Psych of Women Test 2 (Chapters 3 and 7)

Describe how social context influences the "natural" attachment between mother and child and a general preference for sons over daughters

"Natural" attachment are narratives about motherhood, which focus on the powerful bond that is thought to form between mother and infant almost immediately. The preference for sons over daughters are linked to an ideology that values males over females and cultural practices that reward parents economically for having sons but punish them for having daughters.

1. Explain how the following help determine biological sex and sexual differentiation. (CHAP 3) - the internal reproductive tract

- For females embryos, the ovaries begin to secrete hormones, and the basic pattern of development begins where fallopian tubes, a uterus and vagina develop. - If there is testosterone in sufficient amounts, it interferes with female development causing the body to go in a male direction. female duct withers away and male duct develops into vas deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicles, urethra and prostate.

Define gender identity. Explain how it is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. (CHAP 3)

- If we look "feminine" it is easier to form a female gender identity and behave in ways consistent with feminine roles because our appearance causes people to treat us in ways consistent with them. (genetic) - Many cases exist where an intersex person was raised and treated like a girl, and then feels like a girl so he usually alters his body, through surgery and/or hormones, to make it match the sex to which the person is raised as. (environmental)

Identify the proportion of families in North America headed by single mothers. How does being a single mother relate to poverty?

About 27 percent of all family groups with children in the United States are headed by single mothers Single mothers in the United States put in more hours of employment but have higher poverty rates than their counterparts in other developed countries, in part because they are more likely to be employed in low-wage jobs

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 3. Explain critical realist epistemology and the MDI model and why they were used in this research.

Accordingly, the present study used a critical realist epistemology, and a MDI model to explore women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change. Advocated as the way forward for research examining health in a sociocultural context, critical realism affirms the existence of reality (e.g. biological or economic factors), but recognizes that our experience of it is always mediated by culture, language and politics

Identify the proportion of childfree U.S. and describe characteristics they share. Explain how they are commonly perceived in contrast to how they tend to feel about their childfree status.

Almost one in every five U.S. women does not bear a child during her life Child-free women report that they are sometimes stigmatized and criticized for their choice not to have children. They are the recipients of unsolicited advice and of pressure to have children However, child-free women give high ratings of satisfaction with their choice, do not differ from mothers in their reports of subjective well-being, and report no regrets about their choice

Identify the proportion of gay male couples are raising children.

An estimated 11 percent of gay male couples are raising children

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 4. Summarize the research methodology

Analysis was conducted using grounded theory methodology. Described grounded theory as "a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed". Grounded theory can be used to generate new theory, or to modify or elaborate on an existing relevant theory; in either case, this approach requires a rigorous matching of theory with data

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 5. The strategies the researchers used to ensure the generalizability, reliability and validity.

As traditional notions of generalizability, reliability, and validity often do not apply to qualitative research, the concept of trustworthiness, determined by confirmability, dependability, credibility, and transferability, has been considered a more appropriate standard Confirmability was determined through the auditor's review of the researcher's audit trail, which included raw data, thematic summaries, member checks, and the final scheme. Dependability was determined through demonstration of consistent themes arising in multiple focus groups, and by the co-authors' and auditory review of the analysis. Credibility was confirmed through member checks.

Explain the mother-daughter relationship among different ethnic groups.

Asian Indian American women reported more positive beliefs about and acceptance of hierarchy then Mexican women then European women because of Filial Piety African American women report feeling empowered as a result of their mothers.

Describe Sarah Hrdy's argument concerning mothers who abandon or kill infants they cannot care for

there is nothing "unnatural" about mothers cutting their losses when it appears that their infants have no chance of survival. Rather, she says, this way of responding to a difficult and dangerous mothering situation is part of our evolutionary heritage.

Explain what it means to be intersex (CHAP 3)

to be in between sexes (female with enlarge clitoris, males with penises that aren't fully formed)

(Get married, get healthy? Maybe not) 2. Explain what research tells us about well-being and marriage. Relate this to the "honeymoon effect".

well-being does not typically improve when people marry. At best, newlyweds enjoy a brief "honeymoon effect" in which they feel a bit more satisfied with their lives at first, but then their satisfaction declines, and they end up feeling as satisfied or dissatisfied as they were when they were single.

Overall Findings of Research on PMS and PMDD What causes it? How does hormones/culture affect women?

• Psychological and physiological symptoms vary and we don't know what causes them. • Women's subjective interpretation of menstruation influence their experience. - Hormonal changes may produce psychological symptoms. - Culture teaches us how to interpret these experiences.

Persuasive Sexualization

• Women see themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated based on appearance. • Learn there are social and economic rewards associated with physical beauty • Chronic self-surveillance - Emphasis is upon evaluation of the body - Competence-based attributes given less importance

Objectification Theory (Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) (Chart)

• [Sexualizing Cultural Practices] [Self-Objectification] [Self- Surveillance] (these lead to) • [Body shame], [Appearance Anxiety], [Loss of peak motivation experiences(flow)], [Out of touch with internal body state.] (these lead to) • [Eating Disorders], [Depression], [Sexual Dysfunction]

(Motherhood Isn't Sacrifice, It's Selfishness) 1. Explain the author's thesis that "motherhood is not a sacrifice, but a privilege - one that many of us choose selfishly.

By reframing motherhood as a privilege, we redirect agency back to the mother, empowering her, celebrating her autonomy instead of her sacrifice. Granted, some of us have more autonomy than others. There are many mothers who would not have chosen motherhood, for financial or personal reasons.

(Motherhood Isn't Sacrifice, It's Selfishness) 3. Explain the author's point that motherhood is not a job and thinking of it as a job hurts mothers.

Calling motherhood a woman's "job" only serves to keep a woman in her place. The priorities of mothers who work outside the home are often questioned. It's as if women are forced to choose between ambition (or simply earning a living wage) and family.

(Choosing to Be Child-free) 2. Identify the socio-demographic correlates of voluntary childlessness.

Childfree women tend to be more highly educated than average More likely to have relatively higher incomes, to be employed in professional or managerial occupations, and to live in urban areas Less traditional and less conservative, with more egalitarian attitudes towards gender equality

Explain the research by Marjorie Shostak on mood and menstruation. (CHAP 3)

Conducted daily interviews with eight !Kung women across two menstrual cycles. Simultaneously, she obtained regular blood samples from the women in order to assess their hormone levels. When she later analyzed the data, she found that "knowing what phase of the menstrual cycle a woman was in would enable one to predict little or nothing about her behavior or mood. Much more powerful were such influences as the behavior of husbands, relatives, and friends, or the availability of food and water, or minor illnesses" Her informants had no expectation of a pre- menstrual or menstrual syndrome or any other effect of the menstrual cycle on moods.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 7. Explain the implications of this research and what the findings add to our understanding of self-objectification.

Consistent with the majority of studies indicating psychological consequences associated with sexual objectification, our study revealed that sexual objectification experiences were linked to a variety of negative emotions, increased self-objectification both within and outside the SOE, and poor interpersonal work relationships. However, in contrast to this research base, our results also indicated a number of perceived benefits. Particularly striking was the finding that many women experienced boosts in confidence. Despite derogatory experiences of sexual objectification, these women are also receiving compliments and approval, which may overshadow feelings of shame.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 4. Explain the data analysis processes and techniques used to ensure trustworthiness and credibility. Explain how this process differs from traditional quantitative research.

Constant comparative methodology, an inductive process for developing a model to describe data, was used for data analysis. Credibility was established by triangulating the information gathered from various sources including 11 interviews, five separate observation sessions, and a variety of documents and by the use of different investigators Transferability was established by providing demographic information about participants, describing the context of the study, and providing direct quotations from participants so that the reader can determine the extent to which findings are generalizable

Explain gender differences with respect to love and romantic relationships

Gender differences among U.S. students in responses to the question, "If someone had all the qualities you would want in a mate but you were not in love with that person, would you marry her/him?" used to be quite striking, with many more men than women saying no; they would not marry without love. This gender difference has virtually disappeared—a result, some argue, of the fact that women, no longer necessarily counting on a husband for economic support, can now afford to emphasize love instead of practical considerations when thinking of marriage

Explain why even when women bring financial resources to a relationship, these resources do not give the women more power in family decision making.

Gender ideology is one reason. In societies where men are believed to have a legitimate claim to authority in the family, such authority affords them power in female-male relationships, even when their female partners have financial resources.

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 3. Understand the major hypothesis of the research and how it relates to self-objectification.

Hypothesis: that priming a state of self-objectification would negatively affect women's, but not men's, feelings of shame, self disgust, appearance anxiety, and the appeal of sexual scenarios that emphasize the body's physicality, compared to priming with words associated with body competence and physical functioning.

(I feel guilty but I hate my body: A feminist confesses) 2. Explain your response to this essay in light of what you have learned this semester about the psychology of women

I found myself relating to this essay. As i grow older i find more and more things i don't like about myself and its because i'm heavily influenced by the media around me. This semester we spoke a lot about living in a patriarchal society and women dressing and acting they feel fits in and attracts me, and i think that is really based on many women's fear of not having the perfect body type.

Explain how having a supportive father increases the likelihood daughters will be willing to choose a nontraditional career.

In patriarchal contexts, where the father is viewed implicitly as the head of the family and boys are valued more than girls, girls may be extremely sensitive to approval and disapproval from their fathers. For this reason, support and encouragement from fathers are often cited as very important to their daughters' development of self-confidence and strong achievement aspirations. Having a supportive father or boyfriend was an important factor in women's willingness to choose a nontraditional career.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 10. Explain the major implications of this research. In other words, explain how this research could be relevant to people's lives and experiences.

It can help women know that they are not alone when facing body image issues and that there are other ways to express your body in an non-objectifying way like yoga or dance. This also shows that media has as strong influence on women no matter if they're feminist or not.

(Motherhood Isn't Sacrifice, It's Selfishness) 2. How does reframining motherhood as a privilege empower mothers?

It empowers women in the sense that it gives the notion that motherhood was a choice that they made instead of something they had to do and give up another aspect of life.

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 2. Explain the psychological costs of self-objectification.

It leads to a self-consciousness that is characterized by a preoccupation with the body's outward appearance as opposed to its health or functioning. This particular perspective on the self is theorized to increase the opportunity for negative emotions such as shame and anxiety. These emotions are further theorized to contribute to a variety of mental and physical problems, such as eating disorders, sexual dysfunction, and unipolar depression

Describe various cultures' beliefs about menarche and menstruation. -Kung women -Chicanas -Saudi women -American Indians (CHAP 3)

Menarche- First occurrence of menstruation. --!Kung people (Kalahari Desert, South Africa) - information about menstruation is dispensed gruffly and unwillingly by adults, the whole process is regarded as something not to be discussed. -- Chicana women reported that menarche, was a traumatic experience characterized by a lack of information and physical discomfort. They spoke of being given elaborate instructions by their mothers on how to store and dispose discreetly of sanitary napkins so that no one would see them. -- In Saudi Arabia, tradition dictates that at menarche, a young woman must begin wearing a veil and be separated from all males except her father and brothers. --American Indian groups, the onset of menstruation traditionally signified a young girl's emerging womanly power, and a girl's first period was marked by a celebration.

(Menstrual Cups Are a Feminist Issue) 2. Explain the author's position that menstrual cups are "a feminist issue.

Menstrual cups are a feminist issue because they encourage users to engage with their bodies during menses, the cup plays a subtle but pivotal role in normalizing periods.

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 4. Understand the methodology used in this research

Method - Data were collected using eight focus groups (five to seven women per group, totaling 47 participants), as well as two follow-up interviews with two women from the focus groups whose accounts of positive premenstrual change were considered to be worthy of further detailed exploration.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 1. Explain what empirical research tells us about the relationship between feminist self-identification and body image.

Neither feminist self-identification nor attitudes toward feminism were related to body image among undergraduate college women, although feminist identity and positive attitudes toward feminism were related to less negative attitudes toward fat people in general.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 5. Identify the nine major themes that emerge and discuss what they meant to participants. Explain how the themes relate to self-objectification theory.

Nine themes: reasons for involvement, ambivalence, counterfeit intimacy, sexual objectification, resistance strategies, power, negative relationships with women, changes over time, and judgment.

Explain the experiences of never married women

One study of never-married Chinese American and Japanese American women suggests that many reject marriage because of their observations of their parents' marriage, their status as eldest or only daughter, their educational goals, or the perceived lack of appropriate suitors Never-married women reveal that they report active and fulfilling lives and that they view their independence and ability to be alone as important advantages of being single They sometimes report experiencing loneliness and the lack of a social support network; however, others say that, although they may spend considerable time alone, they do not feel lonely

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 2. Explain the author's position that standardized questionnaires limit the range of experiences that women can report in regard to the experience of menstruation.

Only a limited number of qualitative studies have investigated positive premenstrual change, leaving women feeling odd for feeling those positive symptoms.

(Get married, get healthy? Maybe not) 3.Explain what the research presented in the article tells us about the well-being of single people.

People who are single are doing much better than we realized. Marriage is unlikely to bring lasting improvements to their health or well-being.

Differentiate between PMS and PMDD. (CHAP 3)

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to a group of physical and behavioral symptoms that occur in a cyclic pattern during the second half of the menstrual cycle. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is the severe form of PMS. Common symptoms include anger, irritability, depression, and internal tension that are severe enough to interfere with daily activities.

Explain ways in which "pro-choice" and "pro-life" women tend to differ (CHAP 3)

Pro-choice women were more likely to believe in equal rights and responsibilities for women and men and not to accept parenthood as the primary role for women. Pro-life women were more likely to have made family roles central to their lives, were much more likely than the other group to attend church regularly, and were concerned about perceived threats to the family from feminism and homosexuality.

(Menstrual Cups Are a Feminist Issue) 1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of menstrual cups.

Pros: -It saves you money. -The cup also reduces the massive amounts of waste generated by pads and tampons. -cup is great for lazy people, since pads and tampons must be switched out every few hours and a cup can hang out for half a day Cons: -there is a bit of a learning curve for practicing how to fold and insert the cup -might be embarrassing for some to clean it out in public restroom -messy

Explain what factors influence whether a relationship is experienced as equitable.

Rules for what is considered fair may vary, in North America often rely on a standard called equity: the balance between contributions to and benefits from the relationship. Social norms influences what an individual feels is even and equitable, it is the participants' own weighting of the contributions and benefits, not some outside observer's assessment, that determines whether they experience their relationship as equitable.

Explain the research by Tomi-Ann Roberts (2004) on attitudes toward menstruation. (CHAP 3)

She studied the relationship between women's preoccupation with their physical appearance as a way of controlling their treatment in the world and their menstrual self evaluations. She found that women who had internalized a strong "objectified" view with their physical selves tended to have more negative attitudes and emotions—including shame and disgust—about menstruation. both women and men rated the menstruating woman as less energized and sexy and as more irritable, sad, and angry than the average woman—and that men also rated her as less clean and fresh, nurturing, and reasonable and as more spacey and annoying! S

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 1. What is meant by the "social construction of illness"? How does this relate to PMS and PMDD?

Social construction of illness is what society think is an illness. There is a distinction between the medical notion of illness and the social constructionist concept of illness. -PMS is often described as an archetypal example of a socially constructed illness, where medical knowledge and the cultural meanings attached to menstruation combine to position the premenstrual woman as mad, bad or dangerous -This leaves women with a restricted language for describing and understanding their lived experience of premenstrual change, and increases the likelihood of their self-diagnosis as a PMS sufferer -Premenstrual change sits in the DSM-IV as (PMDD), officially categorizing premenstrual mood or behavior change as a psychiatric disorder

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 1. Explain the major characteristics of environments that promote and intensify sexual objectification.

Specific environments and subcultures, such as beauty pageants, cheerleading, and cocktail waitressing, that exist within U.S. culture is where sexual objectification of women is encouraged, promoted, and socially sanctioned.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 6. Explain the major strengths of the research. Identify the major weaknesses of the research and explain why these weaknesses do not negate the contribution this research makes to our understanding of self-objectification.

Strength - ??????? Weakness - The interviewers had biases from their own experiences in SOE's but this does not negate the contribution to the research because they were aware of the biases and reflected on them.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 9. Explain the major strengths of the research. Identify the major weaknesses of the research and explain why these weaknesses do not negate the contribution this research makes to our understanding of intergroup perception.

Strength- Project was informative in revealing experiences that shape young feminist women's feelings about their body and their multiple strategies of resistance Weakness - There was no control group of non-feminist women, it is not clear whether the resistance strategies named by participants are particular to feminist women. This research also does not include women of different cultures/socioeconomic status/pregnant women.

Understand the major characteristics and known causes of Congenital Adrenogenial Hyperplasia. (CHAP 3)

Studies of girls who were exposed to higher than normal prenatal levels of androgens (CAH, or congenital adrenal hyperplasia) suggest that their behavior may be somewhat "masculinized": show- ing more energy expenditure and tomboyism, preference for functional over attractive clothing, less interest in and rehearsal for marriage and motherhood roles, and participation in male-typical activities and interests.

Describe the Money and Ehrhardt's twins case (John/Joan). Explain what this case study teach us about gender socialization (CHAP 3)

The Ehrhardts had twin boys, one had a surgical accident that destroyed his penis, so the parents decided to rear his as a girl. - the twin that was assigned as a girl developed feminine interests and behaviors and formed a female gender identity while the boy twin maintained masculine ones. This proves that gender socialization can be shaped by assignment of sex and not only genetics and physiological determinants.

(I feel guilty but I hate my body: A feminist confesses) 1. Summarize the essay and the major points the author is making.

The author is describing her experiences and others with food. Many consider themselves feminists and preach to others while quietly struggling with their own self image. The overall theme is that even if you believe your self image and the amount of calories you eat doesn't matter, the media and advertisements around us are nonstop and influences us.

Discuss what research tells us about women's reactions to abortion (CHAP 3)

The average adult woman who terminates a pregnancy does not experience mental health problems, although a minority of women do Most women report relief, happiness, and lowered depression and anxiety when an unwanted pregnancy is terminated A woman is more likely to experience distress after abortion if she has no support from significant others, is very young, has no other children, has a "late" abortion, or is strongly religious

Describe the trends in the United States related to the age of marriage and divorce.

The average age of women at their first marriage is now 30 years or older in many European countries. In the United States, the lifetime probability of divorce for the average couple marrying for the first time is between 40 and 50 percent

(Choosing to Be Child-free) 1. Explain the different ways that childfree women have been categorized.

The categorization of someone as intentionally childless is complicated by the fact that permanent childlessness can only be definitively established for post-menopausal women, or people who have been sterilised.

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 5. Identify the major research findings.

The majority of the women who participated in this study reported at least one embodied, psychological or behavioural change during the premenstrual phase of the cycle that was positioned as positive.This refutes the notion that premenstrual change is inevitably experienced and constructed as negative and distressing, as it can be positioned as enjoyable, a source of motivation, and a reason to engage in self-care, rather than a source of debility, distress, and self-blame. This underlines the limitations of research that endeavours to understand the nature and aetiology of premenstrual changes, but focuses solely on negative experiences and distress, and positions premenstrual change as pathology.

1. Explain how the following help determine biological sex and sexual differentiation. (CHAP 3) - the external genitalia

Until 8 weeks after conception, the external genital appearance is same for both sexes. - if testosterone is present in high amounts then the penis and scrotum develop -Female embryos develop later at 12 weeks, they start forming the clitoris and lips of the vagina. -by the time this step is completed the embryo is anatomically female or male or sometimes a mixture of both.

Describe the possible explanations for earlier puberty in girls. (CHAP 3)

White girls (12.1 years of age) (Black girls 12.6) Scientists have speculated that the cause of the earlier puberty may be environmental pollutants, by-products of cosmetics and plastics, which may stimulate estrogen production. Another possible cause is body fat, which can also affect hormones.

(Get married, get healthy? Maybe not) 1. Describe the methodology used in the research by the sociologist Matthijs Kalmijn. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of this methodology.

a 16-year survey of a nationally representative sample of more than 11,000 Swiss adults. Every year, participants were asked one set of questions about their overall health and another about their illnesses. the study is perhaps the most definitive research ever conducted on the health implications of marriage. Weakness- There is no control group to compare it to.

Gender Ideology

attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights and responsibilities of men and women in society.

Explain how different cultures view the act of childbirth and post-childbirth rituals. Traditional chinese Kung people North American (CHAP 3)

-->Traditional Chinese - beliefs held that childbirth was an act of extreme spiritual pollution, even though, by having a child, a woman gained status and some power in her husband's family. -->New mothers "do the month." For the first month after giving birth, the woman must avoid washing, not venture outside, not eat raw or cold food, not be blown by wind or move about, avoid sexual intercourse, and neither read nor cry. Following these rules allowed the mother to rest and receive extra attention from her family !Kung People- it was said that "the pain of childbirth is fire and. . . . A child's birth is like an anger so great that it sometimes kills" Yet in this culture, as in many others, women try to be stoical and not to cry out in pain. Nisa recounts that she kept herself quiet as labor began, lest her in-laws laugh at her. North American culture, by contrast, has few rituals that involve the new mother; most of the attention is focused on the well-being of the infant. This lack of ritual may, according to some observers, contribute to the postpartum depression that some women experience

Explain what research tells us about the children of lesbian mothers

-They are as likely as children parented by mixed-gender couples to grow up healthy and well adjusted. -Not show them to be disadvantaged in any way compared to the children of heterosexual parents -No more likely than other children to have difficulty with gender identity or gender-role acquisition -No more likely to be homosexual in their orientation than children raised by mixed-gender parents -In general, the research suggests that children of lesbians fare best when the mother is in good psychological health and living with a lesbian partner, and when the family is in a supportive social environment in which the parents' sexual orientation is accepted by other significant adults.

Describe how parents' treatment of boy and girl children differs. Explain how this influences gender socialization (CHAP 3)

-parents treat daughters and sons differently in certain ways, such as talking more to daughters than to sons -boys and girls are given different toys, dressed differently, and assigned different tasks

Interracial Marriage? percent

6.3%

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 6. Explain the major strengths of the research. Identify the major weaknesses of the research and explain why these weaknesses do not negate the contribution this research makes to our understanding of self-objectification. NO ANSWER ON THIS ONE

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Distinguish between bilateral, unilateral, direct, and indirect influence strategies and identify their effectiveness for same-gender and mixed-gender couples.

A bilateral influence strategy is one that requires a lot of mutual engagement, such as arguing or bargaining A unilateral strategy (such as issuing a nonnegotiable order or walking out on a discussion) A direct influence strategy is one that is open and clear, such as a straightforward request or order, A indirect strategy, is dropping hints or asking leading questions. (Bilateral and Unilateral are considered weak influences) Researchers found that use of these weak strategies was not related to the influencer's gender. However, their use was related to the partner's gender. Both females and males with male partners were more likely to use the weak influence strategies than were females and males with female partners.

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 4. Explain the methodology used in the study. Identify what type of methodology was used (e.g., experimental, correlational, survey).

A total of 160 undergraduate students (70 men and 90 women) enrolled in an introductory psychology class were involved in the study. The mean age of the participants was 19 years, with a range of 17-30 years old. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: self-objectification prime, body competence prime, or control. They used a questionnaire. with priming words on it and had to relate (he-slender-she-fat) to their pronouns.

Explain how the mother-daughter relationship relates to the development of feminist attitudes.

Daughters who identified strongly with feminist mothers held similarly feminist awareness; furthermore, strong, respectful, mutually interdependent mother- daughter relationships were linked with high levels of feminist consciousness in both mothers and daughters.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 6. Identify the two domains of responses that emerged from the data. 7. Describe the four themes that emerged relating to Domain 1. 8. Describe the four themes that emerged relating to Domain 2.

Domain 1: Body Consciousness Domain 2: Feminist Resistance Domain 1. Triggers of BC Development and BC Consequences of BC Identities and BC Domain 2. Celebrate Bodily Diversity Awareness as Resistance Limits of Resistance Emancipatory Resistance

Define clitoridectomy and how it has been practiced in Western cultures (CHAP 3)

During the 19th century, clitoridectomy (cutting clit off) was endorsed by physicians in Britain and the United States as treatment for "hysteria, epilepsy, melancholy, lesbianism, and excessive masturbation"

1. Explain how the following help determine biological sex and sexual differentiation. (CHAP 3) - gonads

During the 6th week of a "neutral gonad" develops as well as two sets of internal ducts During the 7th-8th week, the Sex chromosomes influence the gonad to either create ovaries or testis. If there is no chromosome present, ovaries are the default.

Understand the major characteristics and known causes of Turner's Syndrome (CHAP 3)

Error in cell division, produces a chromosomal abnormality, called Turner's Syndrome where a female has a single X chromosome. (XO). This gives them a short stature, webbed neck, skeletal abnormalities as well as kidney problems/heart defect.

1. Explain how the following help determine biological sex and sexual differentiation. (CHAP 3) - chromosomes

Everyone has 23 chromosomes. The 22nd determines the sex of the child. XX for female XY for male

(Choosing to Be Child-free) 4. Explain how personality traits such as extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and neuroticism correlate with being childfree.

Extraversion has been positively associated with greater probability of parenthood, earlier parenthood, greater likelihood of non-planned pregnancy, and higher number of children Higher Openness to Experience is associated with a lower probability of parenthood although controlling for socioeconomic background partially attenuates this Higher agreeableness is associated with more children, earlier childbirth, and a higher probability of marriage The relationship of Neuroticism with fertility appears mixed. Overall, higher Neuroticism has been associated with lower numbers of children for both men and women

Identify how much time fathers in the U.S. spend with their children and how this is this influenced by whether they live with their children. How does this compare to the amount of time mothers spend with their children?

Father - 0.7 hours a day in solo child care. Mother - 10.7 hours a day in solo child care. 27 percent of fathers who do not live with their kids report they have not seen their children at all over the previous year.

Summarize the life and career of Ethel Puffer

First women to earn a doctoral degree in psychology—and one of the first to devote a large segment of her career to a field that we now call women's studies. A hall- mark of her career was her struggle to find a way for women to reconcile their careers and family lives. Write The Psychology of Beauty, then married Benjamin Howes, Married women could not hold academic positions at that time, so she was forced to step back from her academic pursuits. she founded the Institute for the Coordination of Women's Interests at Smith College to study and enhance the status of women.

(Choosing to Be Child-free) 3. Identify the major motivations for voluntary childlessness.

For most childfree people a desire for independence and freedom is central to their decision, and this is one of the most popular motivations A common perception of the voluntarily childless is that they dislike children. This may be the case for around a quarter it is a general lack of interest in children or discomfort in being around them that is more commonly expressed Having a better relationship with one's partner is a more frequently cited reason, going against the traditional perception that children are necessary for a happy and fulfilling relationship Concerns about overpopulation and its societal or environmental consequences received higher prominence in studies from the 1970s and 1980s, They are still mentioned often.

(It's not all bad: Women's construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change) 6. Discuss the implications of this research in light of the pervasive medicalization of women's menstruation. Be sure to discuss the authors' contention that this research suggests that the meanings of premenstrual changes are fluid rather than fixed.

The materiality of premenstrual changes of a physical or emotional nature is acknowledged, but women's intrapsychic negotiation of such change, in particular their resistance to cultural discourse that positions such changes as inevitably negative, can result in a positive premenstrual experience. This suggests that the meaning of premenstrual change is fluid rather than fixed, and that no change is inherently negative, or positive. This raises questions about the utility of standardized questionnaires that measure premenstrual change as they simply focus on the presence or absence of premenstrual changes, as well as duration or intensity, negating women's ongoing appraisal and negotiation of such changes, and the fact that the construction of premenstrual experiences varies across women, as well as across social and relational context.

Thoroughly understand the biological processes that occur during the menstrual cycle (CHAP 3)

The menstrual flow is the extra layers of uterine wall that have been developed and thickened in preparation for the possible implantation of a fertilized egg and are now being sloughed off. It is the last step in a complex process of hormonal feedback loops that involve the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the ovaries, and the uterus.

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 1. Explain the major purpose of the research presented in the research article. Discuss why it was theoretically important for this research to be conducted.

The purpose of this investigation was to test whether exposure to sexually objectifying words can lead to the negative consequences predicted by objectification theory. This research may be an important moderating factor in explaining the gender differences found in attitudes toward sex.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 2. Explain major purpose of the research how it relates to self-objectification.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to provide an in-depth, descriptive contextual understanding of the experiences of 11 women who work in a sexually objectifying restaurant environment.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 2. Explain the major purposes of the research

The purpose of this study was to understand how feminist women experience their bodies, and how they resist, accommodate, or otherwise experience cultural ideologies regarding women's attractiveness.

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 5. Explain the results of each of the study reported in the paper. Use words, not numbers!

The results of this study suggest that mere exposure to objectifying media can play a significant role in the initiation of a self-objectified state along with its attendant psychological consequences for women.

Describe the social context of motherhood in North America

The stereotypes surrounding motherhood suggest that women are supposed to achieve the ultimate fulfillment of their feminine role through motherhood, and mothers are supposed to be warm, nurturing, and selfless, sacrificing their own needs repeatedly to ensure the welfare of their children. When women fail to meet the unrealistic demands of this idealized role, society turns on them viciously: Mothers often take the brunt of the blame for failings in their children, and even for failings in society.

1. Explain how the following help determine biological sex and sexual differentiation. (CHAP 3) - sex hormones

The three sex hormones are Estrogen, Progesterone and Androgen - If the embryo is female, the ovaries will start secreting estrogen an progesterone. -the male duct will start degenerating and female one will start turning into female reproductive organs - If the embryo is male, the testis synthesize testosterone (a type of androgen) which influences the male tract to begin developing. It also produces a hormone called MIS which blocks female duct system from developing.

(Exploring feminist women's body consciousness) 3. Explain why the researchers chose focus groups as their methodology

They chose focus groups to conduct this study in order to explore diversity among feminists and gain more in-depth knowledge about the complexity of their behaviors and motivations. The focus group approach is particularly useful when attempting to break new ground, as the interactive nature of the group discussion helps reduce the power and influence of the researcher over the participants

Understand the major characteristics and known causes of Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CHAP 3)

They have a nonworking version of the gene on the X chromosome that is responsible for producing an androgen receptor protein, and without such a protein the body cannot sense and react to androgens. They are born with female genitals but male on the inside of the body. They usually have no acne and thick hair, and take estrogen to supplement breast growth.

(23 things you should never say to a childfree woman.) 1. What is your typical response to people who tell you they do not want children? How does your culture and socialization influence your response?

They have an incomplete life, that they might change their mind, they wont have someone to help them when they are older. I was raised in a Pakistani household which puts a large emphasis on extended families and children.

Describe Derne's (1994) study of Hindu men and gender inequalities

They interviewed adult men in India about joint family living, arranged marriages, restrictions on women outside the home, and interactions between husbands and wives. These men reported that they knew gender inequalities were maintained by their behavior— and that these gender inequalities bolstered their own power. For example, they noted that husband-wife interactions had to be limited so that women would not gain too much control over their husbands, and that women had to be restricted to the home in order to protect the family's (mainly the husband's) honor.

(Experiencing sexually objectifying environments: A qualitative study) 3. Explain the methodology used in the study. Understand how it was guided by a feminist qualitative inquiry paradigm.

feminist qualitative inquiry paradigm that served as the foundation for the researchers' beliefs that the real world makes a material difference in terms of race, gender, and class and an epistemological assumption that knowledge is both subjective and political. A focus on the experience of SOEs (sexually objectifying environment) is consistent with the feminist approach that attempts to "center and make problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations" Participants consisted of 11 heterosexual women, who ranged in age from 18 to 29 years. All participants were interviewed in person. The interviews were semistructured and began with general questions about choosing their role in the selected environment and their subsequent experience and then progressed toward more specific questions regarding perceived risk and protective factors and other more narrow subjects that emerged from the informants' interviews.

Explain the research by McFarlane & Williams (1994) on mood and menstruation. (CHAP 3)

followed 60 women and 10 men for 12 to 18 weeks, obtaining daily mood data. Mood ratings were later matched against information about menstrual cycles, lunar cycles, and days of the week. They found that two-thirds of both the women and the men showed cycles in their moods. Thus it might be viewed as "normal" for a person to have a regular pattern of emotional ups and downs. The findings suggest that both researchers and their female respondents may, for years, have been concentrating too exclusively on the menstrual cycle as a cause of emotional distress.

Define female genital mutilation and how it is practiced in different cultures. (CHAP 3)

invasive, painful, and dangerous operation that involves excision of all or part of the clitoris and is often carried out under medically risky conditions. Recognized as a violation of the human rights of girls and women by the international community, is followed in many African and Arab countries, with the highest prevalence in Somalia, Guinea, Djibouti, Egypt, and Eritrea. girls are subjected not only to clitoridectomy but also to infibulation, the cutting away of the labia and the sealing of the wound to leave only a tiny opening for menstruation and urination. If infection from the procedure does not kill them, these girls may suffer for years from pelvic infections caused by trapped urine or menstrual fluid. Their scarred birth canals create unnecessary dangers and agony each time they give birth; the baby's head may become trapped, leading to a hemorrhage or a ruptured bladder. the practice continues despite being outlawed

Cross-culturally, how much time do fathers spend with their children and what activities are they most likely to engage in during this time?

less than 1 hour a day. play activities.

Identify the percentage of married couples in the US, according to the 2000 Census

less than 50% of households.

Objectification theory

provides an important framework for understanding, women's lives in a sociocultural context that sexually objectifies the female body and equates a woman's worth with her body's appearance and sexual functions

Explain what research tells us about sex-related differences in the brain. (CHAP 3)

researchers measured testosterone levels in amniotic fluid and tested the association between those levels and the levels of masculine-typical play, measured when the children were aged six to 10 years. Parents of both boys and girls reported more masculine-typical activities and interests for children whose samples of amniotic fluid in utero had shown higher levels of testosterone (they speculate that testosterone at critical periods prenatally might masculinize of feminize the central nervous system).

Filial piety

respect and obedience toward one's elders

(Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification) 7. Thoroughly understand the major implications of this research. In other words, explain how this research could be relevant to people's lives and experiences.

self objectification leads to a highly self-conscious state of mind, then anxiety about one's own appearance, and whether it meets ever-changing and narrowly defined beauty ideals, is likely to follow correlates positively with social avoidance, distress, and public self-consciousness these negative emotions are linked directly with the feeling of shame and disgust

Explain how the amount of time fathers spend with their children changed since 1965

since 1965, U.S. fathers have almost tripled the amount of time spent with their children—to an average of 7.3 hours per week—whereas mothers spend almost twice that much time (13.5 hours per week)

Identify the proportion of families in North America headed by single fathers.

the number of households in which single fathers are caring for children has risen to 8 percent of all U.S. households

Explain how the principle of least interest influences power dynamics in romantic relationships.

the principle that, in a relationship, the person who is least dependent on the other for rewards—who needs the relationship least—has the most power. This individual feels freer to be domineering and is more likely to leave the relationship. Sensing this, the other partner is more likely to make accommodations and compromises to keep the relationship intact.

Explain the "matrix of tensions" surrounding motherhood (4 of them)

the relationship between herself and her relatively powerless but demanding baby, the mother must maintain a set of tensions—"a balance of conflicting emotions, attitudes, experiences, or states of mind" -Loss of self versus expansion of self. --The child's need of her may threaten a new mother's separate sense of self, yet she has also acquired a new identity as one who nurtures and nourishes. • Feeling omnipotent versus feeling liable. --- She may feel powerful in her mother role and try to exercise power in controlling the environment for her child. Yet she also faces enormous responsibility and blame for any damage to the child. •Life destruction versus life promotion. --Mothers sometimes feel rage and violent urges toward their children, yet they must reconcile these feelings with love for, and the tending and raising of, those children. • Maternal isolation versus maternal community. --Some new mothers may feel iso- lated and alone with their children. Others become participants in a maternal community that bridges many gaps between women, uniting them "across bar- riers that divide nonmothers"