Psychology 2500
Which of the following statements is an operational definition of "Fear of Snakes" that could be assessed as a structured question?
"On a scale of 1 to 10, how afraid of snakes are you?"
Small N Experiments
- Definition: studying only a few people a) Cannot get numerous people because of ethical or practical reasons b) Can still get large effect sizes and obtain a lot of information from a few individuals - Disadvantages :a) Few participants may not represent the entire population (external validity) b) May be alternate explanations for relationship
If a study describes the "difference in differences" what is the minimum number of variables the researchers were studying?
2
Which of the following studies would probably require written informed consent?
A confidential study examining income level and voting behavior
You submit a study for approval by the Institutional review board (IRB) and they tell you that written informed consent is required. Which of the following can be excluded from your informed consent document?
A description of the study's hypotheses
availability heuristic
A form of intuition and being persuaded by what comes easily to mind. It states that things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking.
Which of the following claims is most likely to be made in generalization mode?
A majority of women report considering infidelity at least once during their marriage
When using correlation coefficients to evaluate reliability, which of the following is undesirable?
A negative Correlation Coefficient
Systematic Sampling
A procedure in which the selected sampling units are spaced regularly throughout the population; that is, every n'th unit is selected.
In order to use the known groups paradigm to establish criterion validity, which of the following is necessary?
After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure.
Factorial Study
An experimental study that simultaneously tests the effect of multiple factors (independent variables or treatments) on the dependent variable and includes an assessment of potential interactions among the treatments
Research that is done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology, like distinguishing the components of extraversion or predicting the time it takes a person to determine whether an object is a face or another object is known as?
Applied Research
Attrition
Attrition occurs when participants leave during a study. ... Systematic differences between people who leave the study and those who continue can introduce bias into a study's results - this is attrition bias. However, the results may not necessarily be biased, despite different drop-out rates in the groups.
Which of the following graph formulas is the best way to examine an association claim between a categorical variable a Quantitative variable?
Bar Graph
Basic Research
Basic research is not intended to address a specific, practical problem; the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge.Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems
What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study?
Can test limits Allows to test whether an independent variable affects different kinds of people, or people in different situations, in the same way Form of external validity When researchers test an IV in more than one group at once, they are testing whether the effect generalizes Can test theoriesBest way to study how variables interact is to combine them in a factorial design and measure whether the results are consistent with the theory
Asking many similar questions when trying to measure a concept is done to?
Cancel out Random Errors
Which of the following statement is true of observational data?
Clear directions related to the operational definitions of the selected behavior must be determined. CAN BE USED FOR FREQUENCY CLAIMS
Coercion
Forcing participants to participants in research without their consent
A local committee that reviews research that is conducted on animals is known as?
IACUC
An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT
Inclusion of a graph
Which of the following CANNOT typically be applied to a small N Design
Inferential Statistics
Applied Research
Is done with a practical problem in mind: conduct research in real world context.
Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be an effective producer of research?
It is important to know how to interpret the results and graphs of your study
Large N designs differ from small N designs what ways?
Large N studies typically gather less information about participants than Small N designs
Martin has found a correlation of r = .18 between the two variables of caffeine consumption and frontal lobe activity. This correlation is more likely to be statistically significant if:
Martin used a larger number of subjects
Measurement Error
Measurement error error that occurs when the measurement obtained is not an accurate portrayal of what the intended measurement was.
What is the relationship between moderators and external validity?
Moderators suggest that associations may not generalize to all subgroups of people
Basic Research
Not intended to address a specific, practical problem: the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge.
Unobtrusive observation is done to counteract which of the following?
Reactivity
Generalization Mode
Researchers want to generalize findings from their study to a larger population. Generalization Mode 2 - External validity is prioritized higher than internal validity. - Random sampling is extremely important (HOW, not HOW MANY) - Frequency claims are always in generalization mode. *variable of population of interest"no bias sampling, only representative.
Theories Don't PROVE anything
Scientists evaluate their theories based on the weight of the evidence.
Using the same setting and consistent protocols for each participant in a study will reduce the effect of?
Situation Noise
Who is responsible for deciding which validity is prioritized in a study?
The Researcher
A common finding in the study of aggression is that exposure to television is associated with increased aggressive behavior in children. You know this relationship may not be causal because you are not sure which occurred first: watching television or being aggressive. You are question which of the following rules of causation?
The Rule Of Temporal Precedence -
The criterion of Temporal Precedence
The Study's Method ensures that A comes first time, Before B
Criterion of External Validity
The extent to which the results of a study generalize to some larger population. As well as times or situations.
probablility sample
The key benefit of probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the sample chosen is representative of the population. This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid.
Two researchers tell you they study the same thing. However, when you look at their research papers, they do not use similar methodologies or measurements. How is this possible?
The researchers have the same conceptual definitions.
Operational Definition - what does it do?
The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study.
Correlation Coefficient and a Scatterplot both provide which of the following pieces of information?
The strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements
Third variable Criterion or Internal Validity
The study's method ensures that there are no plausible alternative explanations for the change in B; A is the only thing that changed.
Criterion of Covariance
The study's results show that as A changes, B changes. "High levels of A go with High Levels of B"
In theory data cycle, theories first lead to
Theory leads to Research Questions which leads to Research Design which leads to Hypotheses which leads to Data
Dr Smitherman conducted a study 5 years ago and his graduate student now recommends that they conduct the study again. He says "No I cannot do that study now; I think it's unethical". Which of the following is a reasonable explanation for his response?
There were no ethical guidelines 5 years ago, but there are now.
Which of the following is Not true of finding a stronger effect size in an association claim?
There will be greater construct validity
example of longitudinal study
These studies aim to understand the development of behavior in the long term, rather than a snapshot of it. They track a group or individual over time, whether it is months or years. It is a type of observational, correlational study, as it tracks two variables. Data is collected at the start of the study and may be gathered repeatedly throughout the study in order to show differences.
Good theories HAVE Parsimony
This sets a standard for the theory-data Cycle. Makes things simpler
Translational Research
Use of lessons from basic research to develop and test application to health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of treatment and intervention. It represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research.
According to the textbook what makes WEIRD people?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
Cluster Sample
With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned to one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often simple random sampling). Only individuals within sampled clusters are surveyed.
Multistage Sample
With multistage sampling, we select a sample by using combinations of different sampling methods. For example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters from a population. Then, in Stage 2, we might use simple random sampling to select a subset of elements from each chosen cluster for the final sample.
Present/Present Bias
a name for our failure to consider appropriate comparison groups.
Confederate
a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated
Theory
a set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another.
Which of the following is an example of applied research?
an educational psychologist who looks for a way to increase math skills in 8 year olds.
The construct validity of observations can be threatened by?
by three problems: observer bias, observer effects, and reactivity. When observers expectations influence their interpretations of the participants' behaviors or the outcome of the study. - CANT BE THREATENED BY SOCIALLY RESPONDING
When reading an article about a recent scientific study, you should do what to evaluate whether the title's claim is supported?
check whether the authors established covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity
What makes informed Consent?
consent forms given to patient, explained, and questions answered
Comparison Group
enables us to compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in
Students who are interested in being consumers of, but not producers of, research might choose which of the following profession?
family therapists, teachers, entrepreneurs, guidance counselors, police officers, political pollster.
Applied Research
research undertaken to solve a specific problem-is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical issue affecting an individual or group.
Discriminant Validity and Example
tests whether concepts or measurements that are not supposed to be related are actually unrelated
Floor Effects Ceiling Effects
the inability of a test to measure or discriminate below a certain point, usually because its items are too difficult Ceiling effect the inadequacy of a test to measure the true ability and intelligence of a child
Content Validity and Example
this is a measure of validity based on an evaluation of the subjects, topics, or content covered by the items in the test. - Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct. To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is threatened.
When researchers conduct an experiment comparing two different treatment conditions, they are likely to be more concerned with what validity then what validity?
Concerned with INTERNAL validity then EXTERNAL
What is the difference between Data that is collected Anonymously and Data that is collected Confidentially?
Confidential research collects participants' names but separates them from the data; anonymous research does not collect participants' names.
Replicability helps interrogate which of the four big validities?
External Validity
Why might a researcher choose purposive sampling over systematic sampling?
External Validity is not vital to the researchers study
Asking an expert or experts to evaluate a measure is used to establish what Validity?
Face Validity
Face Validity
Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It's similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective assessment. - WEAKEST form of validity
Good theories are Falsifiable
Falsifiability-A theory must lead to hypotheses that when tested could actually fail to support the theory.
A wait-list design is helpful in dealing with which of the following threats to internal validity?
Seclection
Convergent Validity and Example
convergent validity indicator of construct validity scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct. someone's scores on shyness scale and fear of negative evaluation should match
Scientific journals and magazines are similar in which of the following ways?
Both are trying to inform their readers
Multiple Regression and Headline Example
"Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation." A statistical technique which analyzes the linear relationship between 1 dependent variable and multiple independent variables by estimating coefficients for the equation for a straight line.
Purposive Sampling
- get all possible cases that fit particular criteria, using various methods - used in situations in which an expert uses judgment in selecting cases with a specific purpose in mind - nonrandom sample - researcher uses wide range of methods to locate all possible cases of a highly specific and difficult-to-reach population
The difference between a cluster sample and a stratified random sample is?
-In both cluster sampling and stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups -In stratified sampling, a simple random sample is chosen from each group. -In cluster sampling, a random sample of groups is chosen, and every member of the chosen groups is sampled.
Why is the use of representative samples especially important in frequency claims?
-interrogate how you obtained the samples -random selection ensues confidence in external validity -external validity relies on random sampling (Frequency claims investigate the entire population, need to be sure theres no error)
The American Psychological Association's ethical guidelines have principles and standards.
5:10
Why are convergent and discriminant validity often evaluated together?
Both involve collecting information from a lot of psychological measured of theoretical interest
In looking at a scatterplot of interrater reliability, why would a researcher want to see all the dots close to the line of agreement?
Because it indicates that the researcher's two research assistants/raters are making similar measurements
probabilistic research
Behavioral Research is Probabilistic, because it's findings are not expected to explain all cases all of the time. Instead the conclusions of research are meant to explain a certain proportion of all the possible cases.
Why is the consumer role important?
Being able to interpret research and ask the correct questions so you can evaluate information correctly.
All of the following are true of Betas and Correlation Coefficients EXCEPT?
Betas describe the relationship between two variables exactly as correlations coefficients do.
Confounds
Confused, obscure. Alternative explanations.When you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact it was something else
Construct Validity
Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we are interested in measuring. It's central to establishing the overall validity of a method.
Which is not an example of a Probability Sample
Convenience
Criterion Validity and Example
Criterion Validity - Like taking the GRE etc. Criterion validity evaluates how closely the results of your test correspond to the results of a different test. What is a criterion? The criterion is an external measurement of the same thing. It is usually an established or widely-used test that is already considered valid. What is criterion validity? To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends to measure.
Good Theories are supported by
Data, Falsifiability, and Parsimony
Which of the following is true of SMALL N EXPERIMENTS
Each person in a small-N design is treated as a separate experiment.
The difference between a cluster sample and a multistage sample is?
Multistage samples sample both clusters and pop: cluster only clusters
Another word for Data is?
Observation
Hypothesis
Or "prediction" is the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate.
Dr. Cyril conducts a simple random sample of 500 men who became fathers for the first time in the last year. He finds that 23% of them report being unsure of their ability to be good fathers, plus or minus 4%. What does this mean?
The margin of error would become smaller
Maturation
The maturation effect is any biological or psychological process within an individual that systematically varies with the passage of time, independent of specific external events. Examples of the maturation effect include growing older, stronger, wiser, and more experienced. These examples involve long lasting changes.
