Psychology 201 Midterm 2 (Final)
retrograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose past memories, such as memories for events, facts, people, or even personal information.
anterograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories
Habituation
A decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus
amnesia
A deficit in long-term memory—resulting from disease, brain injury, or psychological trauma—in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information.
stimulus discrimination
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
emotional intelligence (EQ)
A form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.
short-term memory
A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness.
sensory memory
A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form.
restructuring
A new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution
spontaneous recovery
A process in which a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus
Extinction
A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus
shaping
A process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
Learning
A relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.
unconditioned response
A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex
conditioned response
A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.
reinforcer
A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.
classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response
procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits. (implicit/non-declarative memories)
continuous reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs
partial reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently.
source amnesia
A type of misattribution that occurs when a person shows memory for an event but cannot remember where he or she encountered the information
cryptomnesia
A type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source
Gambling on a slot machine involves rewards on a ____________ schedule.
A variable ratio schedule -is not going to reward an organism in any predictable way. The reward may or may not occur after a random number of plays on the slot machine.
cognitive map
A visual/spatial mental representation of an environment. ex. first seen with rats in mazes
prototype model
A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category.
retrieval cues
Anything that helps a person (or a nonhuman animal) recall information stored in long-term memory.
stereotype threat
Apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group.
representativeness heuristic example
You know what punk bands look like and sound like. So when you see a photo of a new band that looks punk, you assume the band's music is punk. When you listen to a sample, you are surprised to hear dance pop
example relative comparison (anchoring)
You plan to donate $25 to your university's scholarship fund. However, when you receive the call for donations, the caller asks if you will contribute $100. You cannot afford $100, but because that figure has been suggested, you agree to donate $50.
the following example are an analogical representation
a watch with a standard watch face a drawing of the information in a math problem a photograph of your best friend a mental image of your best friend a sketch of a football play
exemplar model
a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership
Which of the following strategies can improve problem solving? a. breaking the problem into subgoals b. restructuring the problem c. using mental sets d. working backward from a goal e. being constrained by functional fixedness f. using an analogy
a,b,d,f
Which of the following are true statements about conditioning? Check as many as apply. a. Classical conditioning is only one kind of learning. b. Only nonhuman animals can be classically conditioned. c. Classical conditioning requires that stimuli be presented close in time. d. Classical conditioning requires that stimuli be presented overlapping in time. e. Once an association has been conditioned, it is impossible to break that association. f. Extinction results in the forgetting of a previously learned association. g. Surprising events decrease associative strength between two stimuli. h. Spontaneous recovery can explain why craving and relapse are so common in addiction. i. Phobias or strong fears can be classically conditioned
a,c,h,i
Which of the following examples are environmental factors that could affect intelligence?
being raised by caregivers of high intelligence breastfeeding until 9 months of age being born into a family with high socioeconomic status going to a good school avoiding exposure to toxins
The best argument that long-term memory and short-term memory (currently referred to as working memory) are separate entities is that:
brain damage can leave one but not the other intact -H.M. is famous case of a person who had short-term (working) memory, but lacked the ability to form new long-term memories because his medial temporal lobes (which contain the hippocampi) were removed
The critical finding from Bandura's Bobo doll research was that
children who viewed a model being rewarded for acting aggressively toward the doll exhibited more aggressive behaviors toward the doll than did children in the control condition.
Nkeis decides to buy a small car because it is good for the environment. When she looks at small cars, she expects to be very basic and uncomfortable, so she is surprised that they come in luxury versions. Nkeis has been using:
the representativeness heuristic
The amygdala and hippocampus are located in which part of the brain?
the medial temporal lobe -The amygdala and hippocampus are important structures in memory formation, and both are located deep within the brain, in the medial temporal lobes
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a behavior
long-term memory
the relatively permanent storage of information
Indicate whether each of the following situations is an example of nonassociative, associative, or observational learning: Every time your roommate cleans your room, you treat her to pizza. She begins looking forward to cleaning because she knows pizza will follow
Associative
Indicate whether each of the following situations is an example of nonassociative, associative, or observational learning: Since it is Thursday, you know that the cafeteria special will include macaroni and cheese
Associative
decision making
Attempting to select the best alternative from among several options
normative decision theory
Attempts to define how people should make decisions
descriptive decision theory
Attempts to predict how people actually make choices, not to define ideal choices
What is the difference between habituation and sensitization?
In habituation, your behavioral response decreases in response to a repeated stimulus. In sensitization, your behavioral response increases in response to a repeated stimulus.
functional fixedness
In problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects
crystallized intelligence
Intelligence that reflects both the knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge.
fluid intelligence
Intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, particularly in novel or complex circumstances.
retroactive interference
Interference that occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information.
proactive interference
Interference that occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information.
features belonging to sensory memory
Visual, auditory, or olfactory information that enables us to experience the world as a continuous stream Has a duration of less than one second
flashbulb memory
Vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event.
Affective example
When people enter into new romantic relationships, they expect their happiness to last the rest of their lives.
concept
A category, or class, of related items; it consists of mental representations of those items.
Rescorla-Wagner model
A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected
symbolic representation
Abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas (the word violin)
observational learning
Acquiring or changing a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior.
phobia
An acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation.
working memory
An active processing system that keeps different types of information available for current use modern concept of short term memory
mental age
An assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age
Sensitization
An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
intelligence quotient (IQ)
An index of intelligence computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100.
people and phenomena related to operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner did not believe in subjective states. Behavior modification can change undesirable behaviors A behavior is associated with its consequences This form of conditioning can be used to train animals to perform tricks and useful tasks. Punishment's effects are explained by this type of conditioning.
features belonging to working memory
Can actively maintain 4 to 9 items. Has a duration of 20 to 30 seconds.
What is the main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning requires learning that two events are related, whereas operant conditioning demonstrates that behavior leads to a consequence. -Classical conditioning is learning that an unconditioned stimulus predicts a conditioned stimulus, and the behavioral response is reflexive, automatic. Operant conditioning is learning that a particular consequence follows a voluntary behavior, therefore, the organism continues or stops performing the voluntary behavior based on that consequence.
stereotypes
Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
Schemas
Cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information.
features belonging long-term memory.
Could last permanently. Can hold a potentially unlimited amount of information.
analogical representations
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects (a picture of a violin)
example of availability heuristic
Each year, many more people die in car accidents than die in plane crashes. Yet many more people view flying as more dangerous than driving
T/F According to normative theories of decision making, people use heuristics to make decisions. According to descriptive theories, people make decisions based on achieving the greatest gain.
False
T/F False memories are easily implanted even for events that are unlikely to happen
False
problem solving
Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.
The first time you pick up your pet hamster, it recoils in fear. After a week of handling, your hamster is not bothered anymore. What change came over your hamster through the simple act of repetitive handling?
Habituation -is a decreased behavioral response (recoiling in fear) with increased exposure to a non-threatening stimulus (a week of handling). The hamster gets used to the handling and no longer shows the fear.
Framing
In decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative
people and phenomena related to classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov studied salivation in dogs. Two stimuli that occur close together in time are associated The blocking effect prevents learning that a new stimulus signals an event.
mnemonics
Learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues.
stimulus generalization
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
latent learning
Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement.
vicarious learning
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action.
associative learning
Linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together.
availability heuristic
Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
episodic memory
Memory for one's personal past experiences (explicit/declarative memory)
reconsolidation
Neural processes involved when memories are recalled and then stored again for retrieval.
mirror neurons
Neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action
Indicate whether each of the following situations is an example of nonassociative, associative, or observational learning: After a long summer at home, you start "tuning out" your little brother when he becomes annoying
Non-associative
Indicate whether each of the following situations is an example of nonassociative, associative, or observational learning: After watching your roommate clean your room a few times, you clean it the same way the next time
Observational
What is the main concept behind Spearman's theory of general intelligence (g)?
One intelligence factor operates in all intellectual tasks.
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember
representativeness heuristic
Placing a person or object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category
mental set
Problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.
prospective memory
Remembering to do something at some future time
John B. Watson had planned to extinguish Little Albert's conditioned response to the rat. Which of the following techniques would have achieved that goal?
Repeatedly showing Little Albert the rat without making a loud sound
nonassociative learning
Responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event
A character on a TV show wanders into a hospital seeking help because he can not remember who he is or where he is from. If the doctor on the show knows anything about memory, she will diagnose the man with
Retrograde amnesia -is loss of previously formed explicit memories (everything about who he is and where he is from), while anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new explicit memories
You are driving to school when suddenly an ambulance rushes past you with its siren blaring, shocking you so much that you fear that you might lose control of your car. A minute later, you hear a siren in the distance and increase your vigilance to be prepared for another emergency vehicle on the road. What change has come over your normal reaction to sirens?
Sensitization -is an increased behavioral response (vigilance) with increased exposure to a potentially threatening stimulus (sirens and emergency vehicles).
heuristics
Shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions
long-term potentiation (LTP)
Strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons.
Which of the following statements represents the best evidence that genetics plays an important role in determining intelligence?
The IQs of identical twins raised apart tend to be more similar than the IQs of fraternal twins raised together.
intelligence
The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges
Retrieval
The act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed step 3/3
positive punishment
The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.
positive reinforcement
The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated ex. press lever-delivers food
memory bias
The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes.
declarative memory
The cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared
aquisition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
partial-reinforcement extinction effect
The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.
encoding specificity principle
The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience.
general intelligence factor (g)
The idea that one general factor underlies intelligence.
serial position effect
The idea that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle.
Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike)
Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to occur again.
cognition
The mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking
thinking
The mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world
memory
The nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge.
consolidation
The neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory
What causes extinction?
The organism learns that the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus. -When only the conditioned stimulus is presented again and again without being presented with the unconditioned stimulus, the learned bond between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is broken. Therefore, the organism starts to behave as it first did to the conditioned stimulus (i.e., it does not show the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus).
encoding
The processing of information so that it can be stored step 1/3
negative punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated ex. press lever-stops shock
storage
The retention of encoded representations over time step 2/3
insight
The sudden realization of a solution to a problem
implicit memory
The system underlying unconscious memories.
affective forecasting
The tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future.
anchoring
The tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind.
behavior modification
The use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones.
How does the transmission of cultural memes relate to learning?
They can be learned by reinforcement or by observation.
Which of the following is a disadvantage of scripts?
They can reinforce undesirable behaviors.
Which of the following is an advantage of scripts?
They provide quick and almost effortless guides to behavior in different situations.
example relative comparison (framing)
Your roommate buys meat described as 75 percent lean instead of meat described as 25 percent fat.
Categorization
a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information
the following examples are a symbolic representation
a digital watch the word rouge, meaning "red" in French
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses ex. Imagine putting a lot of money into a slot machine in the hope that eventually you will win. The reinforcer (slash mark) is a payoff.
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals ex. Imagine yourself checking for texts and emails frequently throughout the day. The reinforcer (slash) is a message from a friend
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex. Imagine factory workers who are paid based on making a certain number of objects. The reinforcer (slash mark) is payment
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed ex. Imagine a cat learning to perform "feed me" behaviors right before the two feeding times each day. The reinforcer (slash mark) is the food.
Suppose a mother is trying to get her 8-year-old to stop cursing. Each time the child curses, the mother waits until the child's father is present before spanking the child. Select the better answers: a. The time interval between the cursing and the punishment is — too long for optimal learning. — fine as long as the punishment is administered on the same day as the cursing. b. One likely outcome to the continued use of this punishment is — the child will curse at times he or she is unlikely to be caught. — the child will gradually extinguish the cursing response. c. Generalization is likely to occur such that — the child curses only when the father is at work. — the child comes to fear the father and mother. d. What is the child likely to learn? — Do not get caught cursing. — Cursing is a nasty behavior that must be stopped. e. A more effective approach would be to — spank the child as soon as the cursing occurs. — provide rewards for not cursing.
a. too long for optimal learning. b. the child will curse at times he or she is unlikely to be caught c. the child comes to fear the father and mother d. Do not get caught cursing e. provide rewards for not cursing.
Identify the following statements as true or false. a. Long-term potentiation provides evidence for Hebb's concept that "cells that fire together wire together." b. The hippocampus is the only area of the brain required for memory. c. Damage to the hippocampus results in amnesia for some but not all events. d. Reconsolidation offers one model for understanding why memories are not always accurate. e. Areas of the cortex such as the temporal lobes and sensory areas are not involved in memory. f. Once information is consolidated and stored, the memory will last for the animal's lifetime.
a. true; b. false; c. true; d. true; e. false; f. false.
Research has shown that people do not necessarily believe that "time heals all wounds" when something bad is about to happen to them. Instead, people tend to use ____________ and anticipate the worst.
affective forecasting
A picture of a carrot is an example of a(n) ____________ representation; the word carrot is a(n) ____________ representation.
analogical; symbolic
Colt is an excellent quarterback. One skill that contributes to his ability is that he sees the players not just as individuals but as units that can be called on to make different plays. This skill enables him to process the game more efficiently and to hold more information about the game in his short-term memory. Colt is using the memory strategy of:
chunking -is a technique that can increase the amount of information one can store in short-term memory by combining smaller bits of information (e.g., players as individuals) into larger, meaningful pieces of information (e.g., players as units).
Changes in the strength of neural connections and construction of new synapses cause
consolidation -Consolidation is the biological change that occurs in the brain when new memories are formed. If a memory is encoded, consolidation needs to occur so that the memory can be stored in the brain.
If you study in the same room in which you take an exam, you will probably do better on the exam than if you had studied somewhere else. This outcome occurs because of _________ memory, which is a form of __________.
context-dependent; encoding specificity -The closer the match between the learning and testing situations, the more likely you will retrieve the information. The encoding specificity principle suggests that information in memory is "content addressable". In this example, the context (location) is important for cueing the retrieval of the memory.
Jamail is trying to decide whether to major in biology or psychology. Kevin is trying to figure out what type of part time job he can get that will let him continue with college. Jamail is engaged in ____________; Kevin is engaged in ____________.
decision making; problem solving
Kalil has read that small breeds of dogs were usually bred either as alert dogs or to attack rodents. When he sees a chihuahua, he expects the dog to be aggressive. What type of reasoning is he using?
deductive reasoning
Yang believes that a whale is a fish because a whale swims. Yang's misconception suggests that he is using a(n) ____________ model for the fish category.
defining attribute
suggestibility
distortion Altering a memory because of misleading information ex. Developing false memories for events that did not happen
bias
distortion Influence of current knowledge on memory for past events ex. Remembering past attitudes as similar to current attitudes even though the past attitudes have changed
Misattribution
distortion; assigning a memory to the wrong source ex. Falsely thinking that Richard Shiffrin is famous because his name is well known
The neurotransmitter that is most important for reinforcement learning is:
dopamine -Reinforcement involves receiving a reward after performing a behavior. If receiving a reward feels good it is because the reward led to the release of dopamine in the brain.
Alina is a straight A student in an honors business program and has had very prestigious internships. During her job interviews, however, Alina comes across as arrogant about her abilities. She fails to see that her interviewers are looking for team players, not independent superstars. It is likely that Alina scores low on
emotional intelligence
Political commentators often stress the importance of a candidate's appearing presidential, a quality that characterizes past presidents but is not equated with any one of them. Which theory of categorization could best explain this concept of being presidential?
exemplar
Akila's brother asks her if she knows the names of the capitals of Texas and Montana. She instantly knows that the capital of Texas is Austin, but she does not know the capital of Montana. Akila is using her ____________ memory to try to retrieve ____________ memories.
explicit, declarative -Akila has to consciously recall the state capitals, therefore, she is using explicit memory (implicit memory recall is unconscious). Consciously recalled information from memory is also known as declarative memory.
Getting paid monthly is what type of reinforcement schedule?
fixed interval -Fixed interval means that an organism receives a predictable reward after a set amount of time. In this case, the set amount of time is each month. The reward (pay check) predictably comes each month.
If you trained a rat to fear a flashing light by pairing the light with a painful electric shock, what would be your conditioned stimulus?
flashing light -If you are training the rat to fear the flashing light, that means that the flashing light started as the neutral stimulus. Therefore, it needs to be paired with an unconditioned stimulus (electric shock), which automatically produces fear. After repeated pairing of the neutral and unconditioned stimulus, the flashing light will become the conditioned stimulus and will automatically elicit in the fear response.
Transience/memory decay
forgetting reduced memory over time ex. forgetting the plot of a movie
Blocking/retrieval failure
forgetting, inability to remember needed information ex. Failing to recall the name of a person you meet on the street
Absentmindedness/encoding failure
forgetting, reduced memory due to failing to pay attention ex. Losing your keys or forgetting a lunch date
Restructuring a problem often reveals a new and more successful approach to solving it. That fact suggests that a critical and ESSENTIAL step in problem solving is:
formulating the problem
A grocery store owner places a new item at the front of each aisle every few days. He wants people to think that these items are in front because they are special or on sale. The grocery store owner is trying to use ____________ to sell the items at the front.
framing effect -By placing a new item at the front of each aisle every few days, the store owner is trying to use the framing effect.
People tend to become closed minded when asked to find a different use for an object that has a clear purpose. This mind-set is a result of:
functional fixedness
When slight differences in the form of conditioned stimuli still produce the same conditioned response, the learning phenomenon of ____________ is occurring.
generalization -An organism might respond similarly to a stimulus that is not identical, but is very similar, to the conditioned stimulus. This is known as generalization.
Eric Kandel's study of learning in invertebrate animals provided evidence for neuronal alteration during the behaviors of:
habituation and sensation -Eric Kandel performed research on aplysia (i.e., sea slugs) to study learning. He studied habituation (repeatedly poking the gills of the aplysia until it decreased the response of pulling away its gills), and sensitization (sending a strong shock to the tail of the aplysia followed by a weak shock, with the second shock leading to a strong response).
On his way to get an afternoon snack, Jed walks by a billboard advertising hamburgers. He had intended to get an ice cream cone but instead orders French fries. According to the spreading activation model, the hamburger made Jed want French fries because:
hamburgers activated the nodes for french fries -In the spreading activation model, there are nodes of information (e.g., hamburger, ice cream cone, French fries) that are interconnected. The stronger the connection between nodes, the more likely that activating one node will activate the other. In this case, see hamburger advertisements activates the hamburger node, which is likely strongly linked to the French fries node (because hamburgers and French fries are often found together in the world).
Marco never had to study in high school, and he starts college the same way. After his first exams, he realizes he needs to study. He decides to go to the library every night and study for six straight hours. When he can not study for that long, he does not know what to do and gives up. Marco's approach to solving his problems with studying failed because:
he did not establish reasonable subgoals
following event is the effect of activating a node
hearing a bark and thinking of a furry, four-legged animal who likes to wag its tail and lick your face
Echoic memory is to ___________ as iconic memory is to ______
hearing; vision
Almost all empirical psychology studies that employ sampling, hypothesis testing, and statistical analysis rely on the concept of ____________ to generalize findings to a population.
inductive reasoning
Activation of mirror neurons
is most likely when we observe someone else performing a goal-oriented behavior
According to levels of processing theory, information that is more deeply encoded is remembered better than less deeply encoded information because
it is more meaningful -Deep encoding requires analyzing the meaning of information. By analyzing the meaning of new information and figuring out how the information relates to already known information, the new information is processed more deeply and thereby better remembered.
Forgetting your new phone number and dialing your old number instead is an example of ___________ interference. Calling your new sorority sister Megan instead of Maggie because she reminds you of a Megan you knew in high school is an example of ___________ interference.
retroactive; proactive
Which of the following phenomena may offer an explanation of why rote memorization is not generally an effective way to remember material?
levels of processing theory
Joel is fantastic at solving logic problems and analogies, but he does not have a very good vocabulary and could not find most countries on a map. Joel would probably score ____________ on a test of crystallized intelligence and ____________ on a test of fluid intelligence.
low, high
Geoff is trying to remember his shopping list by repeating the items over and over again to himself. He is using:
maintenance rehearsal -is not a deep form of encoding. It requires only repetition of information in short-term (working) memory, without analysis of the deeper meaning of the information.
What is the term for the cultural transmission of knowledge from one generation to another?
meme -A meme is a piece of knowledge passed from one generation to the next.
semantic memory
memory for knowledge about the world (explicit/declarative memory)
The Binet IQ test compares the difference between which of the following factors?
mental and chronological age
Imitation learning is facilitated by special brain structures known as:
mirror neurons -Mirror neurons are neurons in the brain that activate under two conditions: when the organism actually performs the behavior themselves, and when the organism watches another organism perform the same behavior.
Billy has watched many movies in which the hero smokes cigarettes. When Billy identifies with these heroes and begins to smoke, what psychological term might be used to describe his behavior?
modeling -When people reproduce or imitate the behaviors of others, it is known as modeling
following events are a retrieval cue
scoring higher on a test when you sit at the same desk where you sat during lecture (context-dependent cues) feeling very anxious about your chemistry exam and scoring poorly even though you studied and knew the material well when you were calm (state-dependent)
Taking away a child's video games for bad behavior is a form of:
negative punishment -Negative means the organism loses a stimulus after performing a behavior. Punishment means the change in the stimulus decreases the likelihood the behavior will reoccur. In this case, losing video games is negative punishment because the organism is losing a stimulus (video games) and this is likely to decrease the chance the organism will want to perform the bad behavior again.
An economics professor and a psychology professor are discussing how people make decisions. The economics professor argues that people are optimal decision makers. The psychology professor counters that people are often irrational decision makers. The economics professor believes in a ____________ model of human decision making; the psychology professor believes in a ____________ model.
normative; descriptive
Ian, age 2, was watching his father hammer a nail. His father hit his own thumb and then used several expletives. As his father went into the house for a Band-Aid, Ian went over to the nail, picked up the hammer, pretended to hit his finger and repeated the expletives. This scenario exemplifies what kind of learning?
observational learning -Observational learning involves learning a behavior after watching another perform the behavior.
The expectation that a minister will give a sermon in church, whereas a professor will give a lecture in class, comes from the property of schemas that
people have specific roles in situations
Reconsolidation and increasing gene expression through the use of HDAC inhibitors can help reduce
persistance
Jacob learned French in high school and is now learning Spanish in college. Sometimes when he intends to write a Spanish word, he instead writes a French word. Jacob's problem is due to:
proactive interference -is when old information (in this case French) interferes with new information (in this case Spanish). In proactive interference, the interference is forward (old to new) rather than backward (new to old), which is the case for retroactive interference
Ivaylo goes skiing after many years away from the sport. What kind of memory makes it possible for him to get back on the slopes without taking new skiing lessons?
procedural memory -Remembering how to perform motor tasks, such as skiing, involves procedural memory (a type of implicit memory).
Persistence
remembering The resurgence of unwanted or disturbing memories one would like to forget ex. Remembering an embarrassing faux pas
the following events are an example implicit procedural memory.
remembering how to throw a curve ball remembering how to write the letter "A remembering how to shuffle a deck of cards
following event is a schema
remembering that a poodle is a type of dog
the following actions are primarily crystallized intelligence
remembering the name of the 13th president of the United States identifying a noun, a verb, an adjective, and a preposition in a sentence knowing the height of the Empire State Building
the following events are an example of episodic memory.
remembering the time you hit a home run in your baseball game remembering your English professor from last semester remembering the time you won $25 in a card game
the following events are an example of semantic memory.
remembering what a noun is remembering that three of a kind beats two pair in poker
A grocery store manager decides to combat shoplifting by requiring customers to pay somewhat more than the estimated cost of their groceries when they enter the store and receive their change—or pay more, if necessary—when they leave. Customers are confused and unhappy about this change in the process of shopping because it violates our social:
script
A friend gives you her new address over the phone, and you realize that you do not have a pen to write it down. Approximately how long can it take for you find a pen before her address will vanish from your short-term memory (working memory)?
several seconds -Information is thought to remain in short-term memory (currently referred to as working memory) for 20-30 seconds.
Sergio tells Monica that his roommate goes to a lot of parties. After this conversation, Monica tells Genevra that Sergio's roommate drinks a great deal. Monica believes this statement about Sergio's roommate because:
she used her schema of a party person -Schemas are generalized memories we store about things in the world (e.g., people, places, events). In this case, Monica has a schema for, or a generalized idea of, someone who goes to a lot of parties and how that person is likely to act. Even though Monica does not really know if the roommate drinks a lot, she uses her schema of a party person and assumes that the roommate must drink a lot.
Your gullible friend, who falls for every advertised "miracle" product, tells you about a new subliminal messaging system that lets you influence people to get whatever you want. You initially dismiss his claim, but weeks later you buy a set of books and tapes on subliminal messaging. This purchase illustrates which type of memory distortion?
sleeper effect
the following actions are primarily fluid intelligence
solving a crossword puzzle identifying multiple uses for a pencil understanding the meaning of a sentence calculating the volume of a building that is 120 feet tall and 90 feet wide
As you are telling a funny story, your boyfriend keeps interrupting you to say things like, "No, it was Sarah who said that, not LaToya." Either you or your boyfriend is experiencing:
source misattribution -Misremembering information about an event (such as the people involved, the location, the time) is known as source misattribution.
Consolidation is a critical step in which phase of memory?
storage
Why is eyewitness testimony so inaccurate?
suggestibility, false memory, confirmation bias
Long-term potentiation (LTP) has also been demonstrated to function outside the hippocampus. What brain structure uses LTP for fear-specific learning?
the amygdala -The amygdala is important in fear conditioning.
explicit memory
the system underlying conscious memories
Learning that occurs when one learns the consequences of an action by observing another's consequences is called:
vicarious learning -If one organism watches another organism being rewarded or punished for a behavior, the organism that is watching can learn to not perform the same behavior via vicarious learning.
Which of the following items would most likely be defined as a primary reinforcer?
water bottle -A primary reinforcer is a reward that is directly related to survival and directly satisfies a biological need. In this case, water is the only primary reinforcer because it satisfies a basic, biological need.
