Psychology 3

Agoraphobia = Dissociative Disorders:

- A persistent fear of any place or circumstance from which escape might be difficult. Individuals are usually fearful of being outside of their homes, traveling in a car, in a crowd, or in public spaces. May be accompanied by depressed mood, anxiousness, fearful behaviors, or panic attacks. - Characterized by an apparent escape from one's identity as a means of avoiding stress

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) =

- A stressor-induced disorder developed after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, violent crime, or war. May include hyper-vigilance, reliving the event, anxiety, and avoidance

Identify each of the following as an example of either a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia: a) thought broadcasting, b) flat affect, c) delusion of grandeur, d) disturbance of affect, e) thought insertion, f) disorganized behavior, g) avolition

- A) positive symptom B) negative symptom C)positive symptom D) positive symptom E) positive symptom F) positive symptom G) negative symptom.

Personality Disorders:

- An enduring pattern of personal experience and behavior that deviates noticeably from the expectations of one's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to personal distress or impairment.

Specific Phobia =

- An irrational and excessive fear of an object or situation. May be accompanied by dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing, a sense of unreality, or a fear of dying. In extreme cases it can induce a full-scale anxiety attack.

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (a.k.a., Social Phobia) =

- An overwhelming feeling of anxiety and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social situations. It is characterized by a fear of being judged and feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, embarrassment, humiliation, and depression. May be accompanied by blushing, nausea, excessive sweating, trembling, difficulty speaking, etc

Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? Bipolar Disorder is more likely among individuals who have a sibling who has been diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder

- Arguments could be made for both nature and nurture. Given the genetic relatedness among siblings, one could argue that there is a strong genetic component involved in bipolar disorder. However, given that most siblings are raised in the same family environments, there could be key shared experiences in that context that increase the likelihood of being diagnosed with bipolar disorder.

INTERDEPENDENCE: The influence of genes and environment on biology and behavior goes well beyond the simple fact that?

- BOTH factors influence most traits. The two influences are often interdependent—literally changing each other

Innate Behavior = Learned Behavior =

- Behavior thought to be predominantly genetic and present regardless of environmental influences - Behaviors thought to be predominantly environmental (i.e., learned via experience), and independent of heredity

Describe in detail how the following problems would be addressed using primarily a biomedical approach, and alternatively how they would be addressed using primarily a biopsychosocial approach Patient C recently survived a major cardiac arrest and underwent multiple bypass surgery. He has a very high blood cholesterol level

- Biomedically speaking, the patient would be treated with medications to help lower cholesterol. From a biopsychosocial perspective, this drug therapy would be combined with an attempt to help the patient understand and process the fear that they might feel as a result of these experiences. In addition, they might receive counseling on how to reduce stress and live a healthier lifestyle in the future

Nature vs. Nurture Example 2: Different Genes, Same Environment, Genes → Environment. Suppose you have a genetic predisposition toward high IQ and your adopted brother has a predisposition toward low IQ. You are raised in the same home and loved equally. One would assume environment will be controlled, or the same, for both of you. However, as your genes are expressed, they impact your mother. When she smiles at you, you smile back. You talk earlier than your brother and are more interactive. Almost unavoidably, your mother will begin treating you differently. While you do have the genes for higher IQ, those genes are not acting ALONGSIDE the environment they are actually? The same is true of your adopted brother. He gets less attention and praise because he interacts less. In this case, the influence of genes on environment makes the disparity between you and your brother greater than one would expect based on the genetic differences

- CHANGING the environment.

Monozygotic Twins = Genetic influence is? Studies examine twins raised in different homes so that environmental influence is? Dizygotic Twins = Genetic influence is? Studies examine twins in the same home, so that environmental influence is?

- CONTROLLED (same) - VARIABLE (different) - VARIABLE (different) - CONTROLLED (same)

Schizoid Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by DISRUPTIVE patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by severe detachment from others, little or no desire to form relationships, a sense of indifference to praise, affirmation, criticism, or rejection, etc. These individuals rarely participate in fun or pleasurable activities and are described by others as cold, uninterested, withdrawn, or aloof

Paranoid Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by DISRUPTIVE patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by pervasive distrust or suspicion, a feeling one is being lied to or exploited, a belief that friends and family are untrustworthy or unfaithful, attributing hidden meaning to everyday gestures or conversations, etc.

Schizotypal Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by DISTORTED patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by eccentric perceptions, thoughts or behaviors, "magical thinking," reported ability to read minds or foretell the future, talking to oneself, difficulty forming relationships, severe social anxiety, etc.

Dependent Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by a chronic, pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and needy behavior. Individuals may seek excessive approval, advice, or encouragement. May include sensitivity to criticism or rejection, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, an inability to make decision without others, feelings of helplessness, and extreme devastation when close relationships end—with the need to immediately begin a new relationship

Narcissistic Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by an excessive sense of self importance, an extreme preoccupation with oneself, and a lack of empathy for others. May be accompanied by a constant need for attention, affirmation, or praise, a belief that one is "special" and should only associate with others of the same caliber, fantasies about success and power, a sense of entitlement, or expectations of special treatment.

Histrionic Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by excessive but shallow emotions, attention-seeking, and manipulative behavior. May be accompanied by fleeting moods, opinions, or beliefs, excessive suggestibility, a desire for others to witness their emotional outbursts, exaggeration of symptoms, and threats of suicide as a form of manipulation.

Avoidant Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by extreme shyness, sensitivity to criticism and rejection, low self-esteem, and avoidance of social situations—including school or work. Individuals may desire closeness with others but have difficulty forming relationships outside of their immediate family

Illness Anxiety Disorder (IAD) = Conversion Disorder =

- Characterized by heightened bodily sensations and intense anxiousness about the possibility of an undiagnosed illness. Individuals may devote excessive time and energy to health concerns, often obsessively researching them - Characterized by the "conversion" of psychological stress into actual neurological deficits; usually numbness, paralysis, or blindness.

Borderline Personality Disorder =

- Characterized by pervasive instability in moods, interpersonal relationships, self-image, and behavior. This instability often disrupts the individual's sense of self-identity. May be accompanied by self-destructive behavior, intense episodes of anxiety, depression, or irritability, irritability, or anger when other people fail to meet unrealistic expectations

Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD) =

- Characterized by physical symptoms of illness or injury that cannot be explained by a general medical condition or another mental disorder. Individuals often feel severe anxiety or distress about their undiagnosed condition and are preoccupied with its symptoms. The problem is not being fabricated by the patient, but is perceived by them as real

Twin Studies:

- Compare concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ) twins raised in the same family to dizygotic (DZ) twins raised in the same family; OR Compare concordance rates for monozygotic twins raised in the same family to those raised apart

Family Studies: Adoption Studies:

- Compare frequency of behavior/condition/trait among related individuals to the frequency of that same measure among non-relatives - Compare the behaviors/conditions/traits of an adopted child to those of its adoptive parents; simultaneously compare that same child, on those same measures, to its biological parents

Frontal Lobe = Parietal Lobe = Temporal Lobe = Occipital Lobe =

- Conscious movement (motor cortex), executive functions, language [1] (Broca's area), reasoning, judgment, problem-solving, etc - Tactile sensation, spatial reasoning, some language [2] - Hearing/language [2] (primary auditory cortex), memory (hippocampus) - Vision (primary visual cortex)

Suppose a person sustains major injury to the dominant hemisphere, but not to the non-dominant hemisphere. What losses of function are most likely? What if the injury is to the non-dominant hemisphere?

- Damage to the dominant hemisphere would likely result in language difficulties and loss of control of movement to the right side of the body (again, assuming that for most people the left hemisphere is dominant). Damage to the non-dominant hemisphere would lose some control of movement in the left side of the body and might result in difficulties in spatial navigation and emotional processing

Depression biological bases:

- Decreased monoamine levels in the brain (i.e., the neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine). Increased cortisol level and glucose metabolism in the amygdala. The hippocampus of chronically depressed patients atrophies (shrinks) compared to healthy individuals. Having a family member with depression is a risk factor.

Methods Used to Study the Brain NON-INVASIVE: INVASIVE:

- Electroencephalography (EEG), Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS), Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) - Direct Electrode Stimulation (open cranium, during brain surgery), Human Brain Injury Case Studies, Lab Animal Extirpation

Adoption Studies Dependent variable=? Quasi- independent variable=? These types of studies are difficult to do because ?

- IQ - adopted vs. biological - of the relatively small population to select from and because of difficulty in attaining information about biological relatives of adopted individuals.

Bipolar disorder biological bases:

- Increased monoamine levels in the brain. Increased risk for persons with multiple sclerosis or who have a family member with bipolar disorder.

Predict the likely repercussions of a rare congenital defect resulting in a person with a normally-functioning brain, but no corpus callosum?

- Individuals who suffer from congenital agenesis of the corpus callosum have difficulty transferring information between the two hemispheres. As a result, they experience difficulties in problem solving. In addition, they also exhibit impaired social behavior, a variety of sensory impairments, and problems in muscle tone and motor behavior

Seasonal Affect Disorder = Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD) =

- MDD that occurs only at a specific time of year (season) - Characterized by Dysthymia, which is depressive symptoms that are not severe enough to qualify as a MDE, but persist most of the time for at least two years.

Genetics vs. environment was an MCAT favorite on the pre-2015 form. Psychology strongly emphasizes the nature vs. nurture debate, so with the addition of the PsS section this is now more likely than ever to appear on your exam. Usually, you will be asked to decide if a finding most supports nature or nurture. Watch for the control. If environment is controlled AND genetic differences cause a result, what wins. If genes are controlled AND environmental changes cause a result, what wins. If a clear effect is observed, it is going to be the controlled variable that "loses."

- NATURE wins - NURTURE

Pineal Gland (forebrain) = Amygdala (forebrain, limbic system) = Hippocampus (forebrain, limbic system) = Posterior Pituitary (forebrain) = Anterior Pituitary =

- Secretes melatonin, regulates sleep, receives input from retina re: circadian rhythms - Emotion, motivation, implicit emotional memory - Memory consolidation (short-term long-term) explicit emotional memory - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin - FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin and GH (mnemonic: FLAT PiG)

Schizophrenia biological bases:

- Strongly associated with increased dopamine levels in the brain. Most antischizophrenic drugs are competitive antagonists that bind dopamine receptors. Having a family member with schizophrenia is a risk factor

The Brain: Structure and Region-Based Functionality Embryological Brain Regions: Proencephalon → Rhombencephalon → Mesencephalon?

- Swellings of the neural tube - telencephalon + diencephalon - metencephalon + myelencephalon

Adaptive Value = Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to be represented when? Because natural selection favors the most fit individuals and behaviors, these behaviors will eventually result in? Adaptive evolution can occur with both physical traits (e.g., Darwin's Finches and beak structure) and?

- The degree to which a behavior increases evolutionary fitness - in future generations. - a change in the gene pool—an increase in the more adaptive trait. - behavioral traits (e.g., Different dog breeds bred for different behaviors)

Genetically-based Behavior Variation in Natural Populations: ? Species-Specific Behaviors: ? Animal Breeding: ? Familial Concordance: ?

- The following observations provide evidence for the influence of genetics on behavior. - Behavior observed only among members of the same species. - Animals can be bred to exhibit target behaviors, such as aggression being genetically-selected for in rodeo bulls, or hunting skills being genetically-selected for in certain dog breeds. - Behaviors shown to run in families or be more frequent among children of parents with that behavioral trait.

Describe in detail how the following problems would be addressed using primarily a biomedical approach, and alternatively how they would be addressed using primarily a biopsychosocial approach Patient B suffers from severe depression after having multiple pregnancies end in miscarriage

- The patient might be treated with antidepressant medications and/or medications that would stabilize future pregnancies by someone coming from the biomedical perspective. Again, these things would be done in conjunction with counseling on the grief and loss felt by the woman in the biopsychosocial approach

From which embryological layer (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) does the pituitary gland develop? From which of the neural tube subdivisions listed in Q1 is the posterior pituitary derived? What about the anterior pituitary?

- The pituitary gland is derived from the ectodermal layer. The posterior portion of the pituitary gland is derived from the diencephalon. The anterior pituitary actually arises from the oral ectoderm region

A less-frequent twin study design type is to compare the frequency of a trait among DZ twins raised together to the frequency of that same trait among DZ twins raised apart. Why is this design less likely to be employed? What are its potential limitations?

- The population of DZ twins raised apart is considerably smaller, so access to this limited population can be challenging. This particular design can also be problematic because DZ twins are no more genetically similar than any non-twin siblings and because there would be a host of potential confounding variables that might have contributed to the need to rear the twins separately.

Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? MZ twins raised together have more similar IQs than do DZ twins raised together

- This would support a nature argument. Given that both sets of twins are raised in similar environments, one would assume that the higher concordance of IQs among MZ twins would be attributable to genetics

Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? Adopted children who exhibit aggressive behavior are more likely to have a biological parent who also exhibits aggressive behaviors than they are to have an adoptive parent who exhibits aggressive behaviors

- This would support a nature argument....if aggression levels are more similar to biological relatives compared to adopted relatives, then this would suggest a genetic underpinning

Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? Strain X of MZ twin rats had a hereditary disposition toward obesity, while Strain Y did not. Both strains were divided into groups and fed either a below-average amount of food, or an above-average amount of food; the amount of food fed to the rats was a more effective predictor of life span than was Strain X or Y

- This would support a nurture argument. Amount of food available was more predictive than genetic predisposition to obesity

Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why? The concordance rate for alcoholism among MZ twins raised together is higher than the concordance rate for MZ twins raised apart

- This would support a nurture argument. MZ twins are genetically identical, and therefore, one would argue that differences in alcoholism could be attributed to different environmental contexts in which these individuals are raised

Biomedical vs. Biopsychosocial Approach: Biomedical Approach =

- Two approaches to categorizing and understanding psychological disorders - Psych disorders caused by biological or chemical dysfunction (e.g.,genetic predisposition, abnormally low hormone or neurotransmitter levels); Treatments are primarily biochemical (e.g., surgery, drugs). Considered more narrow by psychologists; Focused more on relieving symptoms

Regulatory genes are genes that code for?

- a substance that regulates the transcription of another gene (up or down, promotion or inhibition).

Twin Study-[MZ vs. DZ, both raised together] Dependent variable= ? Quasi-independent variable= ? Potential limitations lie again in ?

- aggression level - degree of relatedness (MZ vs. DZ twin). - generalizability.

Obsessive compulsive disorder(OCD) and obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) are two distinct diagnoses. As described above, OCD involves obsessions that generate? These thoughts and behaviors are generally unwelcome. The experience of an individual with OCPD is quite different in that they tend to be preoccupied with? They tend to demand perfection in? Unlike someone diagnosed with OCD, the OCPD individual views their perspective as an efficient way to deal with the challenges of life and are much less likely to seek professional help to address these issues.

- anxiety and compulsive behaviors that are engaged in an attempt to alleviate anxiety. - all of their endeavors and are quite inflexible in their patterns of thoughts and in the way that they approach new problems.

Aside from disordered patterns of thought, individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia often exhibit disorganized behavior in which they? Others may exhibit catatonia in which they remain? In some instances the individual may automatically repeat anything that is said by others (echolalia) or imitate any movements made by someone else (echopraxia).

- bizarre, pointless behaviors. - abnormally still for extended periods of time.

Norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline) is found in? Centrally, norepinephrine is associated with? Anxiety disorders and depression are associated with Peripherally, norepinephrine contributes to?

- both the CNS and PNS - attention and emotional processing - decreased norepinephrine activity - the stress response associated with activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

Acetylcholine is found in? In the CNS, acetylcholine is involved in? Depletions of acetylcholine centrally is associated with the memory deficits associated with?

- both the CNS and the PNS - arousal and attention - Alzheimer's disease

GENERAL DIAGNOSTIC RULE = To be diagnosed affirmatively, the symptoms of almost any disorder must cause Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) = Major Depressive Episode (MDE) =

- clinically significant distress OR impairment in normal functioning (familial, social, occupational, etc) - Mood disorder with at least one Major Depressive Episode - Depressed mood or loss of interest in normallyenjoyable daily activities, that interferes with normal functioning, and lasts for at least two weeks. The MDE criteria are also an important part of diagnosing Bipolar Disorder

In order to diagnose an individual with schizophrenia, the following criteria must be met. A) The individual must exhibit for at least one month, two (or more) characteristic symptoms which include? B) The individual has experienced significant impairments in their ability to engage in? C) Signs of the disturbance are present for how much time? D) Alternative diagnoses? E) Symptoms are not better explained by? F) In individuals with Autistic disorder or another pervasive developmental disorder or problem with communication must present?

- delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms and at least one of those symptoms has to be an active symptom (i.e. delusions, hallucinations, and/or disorganized speech). - day-to-day activities and in interpersonal relationships as a function of the onset of symptoms. - at least 6 months (including the 1 month of symptoms in part A) and may include periods of less pronounced symptoms that may be dominated by negative symptoms or by less severe symptoms described in part A. - Schizoaffective and Mood Disorders) have been ruled out. - substance use and/or some other medical condition. - delusions or hallucinations for at least one month in order to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.

For each of the following symptoms, list ALL of the psychological or neurological disorders discussed in this section that can include this symptom: e) loss of appetite, f) guilt, g) avoidance of social interaction, h) significant weight gain or loss

- depressive disorders and bipolar disorder - depressive disorders and bipolar disorder - depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, social anxiety disorder, and avoidant personality disorder - depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders (e.g generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc.), and schizophrenia

The DSM-5 lists the following as diagnostic criteria for dissociative identity disorder: A) disruption of identity with 2 or more? B) recurrent periods of amnesia for both? C) these disturbances fall outside of? D) the disturbances have caused significant impairment in? E) the disturbance is not due to?

- distinct personalities (as observed by others or as reported by the patient) - everyday events and important personal experiences - cultural/religious practices and imaginary play of children - the individual's occupational or social functioning - substance use or other medical condition.

Nature vs. Nurture Example 1: Same Genes, Different Environment, Environment → Gene Expression Suppose your genes predispose you to a high IQ, but your environment includes a mother who is biased against people who "think they are smart." Your mother's reinforcement can actually CHANGE the way your genes are expressed. Suppose your identical twin is adopted by a mother with a PhD who constantly encourages learning. Your brain may perform neuronal pruning on underused synapses that are underused because your mom discourages learning. Your twin brother has those neuronal synapses strengthened because he uses them—under the influence of an encouraging mother. One would expect the same "IQ genes" to produce the same neurological structures and capacity, but that is not the case because?

- environment altered gene expression

The prodromal phase of schizophrenia is? The individual in the prodromal phase may begin to exhibit behavioral differences (e.g. may lose interest?Disturbance of affect refers to? Such disturbances can manifest themselves as?

- essentially early onset of schizophrenia. - things that once brought pleasure or may begin to isolate themselves from others) that are a signal that something is wrong. - the emotional irregularities that can occur in individuals who suffer from schizophrenia. - inappropriate emotionality (inappropriate affect), as significant reductions in emotional response (blunted affect), or as a complete lack of emotional responsiveness (flat affect).

In order to be diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, an individual must? Obsessions involve repeated occurrence of? Compulsions are? The purpose of these ritualized patterns of behavior/thought is to? Aside from exhibiting obsessions and/or compulsions, these disturbances are time consuming (i.e. at least? These disturbances are not better explained by the use ?Finally, obsessions/compulsions cannot be only related to?

- exhibit obsessions and/or compulsions. - unwanted thoughts which generate significant anxiety such that the individual experiencing them will try to make these thoughts stop. - repeated patterns of behavior or thought that the individual engages in to make obsessions go away. - to reduce stress or avoid some feared situation. - an hour of each day is devoted to them) or significant impairment in the individual's daily activities. - of some substance or some other medical condition. - the symptoms of some other disorder

Comparatively speaking, neurotransmitters = Neuropeptides = Temperament = Temperament has been shown to be?

- faster, shorter-lived effects - slower, longer-lasting effects - Somewhat ambiguous term describing one's general emotional disposition - established at birth and relatively persistent across the life span

Schizophrenia is often marked by the presence of? In both instances, the schizophrenic is not in touch with reality. Delusional thinking often involves?

- hallucinations(often auditory in nature) and delusional thinking. In both instances, the schizophrenic is not in touch with reality. - an inflated sense of self-importance or power (delusions of grandeur), a belief that others are plotting to hurt or control them (delusions of persecution), seeing personal meaning in any variety of mundane events that occur around them (delusions of reference), believing that others are placing thoughts in their minds (thought insertion), or that others have access or can hear their thoughts (thought broadcasting).

Serotonin is associated with? Serotonin is also involved in? Lowered serotonin levels are associated with

- homeostatic regulation of sleep and appetite - regulation of mood - depression

EXPERIENCE-BASED (Environmental) INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR: This subject from the MCAT- 2015 topic list is very broad, and really deserves no separate treatment. The influence of experience on behavior would include everything that is? Learning, conditioning, socializing, one's environment, and any other experience you encounter in life, all impact?

- is not genetic. - your behavior

The left hemisphere is also thought to be more important for? What hemisphere is the non-dominant side?

- linguistic processing in most individuals - Generally, the right hemisphere is considered the non-dominant hemisphere for most individuals

Manic episodes are disturbances? Many individuals who are diagnosed with some sort of bipolar disorder often experience alternations? The severity of the manic episode will often dictate the specific diagnosis that is made. For instance, individuals with full blown manic episodes are diagnosed as? However, if the individual experiences less intense mania, or hypomania, then they are more likely to be diagnosed as ?

- mood described that are used to diagnose bipolar disorder. - manic episodes and depressed episodes; however, depressed episodes are not part of the diagnostic criteria. - Bipolar I. - Bipolar II.

Twin Study-[MZ and MZ, raised together vs. apart] Dependent variable= ? Quasi-independent variable= ? These studies are difficult because?

- obesity - quasi-independent variable - access to these populations is very limited

For the following twin study experimental design types, identify the dependent variable, independent variable, any obvious study limitations, and—if present—the control: a) Family Studies Dependent variable= ? Independent variable=? Family studies are limited because ?

- rates of neurodegenerative disease - degree of relatedness (please not this is note a true independent variable because it cannot be actively manipulated, and therefore, this research is correlational in nature with all the inherent problems of correlational research. This is usually referred to as a quasi-independent variable). - families in which the disease occurs will be selectively recruited which makes sample representativeness problematic

Example #4 from the previous section on nature vs. nurture is a perfect example of? In this case, a certain gene influenced an individual's ability to? However, it wasn't this "stress coping" gene that was regulated. It was the REGULATOR of the "stress coping" gene that was "turned off" via? Under normal conditions, the regulator promotes? By preventing the synthesis of the promoter, the behavior of the mother effectively altered the genetically-determined behavior of the child (i.e., the child's ability to cope with stress).

- regulatory genes influence behavior. - cope with stress. However, it wasn't this "stress coping" gene that was regulated. - methylation of the DNA sequence (gene) coding for the regulator. - transcription (and therefore translation) of a glucocorticoid membrane receptor.

Sociopath = Psychopath =

- severe deficit of conscience - complete lack of conscience

DSM-5 is based ? Most disorders are a list of possible symptoms and an exact criteria is predetermined for diagnosis (e.g., 3 or more of the following persisting for a period of at least six months).

- symptoms ONLY, not causes or treatment.

Dopamine is found in? Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, Huntington's chorea, and Schizophrenia are all associated with? Serotonin is found in? Serotonin is associated with? Serotonin is also involved in?

- the CNS and is associated with sensorimotor integration and in reward processing - abnormal activity in the dopamine system - the CNS - homeostatic regulation of sleep and appetite - regulation of mood

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is? NEUROPEPTIDES:

- the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS - Neuro-active peptides whose function is similar to that of neurotransmitters. Endorphins are one example

Contralateral literally means opposite side. In this context, contralateral refers to? Ipsilateral would refer to the same side. For instance? The dominant hemisphere is the side of the brain that is used in?

- the idea that sensory and motor functions of the left side of the body are processed in the right side of the brain - the temporal portion of each hemiretina projects ipsilaterally because it receives information from the contralateral visual field - controlling the preferred arm or leg. Most individuals are right handed, and therefore, the dominant hemisphere for most people is the left

According to DSM-5, the following criteria would be used in diagnosing an individual with bipolar disorder. 1) At least 1 week of abnormally elevated or irritated mood during which? 2) This change in mood significantly impairs? 3) These changes are not better explained by?

- the individual also experiences at least three (four if mood is only irritable) of the following characteristics: inflated sense of self, decreased need for sleep, increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, increased distractibility, increased psychomotor activation, excessive involvement in pleasurable, yet risky, activities. - work or family functioning or leads to hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others. - some drug or some other medical condition

In the PNS, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of? It is found in both which nervous system? Epinephrine (aka adrenaline) is found primarily in the PNS and is associated with?

- the neuromuscular junction - the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system - the stress response elicited by activation of the sympathetic nervous system

Heritability refers to? Twin studies involving DZ twins raised together compared to MZ twins raised together would be one of the best tools available to estimate a given trait's heritability because? Family studies would be another way to get at this question, but as one moves outside of one's immediate family, larger variations would be expected in terms of environmental factors. Adoption studies are also potential tools provided that information is? If the adopted child is more similar to biological parents than to the adopted parents then one could argue that there was?

- the percentage of trait variability that is attributable to genes. - it is generally assumed that the shared environments would be so similar as to be inconsequential to contributing to trait variability. - available about the trait of interest from the biological parents. - substantial heritability for that trait.

The diencephalon provides connections to? Disruption of these systems would involve widespread effects including? The telencephalon contains ? Disruption to these areas would affect?

- the peripheral nervous system and the endocrine system - sensory processing, regulation of peripheral nervous system function, regulation of endocrine function, and homeostasis - olfactory bulbs, cerebral cortex, and the basal ganglia - intelligence, language, motor function, and sense of smell

The metencephalon will serve as a precursor to? Disruptions to these areas would impact? The myelencephalon will give rise to? The diencephalon would contain structures like?

- the pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation - sensory-motor processing and coordination, balance, and the sleep-wake cycle - the medulla oblongata which is important for basic functions like respiration and heart rate - the hypothalamus, thalamus, and pineal gland

Anxiety Disorders: Higher frequency among? Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) =

- women than men. Anxiety disorders are the most common psychological disorders in the United States - A prolonged and exaggerated sense of worry that has few or no verifiable causes. May be accompanied by an exaggerated startle reflex, trouble sleeping, headaches, nausea, fatigue, excessive sweating, etc.

For every psychological, sociological, or biological characteristic or behavior, scientists have asked the question: ?

-"Is this primarily the result of genes (nature), or the influence of the environment (nurture)." The answer is most often (but not always) "both."

Nature vs. Nurture Example 3: Same Genes, Different Environment, environment → Disease OR No Disease. In many cases, a gene will remain phenotypically irrelevant in the absence of disease-inducing environmental conditions. Genetic mutations that result in loss of enzymatic function (e.g., PKU, galactosemia) are prime examples. A child born with galactosemia lacks one or more enzymes specific to the metabolism of galactose. The results can be fatal. However, if the child is kept on a low-galactose diet (environmental change), the disease has essentially no harmful effect

... ...

Nature vs. Nurture Example 4: Same Genes, Different Environment, Environment → Covalent Modification of the DNA → Dramatically Different Physiology. Evidence exists for cases where the gene (i.e., DNA structure) itself is covalently altered by the environment. One study showed that increased licking behavior by a mother rat resulted in methylation of a segment of DNA (preventing transcription) that codes for a regulatory protein which upregulates transcription of a membrane receptor. This direct change in physiology persisted into adulthood. Amazingly, the methylation occurred within one week and could be reversed if the mother's licking behavior was reversed.

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The Most Common Psychological Disorders: Listed in approximate decreasing order of one-year prevalence among adults in the United States. Source: 2014 National Institutes of Health Survey

1)Anxiety Disorders (GAD, SAD, Phobias, Panic Disorder; ~ 18%) 2) Depressive Disorders (MDD, Bipolar, Dysthymia; ~ 10%) 3) Substance Use Disorders (~ 7%) 4) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD; ~ 3.5%) 5) Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD; ~ 1.5%) 6) Schizophrenia (~ 1%)

A biomedical approach assumes that all health-related problems arise from? The biopsychosocial approach on the other hand suggests that healthrelated problems are influenced by? Describe in detail how the following problems would be addressed using primarily a biomedical approach, and alternatively how they would be addressed using primarily a biopsychosocial approach Patient A is morbidly obese and has a history of failed dieting and weight loss attempts

A morbidly obese individual would probably be referred for gastric bypass surgery from someone coming from a biomedical perspective. While a healthcare provider taking a biopsychosocial approach might also recommend gastric bypass surgery, this would be done in conjunction with some sort of psychological evaluation and counseling to help the patient overcome unhealthy patterns of behavior that contributed to and maintained the morbid obesity.

Identify the psychological disorder that is most likely to be diagnosed given the following symptoms: a) alternating periods of high energy/impulsive behavior and depression, b) hearing voices that urge the individual to hurt himself, c) significant periods of memory loss for events that others claim the individual was present for but they also indicate that he was behaving oddly, d) persistent thoughts that harm would befall his parents if he failed to take a flight of stairs two stairs at a time, e) avoiding situations in which social interaction would occur because of an intense feeling of social inferiority, f) an intense need to be the center of attention at all times, g) significant issues with maintaining balance and pronounced tremors.

A) Bipolar disorder B)Schizophrenia C) Dissociative identity disorder D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder E) Avoidant personality disorder F) Histrionic personality disorder G) Parkinson's disease

A researcher wishes to identify whether family social environment has an influence on the development of aggressive behavior toward animals, a common finding among adult sociopaths. Which experimental result most strengthens the hypothesis that family environment influences aggression toward animals? A) A group of orphans exposed to violent video games tested higher on a scale of sociopathic character traits than a group of non-orphans exposed to non-violent video games. B) A group of children whose fathers tested high on a violence and aggression scale tested higher on an animal aggression scale than a group of children with non-violent fathers. C) An analysis of lab results taken from adult sociopaths revealed a correlation between hippocampal desensitization to dopamine and high scores on an animal aggression scale. D) Children from homes where at least one domestic violence incident had been reported to police scored lower on a scale of sociopathic character traits than children from homes with no domestic violence reports.

Answer A is false because it would support the influence of violent video games on sociopathic character traits. First, violence toward animals (not sociopathic character traits) is what the stem specifically asked for, and second, violent video games is not directly equivalent to family environment. Answer C is false because it suggests an organic cause (nature rather than nurture). Answer D is false because it would actually weaken the hypothesis. Answer B is the best choice. If it were shown that children with violent fathers were more likely to be aggressive toward animals than children with non - violent fathers this would support the hypothesis given in the stem

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) =

Characterized by a chronic and significant preoccupation with perfection, control and order. May include rigid behaviors, resistance to change, inflexibility, stubbornness, and a sense of helplessness in uncontrollable circumstances

Antisocial Personality Disorder = - Never diagnosed before age 18. - Must include some symptoms before the age of 15. - Severe cases are further classified as a sociopath or a psychopath.

Persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. May be accompanied by cruelty to animals, lack of concern for others, difficulty feeling empathy for others, impulsivity, aggressiveness or irritability, failure to conform to social norms, etc. Symptoms usually begin in childhood and include such things as setting fires, legal trouble, and difficulty with authority

Biopsychosocial Approach =

Psych disorders caused by a combination of biochemical (e.g., genetic defect, low hormone level), psychological (personality, unhealthy behaviors), and sociological factors (culture, peer pressure). Treatments should include interventions in all three of these areas to be most effective; Considered more broad and generally more "accepted" by psychologists; Focused more on solving underlying causes and problems

Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSE) is viral infection of the central nervous system caused by the same virus responsible for cold sores. Symptoms include memory loss, confusion, and personality change. Which portion of the brain is most directly impacted by HSE? A) inferior colliculi B) limbic system C) medulla oblongata D) cerebellum

The symptoms given may or may not be precise enough to identify an exact brain region. Memory loss could result from a loss of function of many different regions, as could the rather general term "confusion." Personality change might infer emotional or motivational changes, which would lead one toward the limbic system, but the hypothalamus and the cerebral cortex also play important roles. This question is still fair, however, because all of the distractors are easily ruled out. Answer A, inferior colliculi, is very specific to auditory function. Answer C, medulla oblongata controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate. Answer D is most commonly associated with balance and refined motor functions. Thus Answer B is the only possible answer. One may not feel confident it is the source, but it cannot be ruled out as Answers A, C and D were

For each of the following symptoms, list ALL of the psychological or neurological disorders discussed in this section that can include this symptom: a) delusions of grandeur or a sense of grandiosity, b) depressed mood, c) significant impairment of normal daily functioning, d) hallucinations

a) bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease b) all types of depressive disorders (e.g. major depression, seasonal affective disorder, etc.), bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia c) All disorders have the potential for significant impairment of normal functioning by definition d) Hallucinations are most often associated with schizophrenia, but there are reports of individuals with degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease also experiencing hallucinations

For each of the following symptoms, list ALL of the psychological or neurological disorders discussed in this section that can include this symptom: i) suicidal thoughts or attempts, j) onset linked to trauma, k) fluctuations in mood l) memory loss, m) impaired sensory or motor function

i) depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, any number of personality disorders, and schizophrenia j) Post-traumatic stress disorder and dissociative identity disorder are probably most commonly linked with some sort of personal trauma k) Depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, histrionic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder are linked with emotional instability. L) Memory loss is a hallmark of dissociative disorders (e.g. dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia) and Alzheimer's disease. M) Impaired sensory and motor function is associated with Somatic symptom disorder, Parkinson's disease and the latter stages of Alzheimer's disease.