Psychology: Chapter 2 Biology and Psychology
Wernicke's aphasia
a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending speech and to think of the proper words to express their own thoughts
Endocrine System
The body's system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream
Neurogenesis
The brain grows new neurons replace neurons that die daily. -Raises hope for repairing brain damage.
Genotype
one's genetic makeup, based on the sequencing of the nucleotides we term A, C, G, and T. Provides you with your nature.
Heredity
one's nature; the transmission of traits from parent to offspring by means of genes.
Testosterone
causes the male's sex organs to develop six weeks after conception
White matter
composed of bundles of longer, myelinated (& whitish) axons that carry messages to and from the brain.
Deep lesioning
A thin wire electrode is lowered into a specific area inside the brain. -Electrical current is then used to destroy a small amount of brain tissue.
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of sensory & motor neurons, that transmit messages to and from the central nervous system. 2 parts- Somatic & Autonomic Nervous Systems
Central Nervous System
Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The Nervous System
Consists of the brain, spinal cord, & other parts that make it possible for us to receive information from the outside world and act on it.
Somatic Nervous System
Contains sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons. 5 senses, temperature, body positions. Controls voluntary behavior.
Neurotransmitters
In the axon inside sacs called synaptic vesicles. -Chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another.
Corticalization
Increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex
Endorphins
Increase sense of competence, immune system, "runners high"; occurs naturally in the brain & bloodstream & are similar to the narcotic morphine in their functions and effects
Stereotypical behavior patterns that have evolved within a species are called ____________.
Instincts
Hypothalamus
"commander to pituitary gland"; regulates much pituitary activity; secretes a number of releasing hormones, or "factors" that stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete related hormones.
dizygoic twins
(fraternal twins) the woman releases two ova in the same month and they are both fertilized; share 50% of their genes.
Monozygotic twins
(identical twins) occur when the zygote divides into two cells that separate, it develops the same genetic makeup.
Ductless glands
- A number of substances secreted by ductless glands have effects of behavior & mental processes. They make up the endocrine system, & release hormones into the bloodstream
A neuron can fire up to a limit about __________ times per second.
400
Spinal Cord
A column of nerves as thick as a thumb; transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain to muscles & glands throughout the body.
Cretinism
A condition characterized by stunted growth & intellectual disability.
Aphasia
A disruption in the ability to understand or produce language.
Receptor site
A location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter.
Synapses
A space in between the axon terminals of one neuron & the dendrites of another neuron.
Hormones
A substance secreted by an endocrine gland that regulates various body functions- fluid levels, blood sugar levels, etc.
Norepinephrine
Acts as neurotransmitter & hormone; speeds up the heartbeat & other body processes; involved in general arousal, learning, memory, & eating; similar to hormone (epinephrine)
Dopamine
Acts in the brain & affects the ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning & memory. Parkinson's disease- lose control of their muscles Schizophrenia- have more receptor sites for dopamine; confusion & false perceptions
If someone steps on your toes, resulting in pain and the movement of your foot, which of the following describes this process?
Afferent neurons transmit the sensation of pain to the spinal cord and to the brain followed by efferent neurons sending the message to your foot to move.
Efferent Neurons
Also called motor neurons Neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands. -SAME: Sensory is to Afferent as Motor is to Efferent
Afferent Neurons
Also called sensory neurons. 2-3 feet in length; neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord & brain.
Cell body
Also called the soma, contains the nucleus of the cell.
Autonomic nervous system
Also has afferent & efferent neurons & regulates the glands and the muscles of internal organs. Heartbeat, respiration, digestion ,& dilation of the pupils. Two divisions- Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
The ___________ nervous system regulates the glands and involuntary activities such as heartbeat and digestion.
Autonomic
When Charlotte hears something embarrassing, she blushes. Being a student of psychology, she knows that this condition is controlled by the
Autonomic nervous system
Neurons have a cell body, or soma; dendrites, which receive "messages"; and a(n) _________, which extends from the cell body and transmits messages.
Axon
Corpus Callosum
Band of fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres (right & left halves of the cerebrum).
Left hemisphere
Better at language, math judging time & rhythm, & coordinating order of complex movements. -Processes information sequentially
Thyroid gland
Body's accelerator; produces thyroxin, which affects the body's metabolism.
Nerves
Bundle of axons from many neurons
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
CTE Common in football players due to concussive blocks & tackles. Causes dementia- loss of memory, impaired reasoning, & other problems.
Hypothyroidism
Causes people to be overweight; a condition that results from too little thyroxin.
The brain structure called the ___________ is involved in balance and coordination.
Cerebellum
Acetylcholine
Controls muscle contractions. Alzheimer's disease- memory function is impaired Hippocampus- ACh is normally prevalent in this part of the brain. The structure is involved in memory formation.
Dizygotic twins...
Develop when two ova are fertilized.
People with ___________ syndrome have an extra chromosome on the 21st pair.
Down
Electroencephalograph
EEG -A device that is used to activate target areas in the brain.
Temporal lobe
Each side of the brain; auditory and language centers
"Messages" travel within neurons by means of __________ and from neuron to neuron by means of ___________.
Electricity, neurotransmitters
Neural impulses
Electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron. -Luigi Galvani: frog's muscles would contract when lightning struck the lightning rod.
Serotonin
Emotional arousal and sleep
Clinical case studies
Examine changes in personality, behavior, or sensory capacity caused by brain disease or injuries. -learning through doing things wrong
Hyperthyroidism
Excitability, insomnia, & weight loss.
The concept of a struggle for __________ lies at the core of the theory of evolution.
Existence
Dendrites
Extend like roots from the cell body to receive incoming messages from thousands of adjoining neurons.
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid
GABA Calm anxiety reactions
__________ are the most basic building blocks of heredity.
Genes
Right hemisphere
Good at perceptual skills, & at expressing and detecting other's emotinos -Processes information simultaneously
Wernicke's aphasia causes...
Impairment of one's ability to comprehend speech and to think of the proper words to express their own thoughts.
Parietal lobe
Just above occipital; bodily sensations such as touch, pain, & temperature (somatosensory area)
Tau Proteins
Killed cells in the areas of the brain connected with executive functioning (solving problems, making decisions, mood, & emotions.)
Pituitary gland
Lies below the hypothalamus; "master gland"; the gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic hormone, & other hormones
Adrenal glands
Located above the kidneys; have an outer layer, or cortex, and an inner core, or medulla; regulated by the pituitary hormone ACTH
Axon
Long, thin part of neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from axon terminals. Carries information away from cell body.
The behavior of ___________ twins is of special interest to psychologists because their genetic endowment is the same.
Monozygotic (identical)
Parasympathetic division
Most active during processes (such as digestion) that replenish the body's reserves of energy. Quiets the body, most active after an emotional event.
Frontal lobe
Movement, sense of smell, higher mental functions. -Contains motor cortex; control motor movement -Contains mirror neurons; become active when we perform & when we observe someone else perform the same action.
The axons of many neurons have a fatty insulating sheath called ___________.
Myelin
Neurons transmit messages to other neurons by means of chemical substances called _____________.
Neurotransmitters
Glial cells
Remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system; nourish & insulate neurons; form a fatty, insulating substance called myelin; and play a role in a neural transmission of messages.
Spatial Neglect
Right hemisphere stroke victims pay no attention to the left side of visual space
Electrical stimulation of the brain
SEB -When an electrode is used to activate target areas in the brain.
It is theorized that people with the psychological disorder ___________ apparently overutilize the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Schizophrenia
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin, which helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle and may affect the onset of puberty.
Adrenal medulla
Secretes · epinephrine and norepinephrine. o Epinephrine- aka adrenaline, is manufactured exclusively by the adrenal glands Norepinephrine- noradrenaline, is produced else were in the body; acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain
An axon's length can range from a few millimeters to...
Several feet
Neurons
Specialized cells of the nervous system that conduct impulses. Receive "messages" from a number of sources such as light, other neurons, & pressure on the skin. They pass these messages along in a complex "biological dance." 100 billion in brain. -Include a cell body, dendrites, & an axon -Carry messages in one direction only: from dendrites/cell body through the axon to the axon terminals & are then transmitted to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Ablation
Surgical removal of tissue
An editor gets so upset that she is late in working on a manuscript that she throws up her lunch. This probably occurred because of the activity of the...
Sympathetic division of her autonomic nervous system.
Brain Plasticity
The capacity of our brains to change in response to experience. Neural networks constantly changing. -New synapses form and grow stronger -Other connections weaken or die
Split Brains
The corpus callosum is cut to control severe epilepsy (seizure disorder). Result: -The person now has two brains in one body -Each hemisphere has its own seperate perceptions, concepts, & impulses to act -This operation is rare and is often used as last resort.
Action Potential
The electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron.
Resting potential
The electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is no responding to other neurons.
All-or-none principle
The fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered.
Occipital lobe
The primary role is to control vision.
Metabolism
The rate at which the body uses oxygen and produces energy.
Nurture
The sum total of the environmental factors that affect an organism from conception onward.
Ellen loses weight and becomes somewhat agitated. Her doctor is most likely to theorize that she is suffering from a deficiency of
Thyroxin
Depolarized
To reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward 0.
Nucleus
Uses oxygen & nutrients to generate the energy needed to carry out the work of the cell.
Language functions
Usually occur in the left hemisphere; Broca's area & Wernicke's area
Kinship Studies
Ways in which psychologists compare the presence of traits and behavior patterns in people who are biologically related or unrelated to help determine the role of genetic factors in their occurrence
Hindbrain
Where the spinal cord rises to meet the brain. 3 structures- Medulla, pons, & cerebellum
Myelin
White fatty substance that insulates axons from ions, that are found in the fluids that surround the nervous system.
Pons
a bulge in the hindbrain that lies forward of the medulla; involved in respiration, attention, sleep & arousal
Down Syndrome
a condition caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair & characterized by mental deficiency, a broad face, and slanting eyes.
fMRI
a form of MRI that enables researchers to observe the brain "while it works" by taking repeated scans.
Limbic system
a group of structures (amygdala, hippocampus, & parts of the hypothalamus) involved in memory & emotion, and in the drives of sex, hunger, & aggression; forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum; people with hippocampal damage can retrieve old information but can't permanently store new information.
PET Scan
a method of brain imaging that injects a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream & assesses activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of glucose they metabolize.
CAT scan (CT scan)
a method of brain imaging that passes a narrow x-ray beam through the head & measures the structures that reflect the rays from various angles, enabling a computer to generate a three-dimensional image.
Chromosomes
a microscopic rod-shaped body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that transmit heredity traits from generation to generation; humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
Duct
a passageway that carries substances to specific locations- saliva, sweat, tears, & breast milk all reach their destinations b/c of glands
Refractory period
a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire
Spinal reflex
a simple, unlearned response to a stimulus that may require only two neurons- a sensory neuron & a motor neuron.
Instinct
a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation.
Mutations
a sudden variation in an inheritable characteristic, as distinguished from a variation that results from generations of gradual selection.
Corpus callosum
a thick fiber bundle that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
Thalamus
an area near the center of the brain involved in the relay of sensory information to the cortex & in the functions of sleep & attention.
MRI
an imaging method that places a person in a magnetic field & uses radio waves to cause the brain to emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which, when the brain is being scanned, indicate brain activity
Medulla
an oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat, blood pressure, & respiration; also plays a role in sleeping, sneezing, & coughing
Gray matter
consists of non-myelinated neurons; the grayish neurons & natural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes
EEG
detects brain waves that pass b/w electrodes that are attached to the scalp. Has been used to reveal electrical activity associated w/ relaxation & the stages of sleep.
Primary sex characteristics
directly involved in reproduction & include the increased size of the penis & the sperm-producing ability of the testes.
Sympathetic division
fight or flight; most active during emotional responses such as fear & anxiety that spend the body's reserves of energy.
Vasopressin
inhibits production of urine if fluid levels are low; also connected with paternal behavior in some mammals
Cerebrum
large mass of the forebrain that consists of two hemispheres; responsible for thinking & language
Motor cortex
lies in the frontal love, just across from central fissure from the sensory cortex; neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked to muscular responses throughout the body.
Hypothalamus
located beneath the thalamus & above the pituitary gland; a bundle of nuclei involved in body temperature, motivation, & emotion. Involved in hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, caring for offspring, & aggression
Somatosensory cortex
located in the parietal lobe behind the central fissure; receives messages from skin senses all over the body
Amygdala
located near the bottom of the limbic system; a part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive responses.
Cerebellum
o - located behind the pons; referred to as the "little brain"; a part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination & balance Reticular formation- a part of the brain involved in attention, sleep, & arousal
Charles Darwin
o Voyage on H.M.S. Beagle to the Galapagos Islands that led to the development of his theory of evolution. Those individuals whose traits are better adapted are more likely to survive (naturally selected). Survival permits them to reach sexual maturity, to reproduce, & to transmit their features/traits to the next generation.
Phenotype
one's actual development and appearance, as based on one's genotype and environmental influences. Represents the interaction of your nature and your nurture in the origins of your behavior.
Estrogen
produced by the ovaries along with progesterone & small amounts of testosterone; fosters female reproductive capacity & secondary sex characteristics such as fatty tissue in the breasts & hips
Polygenetic
referring to traits that are influenced by combinations of genes.
Prolactin
regulates maternal behavior in lower mammals & stimulates production of milk in women ormones.
Growth hormone
regulates the growth of muscles, bones, & glands
Progesterone
stimulates growth of the female reproductive organs & prepares the uterus to maintain pregnancy.
Oxytocin
stimulates labor in pregnant women & is connected with maternal behavior in some mammals; obstetricians can induce labor by injecting pregnant women with oxytocin.
Sex chromosomes
the 23rd pair of chromosomes whose genetic material determines the sex of the individual. XY=male XX=female
Natural Selection
the concept that holds that adaptive genetic variations among members of a species enable individuals with those variations to survive and reproduce.
Nature
the inborn, innate character of an organism.
Secondary sex characteristics
the presence of a beard & a deeper voice, differentiate males from females but are not directly involved in reproduction
Cerebral cortex
the wrinkled surface area (gray matter) of the cerebrum; two hemispheres
Polarize
to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane
Broca's aphasia
understand language, but speak slowly & laboriously, in simple sentences. Don't use important grammatical words such as "the, is, as and".
Brain
· Damage to the left side of the _____________ is connected with loss of sensation or movement on the right side of the body, or vice versa. · Wilder Penfield- painlessly stimulated parts of the human brain with electrical probes. His patients reported perceiving certain memories.
Cerebral cortex
· Part of the brain that you usually think of as your brain; the outer coating of the cerebrum; involved in almost every bodily activity, including most sensations & responses; enables humans to think deeply about the world outside & make decisions · Two Hemispheres- left & right. Each of the hemispheres is divided into four lobes Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, & Occipital Lobes
The Central Nervous System
· The Body's Central Processing Unit · Consists of the brain & spinal cord
Evolutionary psychology
· The branch of psychology that studies the ways in which adaptation & natural selection are connected w/ mental processes and behavior. Has given a rise to physical traits and also to such diverse activities such as language, art, committed relationships, & warfare.
Genes
· a basic unit of heredity, which is found at a specific point on a chromosome; regulate the development of specific traits; can be controlled by a single pair or combination of genes; segments of chromosomes o Blood type is controlled by a single pair of jeans Intelligence is believed to be controlled by combinations of genes.
Adrenal cortex
· secretes hormones known as corticosteroids, or cortical steroids. These hormones regulate heartbeat, increase resistance to stress, promote muscle development, & cause the liver to release stored suga
Genetics
· the area of biology that focuses on heredity; looks at both species- specific behavior patterns and individual differences among the members of a species. Behavioral genetics- focuses on the contribution of genes to behavior.
DNA
· the substance that forms the basic material of chromosomes; it takes the form of a double helix and contains the genetic code. Demonstrated first by James Watson & Francis Crick in the 1950s.