Psychology 291 Exam 2
Mixed factorial design
research design in which different participants are observed at each level of a between subjects factor and repeatedly observed across the levels of a within subjects factor
Between-subjects factorial design
A research design in which the levels of two or more between subject factors are combined to create groups, meaning that different participants are observed in each group.
Control in research design
(a) the manipulation of a variable and (b) holding all other variables constant. When control is low, neither criterion is met; when control is high, both criteria are met. ex) known drug samples for illegal drug samples or known blood types in violent crime investigations
Non-response bias
A bias and sampling in which a number of participants in one or more groups choose not to respond to a survey or request to participate in a research study.
Sampling bias/Selection bias
A bias and sampling in which the sampling procedures employed in study favorite certain individuals or groups over others.
Probability sampling
A category of sampling in which a sample is selected directly from the target population. Probability sampling methods are used when the probability of selecting each individual and the population is known and every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling
A category of sampling in which the sample is selected from an accessible population. Non-probability sampling methods are used when it is not possible to select individuals directly from a target population.
Complete factorial design/completely crossed design
A factorial design in which each level of one factor is combined or crossed with each level of the factor, with participants observed in each cell or combination of levels.
higher-order factorial design
A research design in which the levels of more than two factors are combined or crossed to create groups
Participant pool/subject pool
A group of accessible and available participants for a research study. In a college or university setting, or participant pool is created using policies that require students to participate in academic research, typically as a condition for receiving grades or credits in introductory level classes.
Control Group
A group that is treated the same as an experimental group, except that participants are not treated; that is, the manipulation is omitted. ex) RQ: If Gatorade increases athletic performance. Experimental group would be given the Gatorade and the control group would be given regular water
Experimental Group/treatment group
A group that receives a treatment or is exposed to a manipulation believe to cause changes in a dependent variable. ex) A human experimental group could receive a new medication
Contrived setting/structured setting
A location or site arrange to mimic the natural setting within which a behavior of interest normally occurs, in order to facilitate the occurrence of that behavior.
Natural setting
A location or site where behavior of interest normally occurs.
Latin square
A major design in which a limited number of orders sequences are constructed such that 1 the number of orders sequences equals the number of treatments, 2 each treatment appears equally often in each position, and 3 each treatment proceeds and follows each treatment one time.
Test statistic
A mathematical formula that allows researchers to determine the extent to which differences observed between groups can be attributed to the manipulation used to create different groups
Restricted random assignment
A method of controlling differences in participant characteristics between groups in a study by first restricting a sample based on non-participant characteristics, then using random procedure to assign participants to each group. Two strategies of restricted random assignment are control by matching and control by holding constant. ex)
Participant observation
A method of observation in which researchers participate in or join the group or culture that they are observing.
Cluster sampling
A method of sampling in which sub groups or clusters of individuals are identified as a population, and then or a portion of clusters that are representative of the population or selected such that all the individuals in the selected clusters are included in the sample. All clusters that are not selected or omitted from the sample.
Convenience sampling
A method of sampling in which the subjects or participants are selected for a research study based on how easy or convenient is to reach or access them and based on their availability to participate.
Stratified random sampling
A method of sampling of which a population is divided into subgroups or strata; participants are then selected from each sub group using simple random sample ling and our combined into one overall sample.
simple random sampling
A method of sampling subjects and participants such that all individuals in a population have an equal chance of being selected and are selected using sampling with replacement.
Quota sampling
A method of sampling which which subjects are participants are selected based on known or unknown criteria or characteristics in a target population
Frequency method
A method used to quantify observations made in a study by counting the number of times of behavior occurs during a fixed or predetermined period.
Latency method
A method used to quantify observations made in a study by recording the time or duration between the occurrences of behaviors during a fixed period.
Interval method
A method used to quantify observations made in the study by dividing in observational. Into equal intervals of time and then recording whether or not certain behaviors occur in each interval.
Duration method
A method used to quantify observations made in the study by recording the amount of time or duration that participants engage in a certain behavior during effects. Period
Error variance/error
A numeric measure of the varied ability in scores that can be attributed to or is caused by the individual differences of participants in each group
Exploratory case study
A preliminary analysis that explores potentially important hypotheses, such as possible concerns regarding the methods used to study adult education programs in a local community. Hence, we use a case or person to better understand a more general phenomenon.
Complete counterbalancing
A procedure in which all possible order sequences in which participants receive different treatments or participate in different groups or balance or offset in an experiment.
Partial counterbalancing
A procedure in which some, but not all, possible order sequences in which participants receive different treatments or participate in different groups are balance or offset an experiment.
Participant variable
A quasi-independent or pre-existing variable that is related to or characteristic of the personal attributes of a participant
Between Subjects Design
A research design in which different participants are observed one time in each group or at each level of a factor. ex) Investigating the efficacy of three different drugs treating depression. One group of depressed individuals would receive one of the drugs, a different group would receive another one of the drugs, and another group would receive the remaining drug.
Factorial Experimental Design
A research design in which groups are created by manipulating a levels of two or more factors, then the same or different participants are observed in each group using experimental procedures of randomization (for between subjects factor) and using control for timing in order effects (for are within subjects factor).
Factorial design
A research design in which participants are observed across the combination of levels of two or more factors.
Within-subjects factorial design
A research design in which the levels of two or more within subject factors are combined to create groups, meaning that the same participants are observed in each group.
within-subjects design/repeated-measure design
A research design in which the same participants are observed one time in each group of a research study
Two way factorial design
A research design which participants are observed in groups created by combining or crossing levels of two factors
between-persons variability
A source of variance in a dependent measure that is caused by or associated with individual differences or differences in participant responses across all groups.
Within-groups variability
A source of variance in independent measure that is caused by or associated with observing different participants within each group
Error
A source of variance that cannot be attributed to having different groups or treatments. Two sources of error or between persons and within groups variability.
Interaction
A source of variation associated with how the effects of one factor are influenced by, or depend on, the levels of a second factor.
Main effect
A source of variation associated with mean differences across the levels of a single factor.
between-groups variability
A source variance variance in a dependent measure that is caused by or associated with the manipulation of levels or groups of an independent variable
Participant fatigue
A state of physical or psychological exhaustion resulting from intense research demands typically due to observing participants to often or requiring participants to engage in research activities that are too demanding.
Pairwise comparison
A statistical comparison for the difference between to group means. A post hoc test evaluate all possible pairwise comparisons for ANOVA with any number of groups.
Post hoc test
A statistical procedure computed following a significant ANOVA to determine which pair or pairs of group means significantly differ. These tests are needed with more than two groups because multiple comparisons must be made.
One-way between-subjects ANOVA
A statistical procedure that is used to test hypotheses for one factor with two or more levels concerning the variance among group means. This test is used to different participants are observed at each level of a factor in the variance in a given population is unknown.
Two-way ANOVA
A statistical procedure used to analyze the variance in a dependent variable between groups created by combining levels of two factors
Two-independent-sample t test/Independent-sample t test
A statistical procedure used to test hypotheses concerning the difference in interval or ratio scale data between two group means, in which the variance in the population is unknown.
Individual sampling
A strategy used to manage an observation. By splitting affects. And the small intervals of time and then recording the behaviors of a different participant and each time interval.
Event sampling
A strategy used to manage an observation. By splitting affects. Into smaller intervals of time and then recording a different behavior and each time interval.
Sampling with replacement
A strategy used with simple random sampling in which each individual selected is replaced before the next election to ensure of the probability of selecting each individual is always the same.
Unobtrusive observation
A technique used by an observer to record or observe behavior in a way that does not interfere with or a change a participants behavior in a research setting.
Carryover effects
A threat to internal validity in which participation in one group "carries over" or causes changes in performance a second group.
Order effects
A threat to internal validity in which the order in which participants receive different treatments or participate in different groups causes changes in a dependent variable.
Simple quota sampling
A type a quarter sample and used one little is known about the characteristics of a target population. Using this "a sample in, an equal number of subjects or participants are selected for a given characteristic or demographic.
Proportionate quota sampling
A type of course sampling used when the proportions of a certain characteristics in a target population are known. Using this type of quota sampling, subjects or participants are selected such that the known characteristics or demographics are proportionately presented in the sample.
Archival research
A type of existing data design in which events or behaviors are described based on a review and analysis of relevant historical or archival records.
Context analysis
A type of existing data design in which the context of written or spoken records of the occurrence of specific events or behaviors is described and interpreted.
Within-subjects factor
A type of factor in which the same participants are observed in each group, or at each level of the factor
Self-report measure
A type of measurement in which participants respond to one or more questions or statements to indicate their actual or perceived experiences, attitudes, or opinions.
Behavioral measure
A type of measurement in which researchers directly observe and record behavior of subjects or participants.
Physiological measure
A type of measurement in which researchers record physical responses of the brain and body in a human or an animal.
Ethnography
The quality of analysis of the behavior and identity of a group or culture as it is described and characterized by the members of that group or culture.
Control by matching
A type of restricted random assignment in which we assess or measure the characteristic we want to control, group or categorize participants based on scores on that measure and then use a random procedure to assign participants from each category to a group in the study.
Control by holding constant
A type of restricted random assignment in which we limit which participants are included in a sample based on characteristics exhibit that may otherwise differ between groups in a study.
Target population
All members of a group of interest to a researcher
Determinism
An assumption in science that all actions in the universe have a cause.
Within-subjects experimental design
An experimental research design in which the levels of a within subjects factor are manipulated and then the same participants are observed in each group or at each level of the factor. To qualify as an experiment, the researcher must 1 manipulate the levels of the factor and include a comparison/control group and 2 make added effort to control for order and time related factors.
Case history
An in-depth description of the history and background of the individual, group, or organization observed. A case history can be the only information provided in the case study for situations in which the researcher does not include manipulation, a treatment, or an intervention.
Placebo
An inert substance, surgery , Or therapy that resembles a real treatment but has no real effect. ex) A sugar pill being used in a control group during a clinical trial
Collective case study
Compares the individual analysis of many related cases, such as comparing behavioral symptoms expressed as three children with autism in a classroom.
Independent sample
Different participants are independently observed one time in each group
Qualitative research design
Do use of the scientific method to make numeric observations, from which conclusions are drawn without the use of statistical analysis.
Three types of case studies and behavioral research
Illustrative - Not a lot is known about the individual or group, leads to better understanding of unknown phenomena and introduction of a common language for describing phenomena. Exploratory - large scale research study, provides important information pertaining to selecting research questions measurements and potential limitations what a large scale studies conducted. Collective - The review and analysis of several cases, provides insight into extent to which observations were generalized to other cases but not to the general population.
higher order interaction
In interaction for the combination of levels of three or more factors in a factual design.
Illustrative case study
Investigates rare unknown cases, such as the behavioral effects of serious trauma or strokes by looking at patients who happen to suffer from the serious cases. Hence, we use this case study to understand a particular case or person
Simple stratified random sampling
Involves selecting an equal number of participants in each sub group
Effect size
Is the statistical measure of the size or magnitude of an observed effect in a population, which allows researchers to describe how far scores shifted in a population, or the percentage of variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the levels of a factor.
Match Samples Design/matched pairs design
It within subjects research design in which participants are matched, experimentally or naturally, based on pre-existing characteristics or traits that they share.
Sampling without replacement
Non-random sampling strategy most often used by behavior researchers in which each individual selected is not replace before the next selection.
Phenomenology
The quality of analysis of the conscious experiences of phenomena from the first person point of view of the participant.
Representative sample
One in which the characteristics of individuals or items in the sample resemble those in a target population of interest.
Proportionate stratified random sampling
Selecting a different proportion of participants in each sub group
Behavior categories
Specific types of behaviors that Researchers want to measure in the Research setting, and they are typically organized as a list of examples that "count" in each category or for each type of behavior.
Time sampling
Strategy strategy used to manage an observation. By splitting affects. Into small intervals of time and then making observations during alternating intervals until the full observation period Has ended.
Existing data design
The collection, review, and analysis of any type of existing documents or records including those that are written or recorded as video, as audio, or other electric form.
Trustworthiness
The credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirm ability of a quality of analysis.
Case study
The cult of analysis of an individual, a group, an organization, or an event used to illustrate a phenomenon, explore new hypotheses, or compare the observations of many cases.
Sampling error
The extent to which sample mean selected from the population differ from one another. This difference, which occurs by chance, is measured by the Standard error of the mean.
Experimental manipulation
The identification of an independent variable in the creation of two or more groups that constitute the levels of that variable. - or, the manipulation of 1 or more independent variables in order to investigate their effect on a dependent variable ex) Assignment of a specific treatment or placebo to participants in a research study in order to control possible confounds and asses the effect of the treatment.
Statistical power (power)
The likelihood that data in a sample can detect or discover an effect in a population, assuming that the effect does exist in the population of interest.
Natural manipulation
The manipulation of a stimulus that can be naturally changed with little effort ex) dimmed or brightly lit room, soft or loud noises
Staged manipulation
The manipulation of an independent variable that requires the participant to be "set up" to experience some stimulus or event. -usually employ a confederate who appears to be another participant in the study but Is actually part of the manipulation.
Naturalistic observation
The observation of behavior in the natural setting where it is expected to occur, with limited or no attempt to overly manipulate the conditions of the environment where are the observations are made.
Counterbalancing procedure
The order in which participants receive different treatments or participate in different groups is balanced or offset in an experiment. Two types of counterbalancing are complete and partial counterbalancing.
Accessible population/sampling frame
The portion of the target population that can be clearly identified and directly sampled from.
Selective survival
The process by which existing Records survive or or excluded/decay overtime.
Selective deposit
The process by which existing records are selectively recorded or deposited into document files that can be accessed for analysis.
Meta-analysis
Type of existing data design in which data are combined, analyze, and summarized across a group of related studies to make statistically guided decisions about the strength or reliability of the report of findings in those Studies.
Participant
Used to describe a human who volunteers to be subjected to procedures in a research study.
Subject
Used to describe a non-human that is subjected to procedures in a research study and to identify the names of research designs.
Between-Subjects Factor
a type of factor in which different participants are observed in each group, or at each level of the factor ex) A study examining weight loss, the different amounts of daily exercise under investigation would be a between-subjects factor if each was undertaken by a different set of people.
Between Subjects Experimental design
an experimental research design in which the levels of a between-subjects factor are manipulated, then different participants are randomly assigned to each group or to each level of that factor, and observed one time ex) A researcher with a sample of 100 students might assign half of them to write about a traumatic event and the other half to write about a neutral event.
Solomon four-group design
experimental research design in which different participants are assigned to each of four groups in such a way that comparisons can be made to 1 determine if a treatment causes changes in a post test measure and 2 Control for possible confounds or extraneous factors related to giving a pre-test measure and observing participants overtime.
