Psychology chapter 15
insight therapies
"talk therapy" - therapies in which the main goal is helping people to gain insight with respect to their behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Philippe Pinel
-"Moral treatment" : famous for demanding that the mentally ill be treated with kindness, personally unlocking the chains of inmates in france in 1793
Who seeks treatment?
-15% of US population in a given year -Most common presenting problems: anxiety and depression -Women more than men -Medical insurance is a factor in seeking treatment (more likely to enter into therapy if they have) -education level is a factor in seeking treatment (higher education, more likely to seek) -over 1/2 of clients don't have a specific disorder -stigma is a factor in seeking treatment -over 2/3 of people with disorders do not seek professional treatment
four main types of Psychopharmacotherapy
-Antianxiety -Antipsychotic -Antidepressant -Mood stabilizers
Success of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
-CBT has seemed successful in treating depression, stress disorders, and anxiety. -Criticized for focusing on the symptoms and not the causes of disordered behavior -short term because they help clients deal with their symptoms more directly, therefore less expensive
Advantages of group therapy
-lower cost -exposure to the ways in which other people view and handle the same kinds of problems -social and emotional support from people who have similar problems
Early treatment of the mentally ill
-mentally ill people began to be confined to institutions called asylums in the mid 1500's for harsh physical purging -Treatments were harsh and often damaging - bloodlettings, beatings, ice baths, induced vomiting for spiritual cleansing.
Who provides treatment?
-psychologists and psychiatrists account for about 62% of outpatient treatment -clinical psychologists -counseling psychologists -psychiatrists -clinical social workers -psychiatric nurses -counselors
Gestalt therapy
A therapy based on humanistic ideas. Founder is Fritz Perls. Very directive therapy. Form of directive insight therapy in which the therapist helps clients to accept all parts of their feelings and subjective experiences, using leading questions and planned experiences such as role playing.
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
A variation of client centered therapy. In contrast to client centered therapy, MI has specific goals: to reduce ambivalence about change and to increase intrinsic motivation to bring that change about. For a therapist, the four principles of MI are express empathy, develop deviation from the clients present behaviors and values, roll with resistance, and support the clients ability to produce the desired result.
token economy
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: the use of objects called tokens to reinforce behavior in which the tokens can be accumulated and exchanged for desired items or privileges. Tokens are given for behaving correctly, and can be taken away for inappropriate behavior. Works for more serious disorders as well such as for people with schizophrenia or depressed persons.
Therapeutic alliance
The relationship between therapist and client that develops as a warm, caring, accepting relationship characterized by empathy, mutual respect, and understanding.
Antidepressants: Tricyclics (treatment areas, side effects, and examples)
Treatment areas: depression Side effects: skin rashes, blurred vision, lowered blood pressure, weight loss Examples: Elavil (Amitriptyline), Tofranil (Imipramine)
Antidepressants: MAOI's (treatment areas, side effects, and examples)
Treatment areas: depression Side effects: weight gain, constipation, dry mouth, dizziness, headache, insomnia, sexual arousal disorders Examples: nardil (phenelzine)
Mood stabilizers/antimanic drugs (treatment areas, side effects, examples)
Treatment areas: manic behavior, mood stabilization Side effects: potential for toxic buildup Examples: Lithium, valproic acid
Antipsychotic: typical neuroleptic (treatment areas, side effects, examples)
Treatment areas: positive (excessive) symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations Side effects: Motor problems, tardive dyskinesia Examples: chlorpromazine (thorazine), droperidol, haloperidol
Antipsychotic: Atypical Neuroleptic (treatment areas, side effects, examples)
Treatment areas: positive and some negative symptoms of psychosis Side effects: fewer than typical neuroleptics; clozapine may cause serious blood disorder Examples: risperidone, clozapine, aripiprazole
Haldol (Haloperidol)
Treats mental illness (such as schizophrenia), behavior problems, agitation, and symptoms of Tourette's syndrome.
Self help group (support group)
Type of group therapy: a group composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support. Free, and provide the social and emotional support that any group session can provide.
Family counseling (family therapy)
Type of group therapy: family members meet together with a counselor or therapist to resolve problems that affect the entire family. Includes couples therapy.
Person centered therapy
What Rogers's therapy is now called. It's a nondirective insight therapy based on the work of carl rogers in which the client does all the talking and the therapist listens.
Main obstacle of culture and psychotherapy
When the cultures, ethnic groups, or genders of the therapist and the client differs, misunderstandings and misinterpretations can occur that make the client drop out of counseling.
time-out
an extinction process in which a person is removed from the situation that provides reinforcement for undesirable behavior, usually by being placed in a quiet corner or room away from possible attention and reinforcement opportunities.
psychoanalysis
an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts, urges, and desires that are assumed to cause disordered emotions and behaviors.
Valproic acid
anti-convulsant/anti-seisure drug.
eclectic
approach to therapy that results from combining elements of several different approaches or techniques.
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
a form of psychotherapy for depression which incorporates multiple approaches and focuses on interpersonal problems. Also an insight therapy focusing on relationships of the individual with others and the interplay between mood and events of everyday life. NOT a psychodynamic therapy, as it combines aspects of humanistic and cognitive-behavioral therapies, making it eclectic.
Resistance
component of Freud's original psychoanalytic method: Occurring when a patient becomes reluctant to talk about a certain topic, either changing the subject or becoming silent.
Transference
component of Freud's original psychoanalytic method: in psychoanalysis, the tendency for a patient or client to project positive or negative feelings for important people from the past onto the therapist. The therapist often becomes a symbol of a parental authority figure from the past.
Magnification and minimization
distortions of thinking in which a person blows a negative event out of proportion to its importance (magnification) while ignoring relevant positive events (minimization). EX: a student who has received good grades on every other exam believes that the C she got on the last quiz means she's not going to succeed in college.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - include negative side effects
form of biomedical therapy to treat severe depression in which electrodes are placed on either one or both sides of a persons head and an electric current is passed through the electrodes that is strong enough to cause a seizure or convulsion. Results in the release of a flood of neurotransmitters in the brain, which causes an almost immediate improvement in mood. Negative side effects: -decreased long term memory -retrograde and anterorade amnesia
Roger's view of the roots of disorders
he believes that anxiety and self defeating behavior are rooted in an incongruent self-concept that makes one prone to recurrent anxiety, which triggers defensive behavior, which further fuels an incongruent self concept.
real self
how people see their actual traits and abilities
ideal self
how people think they should be
Operant conditioning
operant conditioning techniques include reinforcement, extinction, shaping, and modeling to change the frequency of voluntary behavior.
Main difference between person centered therapy and gestalt therapy
person-centered - nondirective gestalt - directive
Basic elements of Roger's theory of personality
proposed that everyone has a real self and ideal self, and the closer the real and ideal selves match up, the happier and more well adjusted the person. To ave these two self concepts match, people need to receive unconditional positive regard.
Unconditional positive regard (element)
referring to the warmth, respect, and accepting atmosphere created by the therapist for the client in person centered therapy.
classical conditioning
the learning of involuntary responses by pairing a stimulus that normally causes a particular response with a new, neutral stimulus. After enough pairings, the new stimulus will also cause the response to occur.
i.d.
the part of the personality that is itself unconscious and driven by basic needs for survival and pleasure
countertransference
the therapist has a transference reaction to the patient
insight
the understanding of ones motives and actions
Psychopharmacology
the use of drugs to control or relieve the symptoms of psychological disorders
Biomedical therapies
therapies that directly affect the biological functioning of the body and brain.
Psychotherapy
therapy for mental disorders and mentally healthy people - a person with a problem talks with a psychological professional. Includes insight and action therapies. Often assisted by biomedical therapy.
biomedical therapy
therapy for mental disorders in which a person with a problem is treated with biological or medical methods to relieve symptoms. Includes the use of drugs, surgical methods, and electric shock treatments. Often assisted by psychotherapy.
Cognitive therapy
therapy in which the focus is on helping clients recognize distortions in their thinking and replace distorted, unrealistic beliefs with more realistic, helpful thoughts. Focus is on the distorted thinking and unrealistic beliefs that lead to maladaptive behavior as opposed to the behavior itself.
directive
therapy in which the therapist actively gives interpretations of a client's statements and may suggest certain behavior or actions. Psychoanalysis today is more directive than Freud's original structure.
Eclectic therapies
therapy style that results from combining elements of several different therapy techniques
Reflection
therapy technique in which the therapist restates what the client says rather than interpreting the statements
Current trends and issues in treatment
-Managed care -empirically validated treatments -blending approaches to treatment -multicultural sensitivity -deinstitutionalization (revolving door problem, homelessness)
Misconceptions about treatment
-Only those with severe symptoms/disorders see a shrink (FALSE) -All therapy is just sitting around and talking (FALSE) -If you can just figure out what is causing the problem, you can cure the patient... often with a single insight! (FALSE)
What are the four basic elements necessary for Rogers's person-therapist relationship within person-centered therapy?
-Reflection -Unconditional positive regard -Empathy -Authenticity
5 cognitive distortions based on Beck's cognitive therapy:
-arbitrary inference -selective thinking -overgeneralization -magnification and minimization -personalization
Effectiveness of behavioral therapies
-behavioral therapies can be quick and effective in treating specific problems such as bedwetting, drug addictions, and phobias -can help improve some of the more troubling behavioral symptoms associated with more severe disorders, but severe depression or schizophrenia do not respond well overall to behavioral treatments.
Characteristics of effective therapy
-common factors approach -therapeutic alliance -protected setting -opportunity for catharsis -learning practice of new behaviors -positive experiences for client
The four barriers to effective psychotherapy that exist when the culture/ethnic background of client and therapist differ
-culture-bound values -class-bound values -language -nonverbal communication
Aaron Beck
-developed cognitive therapy -focus is on faulty thinking - changing thoughts rather than gaining deep insights into their causes
Effectiveness of psychotherapy
-psychotherapy is more effective than no treatment at all -anywhere from 75-90% of people who receive therapy improve -the longer a person stays in therapy, the better the improvement -psychotherapy works as well alone as it does with drugs -some types of psychotherapy are more effective for certain types of problems, and no one psychotherapy method is effective for all problems: effective therapy should be matched to the particular client and the particular problem
Albert Ellis
-rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) -People challenge their own irrational beliefs
Disadvantages of group therapy
-the therapist is no longer the only person to whom secrets and fears are revealed, which may make some people reluctant to speak -the client must share the therapists time during the session -people with severe psychiatric disorders (ie paranoia and schizophrenia) may not be able to tolerate group therapy settings.
Behavior modification or applied behavior analysis
Behavior therapy based on classical conditioning: the use of learning techniques to modify or change undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior
Systematic desensitization
Behavioral therapy based on classical conditioning: behavior technique used to treat phobias, in which a client is asked to make a list of ordered fears (Called the hierarchy of fears) and is taught to relax while concentrating on those fears.
Aversion therapy (discuss rapid smoking technique in answer)
Behavioral therapy based on classical conditioning: form of behavioral therapy in which an undesirable behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behavior. For example, reducing the frequency of smoking by smoking a puff every 5 or 6 seconds - poisonous, so produces unpleasant effects (rapid-smoking technique).
exposure therapy
Behavioral therapy based on classical conditioning: techniques that expose individuals to anxiety-or fear-related stimuli, under carefully controlled conditions, to promote new learning. in vivo - client is exposed to the actual anxiety related stimulus, imaginal - client visualizes or imagines the stimulus, virtual - technology is used.
contingency contract
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: a formal, written agreement between the therapist and client (or teacher and student) in which goals for behavioral change, reinforcements, and penalties are clearly stated.
Modeling (include bandura's thoughts)
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: learning through the observation and imitation of others. Based on work of Albert Bandura, who believed that a person with specific fears or someone who needs to develop social skills can learn to do so by watching someone else (the model) confront those fears or demonstrate the needed social skills.
Participant modeling
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: technique in which a model demonstrates the desired behavior in a step-by-step, gradual process while the client is encouraged to imitate the model.
Extinction
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: the removal of a reinforcer to reduce the frequency of a behavior. In modifying behavior, operant extinction often involves removing one's attention from the person when that person is engaging in an inappropriate or undesirable behavior (with children, this may take the form of a time-out)
reinforcement
Behavioral therapy based on operant conditioning: the strengthening of a response by following it with a pleasurable consequence (positive reinforcement) or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (negative reinforcement).
Nonverbal communication
Body language or nonverbal communication can also differ between cultures and ethnicities. People in some cultures are content with long periods of silence where as others are not, direct eye contact is desirable in some cultures and offensive in others, etc.
Behavior therapies
Changing overt behavior - action therapies based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning and aimed at changing disordered behavior without concern for the original causes of such behavior. Behavior therapies are therefore action based rather than insight based, as the aim is to change behavior through the same kinds of learning techniques that all people and animals use to learn any new responses. The abnormal behavior is not seen as a symptom but rather is the problem itself - learning created the problem, new learning can correct it.
Two main techniques of psychoanalysis
Dream interpretation and free association
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
Form of Classical Behavioral Therapy proposed by Albert Ellis: cognitive behavioral therapy in which clients are directly challenged in their irrational beliefs and helped to restructure their thinking into more rational belief statements. Example of irrational beliefs: Everyone should love and approve of me (if they don't, I am awful and unloveable). Irrational beliefs: its either all or nothing. REBT helps people realize that life can be good without being perfect.
trabsorbital lobotomy
Freeman and Watts - an instrument resembling an ice pick, called a leucotome, was inserted through the back of the eye socket and into the brain to sever the brain fibers. First technique that became widely (and over) used.
Freud's beliefs about treatment vs early beliefs
Freud was a medical doctor and sought to remove the "impurities" of the unconscious mind that he thought were responsible for his patients psychological and nervous disorders. Impurities were considered disturbing thoughts, socially unacceptable desires, and immoral urges that originated in the id. According to Freud, unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego sometimes lead to anxiety. This discomfort may lead to pathological reliance on defensive behavior.
Free Association
Freudian Technique in which a patient was encouraged to talk about anything that came to mind without fear of negative evaluation, originally devised by Freud's coworker Josef Breuer.
"Mask" idea of Gestalt therapy
Fritz Perlz believed that peoples problems stemmed from hiding important parts of their feelings from themselves in order - behind a "mask" of what people find socially acceptable. The person experiences unhappiness and maladjustment when the inner self does not match the mask.
Psychotherapy: Cognitive therapy -CBT -REBT (name key people, goal and methods)
Key people: -Cognitive Therapy - Beck -CBT - various professionals -REBT - Ellis Goal: Action Methods: Aims to help clients overcome problems by learning to think more rationally and logically. Clients are challenged in their irrational beliefs and helped to restructure their thinking.
Psychotherapy: Humanistic therapy -person centered therapy -gestalt therapy (name key people, goal and methods)
Key people: -Person centered therapy - Rogers -Gestalt therapy - Perls Goal: Insight Methods: Non directive therapy; client does most of the talking; key elements are authenticity, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. Directive therapy; therapist uses leading questions and role playing to help client accept all parts of their feelings and experiences.
Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic therapy (name key people, goal and methods)
Key people: Freud Goal: Insight Methods: Aims to reveal unconscious conflicts through dream interpretation, free association, resistance and transference
Psychotherapy: Behavior therapy (name key people, goal and methods)
Key people: Watson, Jones, Skinner, Bandura Goal: Action Methods: Based on principles of classical and operant conditioning; aimed at changing behavior without concern for causes of behavior
Bilateral anterior cingulotomy
Lobotomies were discontinued. SO! this is a psychosurgical technique in which an electrode wire is inserted into the anterior cingulate gyrus with the guidance of a magnetic resonance imaging machine for the purpose of destroying that area of brain tissue with an electric current.
SSRI's
Most frequently prescribed. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: drugs that inhibit the reuptake process of only serotonin. This causes fewer side effects while still providing effective antidepressant action, making these drugs relatively safe when compared to older antidepressants.
Beck's view on the roots of depression
Negative thinking (such as the following) leads to increased vulnerability of depression: -blame setbacks on personal inadequacies -focus selectively on negative elements -make excessively pessimistic projections about the future -draw negative conclusions about personal worth
Main differences between psychoanalysis and gestalt therapy
Psychoanalysis - hidden past Gestalt - denied past
Cybertherapy
Psychotherapy that is offered on the internet. Also called online, internet, or web therapy counseling. Offers the advantages of anonymity and therapy for people who cannot otherwise get to a therapist. No guarantee that the cybertherapist has any credentials or training in psychotherapy. When there is no face to face or voice to voice access, there is no access to body language or vocal tones to assess a client's emotional state.
Nondirective
Rogers's form of therapy. Therapy style in which the therapist remains relatively neutral and does not interpret or take direct actions with regard to the client, instead remaining a calm, nonjudgemental listener while the client talks. The person actually does all the real work with the therapist merely acting as a sounding board.
Tardive dyskinesia
These drugs work by blocking certain dopamine receptors to the brain, thereby reducing the effect of dopamine in synaptic transmission. With prolonged use, they can cause the person to make repetitive, involuntary jerks and movements of the face, lips, legs, and body.
Antidepressants: SSRI's (Treatment Areas, Side effects, examples)
Treatment areas: depression Side effects: nausea, nervousness, insomnia, diarrhea, rash, agitation, sexual arousal problems Examples: Prozac (fluoxetine), Paxil (paroxetine), Zoloft (sertraline)
Flooding
a method of exposure therapy: technique used for treating phobias and other stress disorders in which the person is rapidly and intensely exposed to the fear-provoking situation or object and prevented from making the usual avoidance or escape response.
Mellaril (thioridazine)
a neuroleptic used to treat schizophrenia.
psychodynamic therapy
a newer and more general term for therapies based on psychoanalysis, with an emphasis on transference, shorter treatment times, and a more direct therapeutic approach.
client
a term used in modern psychoanalysis modified from freud's to support the active role of the person seeking help and to avoid implying sickness as might result when using the term patient.
Action therapy
a therapy that is directed more at changing behavior than providing insights into the reasons for that behavior. Main goal is to change disordered or inappropriate behavior directly.
Eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR)
a type of exposure therapy used in the treatment of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It involves imaginal flooding, or other bilateral stimulations.
Class-bound values
adherence to time schedules, ambiguous approach to problems, looking for long-range goals... Clients from impoverished backgrounds may have values and experiences that the therapist cannot understand.
Clozapine
can cause a potentially fatal reduction in the white blood cells of the body's immune system in a very small percentage of people. For this reason, the blood of patients on clozapine is closely monitored.
Long term effects of use of neuroleptics
decrease in cognitive functioning
prefrontal lobotomy
developed in 1935 - psychosurgery in which the connections of the prefrontal lobes of the brain to the rear portions are severed.
arbitrary inderence
distortion of thinking in which a person draws a conclusion that is not based on evidence. EX. "suzy canceled our lunch date - I'll bet she's seeing someone else!"
Overgeneralization
distortion of thinking in which a person draws sweeping conclusions based on only one incident or event and applies those conclusions to events that are unrelated to the original. EX "I insulted my algebra teacher. I'll flunk and never be able to get a decent job - ill end up on welfare."
selective thinking
distortion of thinking in which a person focuses on only one aspect of a situation while ignoring all other relevant aspects. Ex: peter's teacher praised his paper but made one comment about needing to check his punctuation. Peter assumes that his paper is lousy, ignoring the other praises and comments.
Personalization
distortion of thinking in which a person takes responsibility or blame for events that are unconnected to the person. EX: when sandy's husband comes home in a bad mood because of something that happened at work, she immediately assumes that he is angry with her.
antianxiety drugs (give 4 typical examples)
drugs used to treat and calm anxiety reactions, such as minor anxiety, social phobias, simple phobias, and panic disorders. usually minor tranquilizers. Valium, Xanax, Buspar, Ativan. Has slight sedative effect, but the potential for physical dependence - subject to abuse.
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression and anxiety. Used to treat panic disorder, ocd, and ptsd. not as subject to abuse as minor tranquilizers (antianxiety drugs)
Antipsychotic drugs (include three categories)
drugs used to treat psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, mental confusion, hyperactivity, and other bizarre behavior. Three categories of drugs: typical neuroleptics, atypical neuroleptics, and partial dopamine agonists.
Humanistic therapy (include beliefs of humanists and two most common therapy styles based on humanistic therapy)
humanists focus on conscious, subjective experiences of emotion and people's sense of self, as well as immediate experience as opposed to childhood experiences. Humanistic therapy emphasizes the importance of the choices made by individuals and the potential to change one's behavior. Two most important therapy styles: Carl Roger's person-centered therapy and Fritz Perl's Gestalt therapy. Both are insight therapies. Not really evidence based. Works well with highly intelligent, verbal individuals.
Culture-bound values
including individual centered versus other (or others) centered, verbal/emotional/behavioral expressiveness, communication patterns from client to counselor. differing cultural values can cause therapists to fail at forming an empathetic relationship.
Tricyclic antidepressants
increase the activity of serotonin and norepinephrine in the nervous system by inhibiting their reuptake into the synaptic vesicles of the neurons.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) - include 3 basic goals
just as cognitive psychology grew out of behaviorism, therapies using cognitive methods have behavioral elements within them as well. CBT is an action therapy in which the goal is to help clients overcome problems by learning to think more rationally and logically. Assumes that people interact with the world with more than simple automatic reactions to external stimuli. -relieve the symptoms and solve the problems -develop strategies for solving future problems -help change irrational, distorted thinking
Language
language barriers lead to miscommunications
Fear heirarchy
list of fears - First item on list is of highest fear level, last is of least.
unconditional positive regard
love, warmth, respect, and affection without any conditions attached. If people think that there are conditions attached to the love and affection they receive, their ideal selves will be determined by those conditions and become more difficult to achieve, resulting in unhappiness.
Common factors approach
modern approach in psychotherapy to eclecticism and focuses on those factors common to successful outcomes from different forms of therapy.
MAOI
monamine oxidase inhibitors: a class of antidepressants that blocks the activity of an enzyme called monamine oxidase. This enzyme's primary function is to break down the neurotransmitters (nephrine, serotonin, and dopamine) that control mood. Under normal circumstances, the excess neurotransmitters are broken down after they have done their job in mood control. In depression, these neurotransmitters need more time to do their job, and the MAOI's allow them that time by inhibiting enzyme action.
Revolving door problem and homelessness
refers to patients being released from institutions, then return, then released again. 1. While in institutions patient may respond well to medication 2. Once stabilized, they no longer qualify for financial assistance....released 3. Community-based services not provided adequate funding, so these patients don't get enough assistance....potential homelessness...thus, they digress and end up back in institution.
Counterconditioning
replacing an old conditioned response with a new one by changing the unconditioned stimulus.
Psychosurgery
surgery performed on brain tissue to relieve or control severe psychological disorders.
empathy
the ability of the therapist to understand the feelings of the clients. It is often that a therapist has difficulty with unintentionally getting his/her feelings mixed up with the clients'.
manifest content
the actual dream and its events
Dream interpretation
the analysis of the elements within a patient's reported dream. Freud believed that repressed material often surfaced in dreams, although in symbolic form. Two types of dream contents: manifest content and latent content.
Authenticity
the genuine, open, and honest response to the client.
latent content
the hidden, symbolic meaning of events in dreams that would, if correctly interpreted, reveal the unconscious conflicts that were creating the nervous disorder.
Roger's goal of person centered therapy
to restructure the self-concept so that it better corresponds to reality by helping the person recognize the discrepancies between the real and ideal self.
Therapy
treatment methods aimed at making people feel better and function more effectively.
Lithium
treatment of choice for bipolar disorder and episodes of mania. A metallic chemical element that in its salt form (lithium carbonate) evens out the highs and lows of bipolar disorder. Associated with weight gain.
Thorazine (Chlorpromazine)
treats mental disorders, severe behavior disorders, severe hiccups, severe nausea and vomiting, and certain types of porphyria. Also used before and after surgery to relieve anxiety.
The role of a Gestalt therapist
tries to help clients deal with things in their past that they have denied. they will use body language and other nonverbal cues to understand what clients are really saying in addition to directive means.
