious purpose...
it is vitally important to development (has significant current and long-term functions bc through play, children stimulate the senses, exercise their muscles, coordinate sight and movement, gain mastery over their bodies, make decisions and acquire new skills)
development of fear
it's normal/appropriate for young children to have fears and for these fears to fade as children age (many fears are outgrown because young children get better at distinguishing the real from the imaginary)
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
key characteristic of formal operational thinking! a methodical, scientific approach to problem solving and involves the ability to develop, consider and test hypotheses
executive skills- metamemory
knowledge about the processes of memory; age 5-7 frontal lobes develop and reorganize; kindergartners/first graders know that people can remember and forget things with time; third graders know that some people remember better than others and that somethings are easier to remember than others
By late adolescence, emotionality tends to become
more stable
sexual selection- men
more widely a man can "spread his seed", the greater his chances to pass on his genetic inheritance; tend to prefer more sexual partners than women do; value physical prowess because it enables them to compete for mates and gain control of resources (which women value)
IQ controversy
most IQ test do not directly measure native ability (they infer intelligence from what children already know and tests are validated against measures of such as school performance- which can affect schooling and culture) *also controversy over whether intelligence is single, general ability or whether there are certain types of intelligences that are not captured by IQ testing
adolescents tend to have closer, more supportive relationships with their
mothers than with their fathers (girls especially confide in their mothers)
altruism (at the heart of prosocial behavior)
motivation to help another person with no expectation of reward
area of brain that matures faster than normal in children with ADHD
motor cortex (can account for restlessness and fidgeting)
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) seeks to change
negative thoughts through gradual exposure, modeling, rewards or talking to oneself (most effective treatment for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents)
criticisms of the cognitive approaches of gender development
neither approach explains the link between knowledge and conduct (mechanisms that prompt children to act out gender roles? why some children become more strongly gender-typed than others?
factors that determine whether a particular child with antisocial tendencies will become severely/chronically antisocial
neurobiological deficits (weak stress-regulating mechanisms); adverse environments (hostile parenting and/or family conflict) and association with deviant peers
type of self-esteem held by children who attribute failure to factors outside of themselves or factors they can control (ex. effort)
non-contingent self-esteem
the molecular structure of amphetamine resembles
norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine
factors that affect prosocial behavior: parents
parents of prosocial children typically are prosocial themselves (point out models of prosocial behavior; steer children towards stories, films, and tv that depict cooperation, sharing and empathy)
eating disorders are overrepresented in
occupations that require rigorous control of body shape (male athletes/ wrestlers and jockeys)
Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy- gender identity
occurs around ages 2 and 3; awareness of one's own gender and that of others
Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy- gender consistency
occurs around ages 3 and 7; the realization that a girl remains a girl even if she has a short haircut, and that a boy remains a boy even if he has long hair and earrings
adolescence
occurs between ages 11-19/20; a developmental transition that involves physical, cognitive, emotional and social changes (that takes varying forms in different social, cultural and economic settings);
adrenarche
occurs between ages 6-8; adrenal glands secrete increasing levels of androgens (especially dehydroepiandrosterone/DHEA where levels increase gradually but consistently)
long term effects of amphetamines
occurs normally in people who use amphetamines and methamphetamines for a long time for non-medical purposes (causes PARANOID SCHIZOPHRENIA-LIKE SYNDROME! which involves compulsive, agitated behavior and irrational suspiciousness) *symtoms of brain damage can appear even long after they quit using the drug
adolescents with sub-clinical depression are at elevated risk
of clinical depression and suicidal behavior by age 25
preschoolers tend o choose playmates that are
of the same age and sex; they also tend to prefer prosocial playmates and reject disruptive, demanding, intrusive or aggressive children
corporal punishment
often counterproductive and SHOULD BE AVOIDED (frequent/severe corporal punishment is harmful to children due to risk of injury, fail to internalize moral messages, poor parent-child relationships, increased physical aggressiveness/antisocial behavior- even as adults; spanking has also been negatively associated with cognitive development)
characteristics of boys pretend play
often involves danger/discord and competitive, dominant roles (such as mock battles) *boys' play is more strongly gender-stereotyped than girls'
emotional growth in middle childhood
older children can better regulate/control their emotions and respond to others' emotional distress
generalities about sex differences (psychological or behavoiral) at age 3
on average, boys and girls remain more alike than different
parental monitoring is
one of the most consistently identified protective factors for teens (involves keeping track of the young persons activities or knowing where a teen is)
physical change that takes place during adolescence
onset of puberty (leads to sexual maturity/fertility and the ability to reproduce)
term used to describe condition if disruptive conduct disorders persists until/past age 8
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
cognitive levels of play- games with rules
organized games with known procedures and penalties (hopscotch and marbles)
problems arise when parents
overstep what adolescents perceive as appropriate bounds of legitimate parental authority
type of aggression most frequently used by boys
overt (direct) aggression *also tend to openly direct aggressive acts at a target
as child approaches early adolescence, parental intolerance of negative emotion may heighten...
parent-child conflict
parenting styles: Authoritative (High control and high warmth in Baumrind's model)
parents emphasize child's individuality, stress social constraints, are loving and accepting, demand good behavior and are firm in maintaining standards, impose limited, judicious punishment when necessary, within the context of a wars, supportive relationship and favor inductive discipline and encourage verbal give and take *children feel secure in knowing that they are loves and what is expected of them and tend to be the most self-reliant, self- controlled, self-assertive, exploratory and content; in addition, they know when they are meeting expectations and they can decide whether it is worth risking parental displeasure to pursue a goal
co-regulation
parents exercise oversight but children enjoy moment-to-moment self-regulation (affected by the overall relationship between the parent and the child)
parenting styles: Permissive (High warmth and low control according to Baumrind's model)
parents make few demands, are warm, non-controlling, undemanding and consult with children about policy decisions and rarely punish their children *preschool children of permissive parents tend to be immature, the least self-controlled & exploratory *children also receive little guidance in permissive homes, which may cause them to become uncertain and anxious about whether they are doing the right thing
Parten's dimensions of play- dramatic play
play becomes more social during the preschool years; children engage in more dramatic play when playing with someone else than when playing alone; as dramatic play becomes more collaborative, story lines become more complex and innovative (allows children to practice interpersonal and language skills, explore social conventions and roles and the development of joint problem-solving, planning, and goal-seeking skills along with gain an understanding of other people's perspectives and construct an image of the social world
in the United States the provision and context of sex education programs are
political issues
teenage pregnancies often have
poor outcomes (impoverished/poorly educate mothers, do not eat properly for pregnancy/gain enough weight and receive inadequate prenatal care)
infants of teenage mothers often have
poor outcomes (more likely to be premature or dangerously small and are at heightened risk for birth complications)
gender stereotypes
preconceived generalizations about male or female behavior (ex. all females are passive and dependent; all males are aggressive and independent); can appear to some degree in children as young as 2 or 3 years old (then will continue to increase during the preschool years and reach a peak around age 5)
empathy has been associated with what in children as young as 6 years of age
prefrontal activation
area of the brain that is involved with planning, reasoning, judgement, emotional regulation and impulse control
prefrontal cortex
biological approach cont. (brain and hormones)
prenatal hormone exposure affects the developing brain
preadolescent children are especially susceptible to
pressure to conform; group conformity is unhealthy when it becomes destructive or prompts young people to act against their better judgement (usually in company of peers that children shoplift or begin to use drugs)
characteristics of Bulimia nervosa
prevalence up to 4% among high-school and college aged women; huge eating binges (2 hours or less) followed by attempts to purse the caloric intake through self-induced vomiting, strict dieting or fasting, excessively vigorous exercise, or laxatives, enemas or diuretics
two main types of bullying
proactive (done to show dominance, bolster power or win admiration) and reactive (responding to a real or imagined attack)- bullies tend to target victims of their same gender
at ages 7 to 8 children indicate the gradual progression in understanding feelings about the self by...
saying that they would feel ashamed or proud of themselves even if no one sees them do something
cognitive approach of gender development- Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory
says gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior, which causes children to actively search for cues about gender in their social world (and then adopt behaviors consistent with being male or female)
Gender segregation
says that girls tend to select other girls as playmates, and boys prefer other boys as playmates
cognitive approach of gender development- Gender-schema theory
says that once children know what gender they are, they develop a concept of what it means to be male or female in their culture (children match their behavior to their culture's view of what boys and girls are "supposed" to be and do
gender schema development: ages 7 or 8
schemas become more complex as children begin to take in and integrate contradictory information (children develop more complex beliefs about gender and become more flexible in their views about gender roles
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development- the evolutionary approach
sees gendered behavior as biologically based with purpose (children's gender roles underlie the evolved mating and child-rearing strategies of adult males and females) *controversial
evolutionary approach: sexual selection
selection of sexual partners is a response to the differing reproductive pressures that early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival of the human species
only antidepressant medications currently approved for adolescence
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
how drug therapy (used to help children in middle childhood) with SSRIs have changed since the 1990's
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used to treat obsessive-compulsive, depressive, and anxiety disorders but use has decreased by about 20% due to studies showing how antidepressants can cause moderate risks of suicidal thoughts and behavior for children and adolescents
changes of the self-concept during middle childhood contribute to the development of
self-esteem! (which is the assessment of our own global self worth)
internal reinforcement
sense of pleasure or accomplishment (what the behavior should provide for the child)
parental role in fearfulness
sense of trust and normal caution without being too protective; help a fearful child by reassurance and by encouraging open expression of feelings
sibling relationships
sibling disputes/their settlement can be viewed as socialization opportunities; affection, interest, companionship and influence are prevalent in sibling relationships; same sex siblings tend to be closer
how is intellectual disability defined
significantly subnormal cognitive functioning (with IQ of 70 or less and deficiency in age-appropriate adaptive behavior- communication, social skills, self-care- appearing before the age of 18) *a lot of cases (30%-60%) cause of intellectual ability is unknown *many children with intellectual disabilities can benefit from schooling (intervention programs have helped many mildly/moderately disabled to hold jobs, live in community and functioning society) *profoundly disabled need constant care and supervision
5 Theoretical perspectives on gender development- the biological approach
similar gender roles exist in many cultures (some may be biologically based b/c if gender differences were purely cultural inventions there would be more variability expected in male/female roles and characteristics across cultures) *approach suggests that there are neurological and hormonal explanations for some gender differences (by age 5 boys brains are about 10% larger than girls brains in addition to being composed of a greater proportion of gray matter than girls- who have greater neuronal density)
exposure to alcohol and drugs before the age of 15 increases the risk for...
substance disorders, risky sexual behavior, low educational attainment and crime (even if child has no conduct-problem history still at increased risk)
the only child
single children prerform slightly better than children with siblings in respect to academic outcomes (may be more motivated to achieve and have slightly higher self-esteem but do not differ in emotional adjustment, sociability or popularity) *this is largely in part to parents focus more attention on only children and expect more out of them (the more children in a family, the less individual time any one child receives) *only children also spend considerable time in play groups, child care, and preschool (so they do not lack opportunities for social interactions with peers)
pragmatics
social context of language; includes both conversational and narrative skills (and can be different depending on gender)
other disorder (besides separation anxiety disorder) that school phobia could stem from
social phobia or social anxiety (which is the extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations such as speaking in class or meeting an acquaintance on the street) *this specific disorder affects about 5% of children, increases with age and is often triggered by experiences such as a child's mind going blank when the child is called on in class
critics of evolutionary theory argue
society and culture are more important than biology in determining gender roles
the 2 different, but overlapping symptoms of ADHD
some children are inattentive, but not hyperactive, others are the opposite (hyperactive but not inattentive)
developmental aspects of friendships
stage 0: momentary friendship (ages 3-7); valued for material/physical attributes stage 1: one-way assistance (ages 4-9); unilateral level stage 2: two-way fair-weather cooperation (ages 6-12); reciprocal level stage 3: intimate, mutually shared relationships (ages 9-15); possessive stage 4: autonomous independence (beginning at age 12); independent stage
deductive reasoning
starts with a general statement about a class and applies it to particular members of the class
psychopathological criteria
statistical criterion, social criterion and subjective criterion *one of these is not enough to diagnose mental disorder, must have multiple perspectives
changes in adolescent brain
steady increase in white matter (faster information-processing abilities; most marked in the corpus callosum, but also occurs in the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes!)
children who are high in effortful control can (better than children with low effortful control)
stifle the impulse to show negative emotions at inappropriate times
executive skills- mnemonics
strategies used for remembering; most common mnemonic device among both children and adults is use of external memory aids; other common mnemonics are rehearsal, organization and elaboration
stressors common with children of divorce
stress of marital conflict and parental separation; these children experience more anxiety, depression and antisocial behavior; children who are younger at time of divorce also tend to suffer from more behavioral problems
at risk first graders can be helped by teachers who offer...
strong instructional and emotional support (frequent literacy instruction, evaluative feedback, engaging students in discussions, responding to their emotional needs, encouraging responsibility and creating a positive classroom atmosphere
the human life span is
the longest period that members of our species can live (Jeanne Clement died at 122 years of age)
sibling that tends to initiate more behavior (can be friendly and unfriendly)
the older sibling; quality of the relationship is more affected by the emotional and social adjustment of the older child than the younger one; as the younger child reaches age 5, they become less physical and more verbal in showing aggression and affection
an important influence in adolescence is
the peer group (source of affection, sympathy, understanding and moral guidance, also a place for experimentation, and a setting for achieving autonomy and independence from parents; place to form intimate relationships that serve as rehersal for adult intimacy
reasoning, problem solving and executive function are linked to...
the prefrontal cortex
telomeres
the protective fragments of DNA on the tips of chromosomes (every time a cell divides the telomeres become shorter)
brains of gay men and straight women are symmetrical, whereas in lesbians and straight men...
the right hemisphere is slightly larger
psychopathology
the scientific study of mental disorders (scientific study of origins, symptoms and development of mental disorders)
self-esteem
the self-evaluative part of the self-concept (judgement about your overall worth)
the two networks of the brain that interact in in risk taking
the socio-emotional network (which is sensitive to social and emotional stimuli, such as peer influence) and the cognitive-control network (regulates response to stimuli)
in family therapy
the therapist sees the family together and observes how members interact (therapist points out growth-producing and growth-inhibiting or destructive patterns of family functioning)
Socalization
the way children internalize experiences with parents, teachers, peers and cultural institutions *Plays a cantorial part in gender development*
most young people feel close to and positive about
their familial relationships
victims of chronic bullying tend to develop
their own behavior problems and may become more aggressive themselves or may become depressed (impacts entire school atmosphere- leads to widespread underachievement, alienation from school and reluctance of children to go to school/frequent absences
hayflick limit
theory that suggests that cells can only divide a fixed number of times (when cells can no longer divide, the body loses its ability to repair damaged tissue and thus begins to age)
mental disorders
they are syndromes/clusters of symptoms that are subjective (observed by the patient or clinician) but cannot be measured directly! *there is no single "objective" measure to "detect" mental disorders- and no single symptom is pathognomonic
nearly half of the US adolescents have tried illicit drugs by the time...
they leave high school
social aspect of self-concept
understanding of how others see us (leads to the development of self-awareness in children)
three primary achievements in conservation
understanding the principle of identity (that the object stays the same is nothing was added or taken away from it); principle of reversibility (undo actions mentally) and decenter (ability to look at more than one aspect of objects at once)
prejudice
unfavorable attitudes towards outsiders (especially members of certain racial or ethnic groups)
school phobia
unrealistic fear of going to school (may be a type of separation anxiety disorder- which are normal in infancy, but are supposed to decrease with age)
gay, lesbian and bisexual youths who have high rates of depression also have
unusually high rates of suicide and attempted suicide
behavior therapy
uses principles of learning theory to eliminate undesirable behaviors or to develop desirable ones (results are best when treatment is targeted to specific problems and desired outcomes)
emotional self-regulation (developed in middle childhood)
voluntary and effortful control of emotions, attention and behavior
prosocial behavior
voluntary, positive actions to help others
children with high self-esteem tend to be more willing to
volunteer (volunteering also helps to build self esteem)
when aggression turns into bullying
when it becomes deliberately and persistently directed at a particular person (victim)
changes in emotional development: age 9
white American children start to self-censor their speech to avoid mentioning the race of others (in attempt to appear unprejudiced)
internalizing/externalizing behaviors are more likely in children
who experience high levels of discord in family environment
sexual selection- women
women invest more time and energy in pregnancy and can bear only a limited number of children making each child's survival of the utmost importance; looks for a mate who will remain with her and support their offspring; need to raise each child to reproductive maturity- explains why women tend to be more caring and nurturing than men
gender differences in life expectancy
women typically live longer and have lower mortality rates at all ages than men
