Psych of Thought Ch. 4

why is testing the best studying method

"Cramming" for a test with "massed" practice improve immediate-recall effects at the expense of the delayed-recall effects that are obtained with "spaced" practice if you study the same material in different contexts throughout many days, helps elaborative encoding and distinctiveness processing, and thus forms more associations

Script-implicit

(best questions to promote metacognitive development) What significance did the events

Text-Implicit

(not necessarily stated in the text) What major political, social, and economic forces were at work in this time period?

What are the five criteria that define someone as a good strategy user?

1. A broad skill set of strategies domain-specific strategy: no use for this information outside of that topic, ex: applying the quadratic formula higher-order strategy: used to control other strategies 2. Metacognitive knowledge and why, when, and where to use strategies. Cognitive ability is enhanced by self-awareness and the ability to self-regulate, conditional knowledge... when and how to use it 3. A broad knowledge base - Prior knowledge helps you to learn new information, promotes strategy use, and can compensate for a lack of strategies 4. ability to ignore distractions - Action control - students are able to motivate themselves, tune out distractions 5. automaticity in the four components described above - practicing so that we can then use our limited attention to higher levels of learning and freeing up resources for constructing meaning

What four claims are supported by more than 25 years of research on strategy instruction?

1. Match encoding strategies with the material to be learned: Knowing which strategies will be most beneficial to the information at hand 2. Encourage students to engage in deeper processing: Deeper processing creates better understanding and memory of the material. Make connections to prior knowledge and generating new questions are effective strategies to process at a deeper level. 3. Use instructional strategies that promote elaboration: Encourage students to give meaning to what they are learning in terms of their own knowledge. Use prior knowledge activation prior to teaching new lessons. 4. Help students become more metacognitively aware:The how, why, and when of learning. Regulation of cognition (planning, monitoring their achievements).

How might a [metacognitive] monitoring checklist improve your metacognitive awareness?

Acquiring automaticity with metacognitive skills. Helps them learn to monitor their own learning and how to do it effectively, and then become more proficient at it.

How do elaborative interrogation and guided peer-questioning improve recall?

Both enhance learning and recall because learners process new information they already know easier, especially when they elaborate, and also the elaboration helps them to enrich that information.

What effect does guided peer-questioning have on learning?

Comprehension improves because asking and answering questions helps learners build elaborated links among the ideas, making their mental representations more durable and providing more cues for recall. Guided peer questioning helps promote learning, access prior knowledge,elaborate ideas, and monitor metacognition.

Interactive imagery

Creative a simple image in which image of concrete object (transformed target word) interacts with or is composed of image of meaning of target word

What can you do while reading that will promote deep processing rather than shallow processing?

Deep processing is seen as that processing centered on meaning. Shallow processing refers to keying on superficial aspects of new material and thus not remembered as well. Reciting the meaning of the reading in your own words makes you think about the meaning of the content and analyze the material, relate to background info.

Representational imagery

Devise an image that represents the meaning to be linked to the target name

How do distributed (spaced) practice and massed practice differ in their effects on learning?

Distributed practice refers to regular periods of practice. Massed practice refers to irregular periods of intense practice (cramming). Distributed practice is more efficient for learning, and is more beneficial when learning declarative knowledge, and higher level concepts.

elaborative processing

Elaboration of processing - As the elaborateness of the student's encoding of information increases, so does their memory of the content. It is encoding the same content in different, related ways. (ex: if students are learning how to solve a problem, they are more likely to remember multiple solutions to a problem, instead of just one repeated solution).

themes

Encoding and retrieval are linked. When information is elaborated at encoding and when that information is used as a prompt for retrieval, students remember it better. Learning always occurs in a specific context that affects encoding and retrieval. Activate student's prior knowledge or a schema prior to instruction. Retrieval is state dependent. Recall is related to our mood and the conditions under which we learned that information. Learning increases when students generate their own contexts for meaning by using elaborative interrogation, guided peer questioning, and the testing effect. Better when they test themselves and develop their own meaning. Recall and Recognition is not the same, students need to know which test they are taking in advance to prepare. Distributed practice is more efficient than mass practice.

Familiarity reflects the degree to which a memory representation has been activated

False recognition effect, those highlighted word were not there. The list were set to a theme, thematic. So we add energy to each word on the list we attend to, so an overflow goes to the word we associate with the set therefore giving thus the impression that it is familiar So there is a propositional network representing our declarative knowledge there is a spread of activation energy among paths recognition is based on us evaluating the activation level

Transformational imagery

Find a concrete object name that is similar in sound to the target name (foreign language word, technical term) ex from book - exiguous - find something concrete and familiar - exit door - exit stands for the sound of the word to be learned othropicicous - australian in a pit (picturing and ape now turns it into representational imagery however)

What does the study of flashbulb memories reveal about reconstructive "forgetting" in autobiographical memory?

Flashbulb memories are not very accurate Autobiographical memory is just as poor, people often overestimate their ability to remember and a subject to persuasion by retrieval cues

How does the activation of prior knowledge improve learning?

Frameworks for understanding complex information: Prior knowledge activation, guided questioning, and levels of processing Helps enhance the encoding of new information. The new knowledge always builds on prior learning. If there is a strong foundation of well learned information previous to lesson, this information will help the students comprehend and organize the new information they learn and guide their thinking about the topic.

regulation of cognition

How we regulate memory and thought processes 1. planning, 2. Regulation, 3. evaluation

What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

Maintenance rehearsal is the direct repetition of information in order to keep it active in short-term memory. Information can easily be lost (by interruption). Elaborative rehearsal is any form of rehearsal in which the information is related to other information, activates deeper and varied encoding processes. Better for long-term recall, but uses more cognitive resources than maintenance.

With respect to Instruction Implication 4, what is meant by the claim that "the analog to constructive processes at encoding is reconstructive processes at retrieval"? Is there a simpler way to say that?

Memory is reconstructive, students often retrieve main ideas and use them and their general knowledge to construct a response. Constructive processes at encoding = reconstructive processes at retrieval. Students learn more and remember it better when they are active, constructive, learners

How does state-dependent learning illustrate the cognitive theme of the "contextual nature of thought" (see the eight cognitive themes for education in Chapter 1)?

Our skills and knowledge are honed to situations we have been in and are familiar to The state that the individual was in at the time of learning (underwater, on land, in a classroom, happy, sad). If the learner is in the same or a similar state when trying to recall that information as the time they learned it (the same context) they will recall it better Ex: hearing a song 5 years later and remembering a specific contextual situation

Dual encoding process

Primary retrieval cue: What did you have for dinner last thursday? Secondary retrieval cues: Thinking about what you were doing Thursday Recall rate is greater at 6 months with more secondary cues available. 2 cues was along the same forgetting curve as 1 cue, but recall increased from 50% to 75%. With enough retrieval cues, you can retrieve almost anything.

How does the dual process model of recall explain the difference between recall and recognition tasks? (replaced the threshold hypothesis)

Recall and recognition essentially are the same other than a more elaborate memory search for recall recognition provides more ways to enter and search memory than recall, where recall may only provide one way thus making it much harder to find the information

How is relearning used as a measure of recall?

Subjects learn a list after multiple trials until they can recall it perfectly, and then perform the same task after a set time. The difference of how many trials it took by the second try show that they relearned the material faster, thus recalling it better.

How does the information in Box 5.1 and Figure 5.2 illustrate reconstructive memory?

The boxes show that reconstructive memory is contextual and only key ideas are formed Suggestion that retrieval of memory is reconstructive memory. Just as encoding is constructive memory. Simply, we store a memory in key elements guided by schemata, and then retrieve this memory by using the key elements and putting them together with general knowledge. Thus, handling less information, not storing huge masses of memory but sorta like the main ideas. Reconstruction is how we choose to construct a memory we are recalling. EX: saying that john adams ran with george washington, when he actually ran against him and thus came in 2nd place becoming the vice president. So only key elements are remembered and the rest is reconstructed by our knowledge and the context.

distinctiveness processing

The distinctiveness of encoding states that the memorability of information is determined by its distinctiveness. Materials requiring more difficult decisions at the time of encoding were better recalled than less difficult decisions. Shortly: as students make more complex and difficult decisions during encoding, they remember the content better.

How does the generation effect illustrate the principle of encoding specificity?

The generation effect - verbal material self-generated at the time of encoding is better remembered than material that students just read at encoding. (and example of distinctiveness) The generation effect only worked when the cues present at encoding were also present at recall, therefore, the generation effect is actually governed by the principle of encoding specificity.

In light of the testing effect, how would you spend 60 minutes of study time if you wanted to recall the most information?

The testing effect proves that taking tests or quizzes on materials being studied improves learning and remembering. It is best when studying to learn the material, then be quizzed repeatedly. Taking a test produces better effects on remembering and long term recall vs. just studying the material over and over.

How does the threshold hypothesis explain the difference between recall and recognition tasks?

The threshold hypothesis was brought by McDougall - both recognition and recall performance depend on the strength of information in memory; a small amount of strength is needed to recognize information (recognition threshold) while a larger amount of strength is needed for recalling information (recall threshold). Recall takes more strength and ability than recognition. Information well learned can be recognized and recalled if it is above both thresholds. Some info can be recognized and not recalled if it only is above the recognition threshold yet below the recall threshold. The hypothesis was abandoned because: information in memory can be recalled but not recognized, and it did not specify how either operated.

How are the Peg Method, the Method of Loci, the Link Method, and the Keyword Method mnemonics similar to each other?

Use familiar information to facilitate remembering of unfamiliar information. Usually with the use of imagery.

Method of Loci:

Using location to recall information, must be a location very well learned and in long term memory. Associate each area with the to be learned information, in order, by visually representing it.

encoding specificity

cues need to be available both at encoding and retrieval to facilitate memory performance, this is called encoding specificity - remembering knowledge is enhanced when the conditions at retrieval match those present at encoding.

Mediation:

encoding strategy to remember difficult material by relating it to something more meaningful

Shallow processing

eying on superficial aspects of new material and thus not remembered as well

Guided peer questioning

having students ask each other questions about class content

Elaborative rehearsal

is any form of rehearsal in which the information is related to other information, activates deeper and varied encoding processes. Better for long-term recall, but uses more cognitive resources than maintenance.

Maintenance rehearsal

is the direct repetition of information in order to keep it active in short-term memory. Information can easily be lost (by interruption).

What are the three component processes involved in the metacognitive dimension of knowledge of cognition (metacognitive awareness)?

knowledge of cognition - what we know about our memory and thought processes: 1. declarative knowledge about ourselves as learners and knowing what factors influence our performance. ex: knowing the limitation of your memory 2. procedural knowledge about cognitive strategies. ex: taking notes, skimming unimportant information, imagery, summarizing main ideas. 3. conditional knowledge , knowing when or why to use a strategy. Ex: Studying differently for and essay test vs. a multiple choice test

State-dependent learning

memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. Our skills and knowledge are honed to situations we have been in and are familiar to

Link Method:

not needing an external system or previously learned set of materials. Bestw for learning a list of things. Form an image for each item on the list, and the first item interacts with the next, so that all of the items are linked in imagination.

Deep processing

processing centered on meaning

What are the three component processes involved in the metacognitive dimension of regulation of cognition (metacognitive control)?

regulation of cognition - how we regulate memory and thought processes: 1. Planning - selecting appropriate strategies and allocating resources. Setting goals, budgeting time. 2. Regulation - monitoring and self-testing skills necessary to control learning. Making predictions, pausing while reading. 3. Evaluation - appraising both the self-regulation processes and the products of one's learning. Reevaluating one's goals, revising predictions. Regulation of cognition is often not conscious, these processes are highly automated.

Elaborative interrogation

students are asked to answer "why" questions about information they just read.

Peg method:

students memorize a series of pegs which the information to be learned can be hung one item at a time. One is a bun, two is a shoe... Imagine any information to be learned into the rhyme, a pickle in the bun. The visual helps your remember a list. Can be used over and over without losing effectiveness.

How is metacognitive-monitoring accuracy limited by task difficulty and prior knowledge?

task difficulty limitations: when a task is difficult, students can become overconfident, and a student's monitoring of their accuracy actually decreases as prior knowledge increases. Prior knowledge aids performance, but it does not contribute to accurate monitoring

Keyword method of mnemonics:

the acoustic stage requires the identification of a keyword that sounds like the word to be learned. The second stage, the imagery link, requires the learner to imagine a visual image of the keyword interacting with the meaning of the to be learned word. Ex: Captivate, uncle bill wears a cap, that is captivating.

Metacognition

the knowledge that people have about their own thought processes and how to manage them effectively

What are the three factors that limit the use of imagery as a way of improving memory performance?

the presence of imagery usually leads to better memory performance, some conditions affect its usefulness however. 1. Some materials have higher imagery values than others and are more memorable. Feather vs. freedom, one prompts an image while the other does not, thus easily imagined words are easier to remember. 2. Differences among students in their ability to image the information. Some can create imagery better, and it affects the memory performance. 3. Nature of the images. Best images remembered are bizarre and colorful.

retrieval

the process of assessing and placing into consciousness information from long-term memory

The generation effect

verbal material self-generated at the time of encoding is better remembered than material that students just read at encoding. (and example of distinctiveness)

Text-Explicit

what happened in 1066? (doesn't really promote cognitive development)

knowledge of cognition

what we know about our memory and thought processes 1. Decarative knowledge, 2. procedural, 3. conditional