PSYCH: unit 11 - intelligence
general intelligence
(g) a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
Ethnic Similarities and Differences
- Racial groups differ - High level achievement comes from high level of education - Difference in race is largely based on environmental factors
Children are said to have an intellectual disability if they have difficulty adapting to the demands of independent living and have IQ scores below 60. 70. 80. 90. 100.
70
Which of the following is a longitudinal study? -- Researchers test the intelligence of all the students in a high school. Intelligence tests are given to the residents of a nursing home. Researchers randomly select 50 students from a high school with 2000 students. The 50 students are given intelligence tests. A group of college juniors is given an extensive battery of tests over a period of 2 days. A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.
A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.
normal curve
A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
What's the difference between achievement and aptitude tests?
Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned. Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults.
Intellectual disability is defined by both IQ and which of the following? Chronological age Mental age Adaptive ability Physical condition Heritability
Adaptive ability
Which of the following is true of the mental similarities between adoptive children and their adoptive parents as they age? -- Adoptive children become much more similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become slightly more similar to their adoptive families over time. There is hardly any similarity, either when the adoptive children are young or when they are older. Adoptive children become slightly less similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.
Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.
What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?
An intelligence test score of or below 70 is one diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability (others are limited conceptual, social, and practical skills). People with this diagnosis vary from near-normal to requiring constant aid and supervision. Down syndrome is a developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. -- High-scoring people tend to be healthy and well-adjusted, as well as unusually successful academically. - Schools sometimes "track" such children, separating them from students with lower scores. - Such programs can become self-fulfilling prophecies as both groups live up to—or down to—others' perceptions and expectations.
According to Robert Sternberg, what kind of intelligence is assessed by traditional intelligence tests? Linguistic Practical Creative Spatial Analytical
Analytical
Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?
Aptitude tests aim to predict how well a test-taker will perform in a given situation. So they are necessarily "biased" in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. By "inappropriately biased," psychologists mean that a test predicts less accurately for one group than for another. In this sense, most experts consider the major aptitude tests unbiased. Stereotype threat, a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, affects performance on all kinds of tests.
Which of the following is true of boys compared with girls? Boys have a higher average intelligence score. Boys are better spellers than girls. Boys are better at detecting emotions. Boys are more verbally fluent. Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.
Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.
What are the arguments for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?
Charles Spearman proposed that we have one general intelligence (g). He helped develop factor analysis, a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related mental abilities. L. L. Thurstone disagreed and identified seven different clusters of mental abilities. Yet a tendency remained for high scorers in one cluster to score high in other clusters. Studies indicate that g scores are most predictive in novel situations and do not much correlate with skills in evolutionarily familiar situations.
How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?
Cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same cohort over a period of years) have shown that fluid intelligence declines in older adults, in part because neural processing slows. Crystallized intelligence tends to increase. The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. - At age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. - By early adolescence, scores are very stable and predictive.
The most widely used modern intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet. Louis Terman. Robert Sternberg. David Wechsler. Howard Gardner.
David Wechsler
What are the four components of emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence, which is an aspect of social intelligence, is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. Emotionally intelligent people achieve greater personal and professional success. Some critics question whether calling these abilities "intelligence" stretches that concept too far.
According to Charles Spearman and others, which of the following underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test? Savant syndrome General intelligence (g) Factor analysis Intelligence Emotional intelligence
General intelligence (g)
Which of the following best represents crystallized intelligence? -- Jake can solve math word problems quickly. Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles. Aliyah has a knack for training dogs. Anna writes creative computer programs. Heng bakes excellent chocolate chip cookies.
Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles.
William Stern
He invented the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ= (mental age ÷ chronological age) x 100
criteria for intellectual disability
IQ below 70 and difficulty meeting routine needs like self care
8 Intelligences (Gardner)
Identified 8 relatively independent intelligences, and views them as multiple abilities that come in different packages. Logical-mathematical Verbal-linguistic Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
When and why were intelligence tests created?
In the late 1800s, Francis Galton, who believed that genius was inherited, attempted but failed to construct a simple intelligence test. In France in 1904, Alfred Binet, who tended toward an environmental explanation of intelligence differences, started the modern intelligence-testing movement by developing questions to measure children's mental age and thus predict progress in the school system. -- During the early twentieth century, Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's work for use in the United States. - Terman believed intelligence is inherited, and he thought his Stanford-Binet could help guide people toward appropriate opportunities. - During this period, intelligence tests were sometimes used to "document" scientists' assumptions about the innate inferiority of certain ethnic and immigrant groups.
How is intelligence defined?
Intelligence is a mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. An intelligence test aims to assess these qualities and compare them with those of others, using a numerical score.
Why do intelligent people live longer?
Intelligence provides better access to resources. Intelligence encourages healthy lifestyles. Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health. A "well-wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longer life.
Which of the following is not a component of emotional intelligence? Understanding emotions Perceiving emotions Using emotions Managing emotions Inventing emotions
Inventing emotions
What would be true of a thermometer that always reads three degrees off? -- It is valid but not reliable. It is both reliable and valid. It is neither reliable nor valid. It is not valid, but you cannot determine if it is reliable from the information given. It is reliable but not valid.
It is reliable but not valid.
Who conducted a famous study of high IQ children? Lewis Terman David Wechsler Robert Sternberg Howard Gardner Alfred Binet
Lewis Terman
How and why do the genders differ in mental ability scores?
Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores. They differ in some specific abilities. Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. Boys outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics, though girls outperform boys in math computation. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. Psychologists debate evolutionary, brain-based, and cultural explanations of such gender differences.
Intelligence
Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations a concept and not a "thing" and is a socially constructed concept In research, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be "school smarts"
Which of the following can be used to demonstrate that only about 2 percent of the population scores are at least two standard deviations above the mean on an intelligence test? Reliability test Aptitude test Predictive validity test Test-retest procedure Normal curve
Normal curve
Which of the following provides the best evidence that race is more of a social construct than a biological category? -- People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race. The races arose in different continents. Behavior traits (like running speed) are associated with race. Skin cancer rates vary by race. The incidence of high blood pressure varies by race.
People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race
To what extent is intelligence related to neural processing speed?
People who score high on intelligence tests tend also to have agile brains and score high in speed of perception and speed of neural processing. The direction of correlation has not been determined, and some third factor may influence both intelligence and processing speed.
Gifted
Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 135 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area.
Which of the following is one of Robert Sternberg's types of intelligence? Naturalistic intelligence General intelligence Practical intelligence Savant intelligence Kinesthetic intelligence
Practical intelligence
How and why do racial and ethnic groups differ in mental ability scores?
Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores. The evidence suggests that environmental differences are largely, perhaps entirely, responsible for these group differences. 64-3
Which of the following best describes the extent to which a test yields consistent results upon retesting? Content validity Validity Reliability Predictive validity Normal curve
Reliability
What are reliability and validity?
Reliability is the extent to which a test yields consistent results (on two halves of the test, or when people are retested). Validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. - A test has content validity if it samples the pertinent behavior (as a driving test measures driving ability). - It has predictive validity if it predicts a behavior it was designed to predict. (Aptitude tests have predictive ability if they can predict future achievements.)
A test-developer defines uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. Which of the following best describes this process? Reliability testing Validation Content validation Standardization Predictive validity
Reliability testing
Of the following, which term best describes the condition in which a person with limited mental ability excels at a specific skill such as computation? Savant syndrome g factor Creative intelligence Emotional intelligence Street smarts
Savant syndrome
How do Gardner's and Sternberg's theories of multiple intelligences differ?
Savant syndrome seems to support Howard Gardner's view that we have multiple intelligences. He proposed eight independent intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three intelligence areas that predict real-world skills: analytical (academic problem solving), creative, and practical.
To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy?
Some studies have found a positive correlation between intelligence score and brain size and activity, especially in the frontal and parietal lobes. Ample gray matter and white matter enable efficient communication between brain circuits.
What are standardization and the normal curve?
Standardization establishes a basis for meaningful score comparisons by giving a test to a representative sample of future test-takers. The distribution of test scores often forms a normal (bell-shaped) curve around the central average score, with fewer and fewer scores at the extremes.
What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence?
Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees also provide evidence of environmental influences. Test scores of identical twins raised apart are slightly less similar (though still very highly correlated) than the scores of identical twins raised together. Studies of children raised in extremely impoverished environments with minimal social interaction indicate that life experiences can significantly influence intelligence test performance. No evidence supports the idea that normal, healthy children can be molded into geniuses by growing up in an exceptionally enriched environment.
What evidence points to a genetic influence on intelligence, and what is heritability?
Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees indicate a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Intelligence seems to be polygenetic, and researchers are searching for genes that exert an influence. Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.
mental orthopedics
The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.
heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
predictive validity
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.
The correlation between the IQ scores of fraternal twins raised together is lower than IQ scores of identical twins raised together. What conclusion can be drawn from this data? -- Nothing, because the type of twin has not been held constant. Nothing, because there is no comparison between twins and adopted children. Nothing, because cultural differences have not been considered. There is a genetic effect on intelligence. There is an environmental effect on intelligence.
There is a genetic effect on intelligence.
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound formerly refered to as mental retardation
Mental retardation
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound mild: 50-70, moderate: 35-50, severe: 20-35, profound: below 20
down syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
Down Syndrome
a condition of retardation and associated psychical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup, 47 instead of 46
IQ (intelligence quotient)
a fixed and objectively real trait we commit to reasoning error called reification
cohort
a group of people from a given time period
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. thus, a child who does well as the avg. 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8.
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
Factor Analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test, used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score Enables researchers to identify clusters of test items that measure a common ability
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
Lewis Terman
adapted Binet's test for American School Children, adapted original items, added others, est. new age norms, extended the upper end of the test's range from teenager's to "superior adult," renamed it "Stanford-Binet test"
Assessing Intelligence
assess a person & compare it to other people
Split-half reliability
checking the consistency
Mental age
chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance, general capacity that shows up in various ways (mental aptitude)
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
created test for french school children to test their "mental age" theorized mental aptitude is a general capacity that shows up in various ways. identified items that would predict how well French children would handle their schoolwork. purpose: identify French schoolchildren needing special attention.
aging and intelligence
cross-sectional studies suggest it declines; longitudinal studies suggest it does not
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
David Wechsler
developed the Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for preschoolers, developed it because Stanford-Binet was biased towards English speaking people Measure overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intellea that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems, verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory most widely used, kinda like common sense questions
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions is called interpersonal intelligence. general intelligence. practical intelligence. emotional intelligence. adaptive intelligence.
emotional intelligence.
Heritability relates to the -- percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to environmental influences. percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to genetics. correlation of intelligence test scores among family members. extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation. genetic stability of intelligence over time.
extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation.
General intelligence
factor according to Spearman and others that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test Proposed g factor is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis ex) athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
Charles Spearman's g refers to general intelligence. grouped intelligence factors. genetic intelligence. generated creativity. generalized reliability.
general intelligence.
The Flynn effect refers to the -- superiority of certain racial and ethnic groups on intelligence tests. extreme scores (very high and very low scores) that are more common for males than females on math tests. stereotype threat that might cause some Black students to underperform on standardized tests. predictive ability of intelligence tests. gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.
gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.
Test retest reliability
having same individual take the same test at 2 different times
Charles Spearman
helped develop factor analysis and believed in general intelligence (g factor)
Content validity
how well a test measures the total meaning of the concept and if it's a reasonably representative of the material it's evaluating
grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Test norms
info about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test
According to Carol Dweck, students are often hampered by a "fixed mindset." This means they believe: -- intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable. it is never good to change your mind once it is made up. intelligence can be "repaired" by doing specific mental exercises. they have already done everything they can to improve. problems can only be solved a particular way.
intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable.
The Question of Bias
intelligence tests measure developed abilities which reflect your education and expperuna, aptitude tests are biased in a sense that they are sensitive to performance difference caused by cultural aspects
Achievement test
intended to reflect what you have already learned
Francis Galton
interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement
Validity
measure what it was designed to measure
Reliability
measurement consistency
Achievement tests are to aptitude tests as -- verbal performance is to spatial performance. elementary school skills are to secondary school skills. measurement is to prediction. reliability is to validity. general intelligence is to multiple intelligences.
measurement is to prediction.
The original formula for a child's intelligence quotient compared a child's -- aptitude to his or her school performance. mental age to his or her chronological age. intelligence to his or her siblings' intelligence. intelligence to his or her parents' intelligence. math intelligence to his or her verbal intelligence.
mental age to his or her chronological age.
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences Supports the idea that intelligence comes in different packages Brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others Different abilities enabled our ancestors to cope with different environmental changes Argues that we don't have AN intelligence but instead have multiple intelligences, each independent of each other 8 intelligences
Normal Distribution
of scores form symmetrical bell-shaped curves in which the mean, median, and mode are equal, 68% in 1 std. Deviation, 95% in 2 std. Deviation, and 98% in 3 std. Deviations
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical - analytical (academic problem-solving): assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer. predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly - creative: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas. many inventions result from such creative problem solving. - practical: required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions. managerial success, for example, depends less on academic problem-solving skills than on shrewd ability to manage oneself, one's tasks, and other people. Sternberg and Richard Wagner offer a test of practical managerial intelligence that measures skill at writing effective memos, motivating people, delegating tasks and responsibilities, reading people, and promoting one's career. business executives who score relatively high on this test tend to earn high salaries and receive high performance ratings.
Recent research about brain size and function suggests that -- the occipital lobe is more active when people are thinking about questions on intelligence tests. people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems. there is no correlation between processing speed and IQ scores. people with larger brains are always smarter than those with smaller brains. subjects with larger parietal lobes tended to process information more slowly.
people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems.
Alfred Binet
pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)
The purpose of Alfred Binet's early intelligence test was to -- predict how children would do in school. identify differences among ethnic and racial groups. help French graduates find the occupation in which they were most likely to succeed. establish the scientific definition of intelligence. facilitate "genetic breeding" experiments.
predict how children would do in schoo
Students who do well on college entrance exams generally do well in their first year of college. This helps establish that these exams have predictive validity. split-half reliability. content validity. test-retest reliability. standard validity.
predictive validity.
Aptitude test
predicts one's ability to learn a new skill
Carol Dweck
reports that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a "fixed mindset"
Howard Gardner found evidence of multiple intelligences in individuals who scored low on intelligence but had an area of exceptional ability—for example, to make complex calculations. These people have the Flynn effect. savant syndrome. advanced mental age. Wechsler syndrome. intelligence heritability.
savant syndrome.
In general, males score higher than females on tests of spelling. verbal fluency. emotion detection. spatial ability. sensitivity to touch, taste, and odor.
spatial ability.
eugenics
study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart & fit people to reproduce
Theory: Spearman's general intelligence (g)
summary: A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas strengths: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. other considerations: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor.
Theory: Gardner's multiple intelligences
summary: Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. strengths: Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. other considerations: Should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called talents?
Theory: Sternberg's triarchic theory
summary: Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. strengths: These three facets can be reliably measured. other considerations: 1) These three facets may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. 2) Additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success.
Theory: Thurstone's primary mental abilities
summary: Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. strengths: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities. other considerations: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor.
Criteria validity
test scores should correlate highly with the actual skill
Alternate form reliability
testing the same individual twice but giving a different version on retake date
Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests includes: - similarities: reasoning the commonality of 2 objects or concepts, such as "IN what way are wool and cotton alike?" - Vocab: naming pictured objects, or defining words "what is a guitar" - block design: visual abstract processing, such as "using the 4 blocks, make one just like this." - letter-number sequencing: On hearing a series of numbers and letters, repeat the numbers in ascending order, and then the letters in alphabetical order: "R-2-C-1-M-3." - - - * It yields not only an overall intelligence score, as does the Stanford-Binet, but also separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. Striking differences among these scores can provide clues to cognitive strengths or weaknesses that teachers or therapists can build upon.
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions perceive: recognize in faces, music, and stories understanding: to predict them and how they change and blend use: to enable adaptive or creative thinking
Heritability of intelligence refers to -- the extent to which a person's intelligence is caused by genetics. the effect of adoption on the intelligence of adopted children. the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics. the extent to which the quality of schools and other environmental factors determine intelligence. the correlation between intelligence test scores of identical twins.
the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics.
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
According to most experts, intelligence tests are not biased because -- the average scores for various racial and ethnic groups do not differ by much. the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict. cultural background has little influence on test scores. scores on the test are not very stable even when you don't consider race. scores are increasing for almost all groups because of the Flynn effect.
the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict.
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
Flynn effect
the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years
Standardization
utilizing scores from a representative sample to determine how well an individual did on the test relative to other test takers, create similar testing conditions for all
Reification
viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing
Alfred Binet (Colleague Theodore Simon)
wants to know a child's mental age Varied reasoning and problem solving questions that might predict school achievement Made no assumptions about children being slow, etc.
Construct validity
whether a test is really evaluating on abstract psych