Psychology Chapter 8 - Prejudice and Stereotyping

Are gender stereotypes accurate?

"The problem is that stereotypes about groups of people are overgeneralizations and are either inaccurate or do not apply to the individual group member in question ... categorization can lead to oversimplification and distortion ... In such instances, people tend to perceive members of the other group as all alike or to expect them to be all alike, which they never are" (APA Brief, 1991, "Assigning identical characteristics to any person in a group, regardless of the actual variation among members of that group" (Aronson's, 1999 definition of stereotype, p. 307). "... stereotypes are maladaptive forms of categories because their content does not correspond to what is going on in the environment" (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999, p. 467). "... overgeneralized sets of beliefs about members of a particular social group" (definition of "stereotype)," Schultz & Oskamp, 2002, p. 63). "A stereotype is any generalization about a group ... By definition, a generalization about a group is bound to be "unjustified" for some portion of the group members" (Nelson, 2002, p. 5). https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/rabble-rouser/201210/stereotype-inaccuracy

Crocker et al. (1991) experiment

-Asked women to write an essay that the women believed would be evaluated by a male peer. -half were told the evaluator had positive views of women, the other half that he had prejudicial views of women. -when given negative feedback, the women who believed he was sexist were much less depressed from the feedback as opposed to the other women https://books.google.com/books?id=D4VcItxHGTMC&pg=PA340&lpg=PA340&dq=Crocker+et+al.+(1991)+experiment&source=bl&ots=F8n5J4brzv&sig=8LwHR96C2-sH7Rs8M3nkxe1Oepc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV3vCU-8DVAhXExYMKHcruAGQQ6AEISzAF#v=onepage&q=Crocker%20et%20al.%20(1991)%20experiment&f=false

Similarity hypothesis -4 types of similarity

-Similarity: People tend to pick partners who are similar to themselves in characteristics such as age, race, religion, social class, personality, education, intelligence, and attitude -the theory posits that people like and are attracted to others who are similar, rather than dissimilar, to themselves -people are also attracted to others who manifest personality characteristics -some scholars have suggested that people may be more likely to be attracted to partners who complement rather than replicate certain attributes. This complementarity view of attraction explains, for example, why attractive younger women may form successful marital unions with much older, wealthier men. Along similar lines people may not like others who share negative personality traits with them. Rather than be constantly reminded of their faults in a given dimension through the presence of someone similar, people may prefer to interact with others who they believe will "bring out the best" in them. -According to the dissimilarity repulsion view people's motivation to avoid social interactions with dissimilar others is stronger than, or at least as strong as, people's desire to affiliate with like-minded others -Reciprocity: People tend to like others who reciprocate their liking -Proximity: People are more likely to become friends with people who are geographically close. One explanation for this is the mere exposure effect. The mere exposure effect refers to people's tendency to like novel stimuli more if they encounter them repeatedly

Complementarity

-a complementary relationship or situation. -a theory in social psychology that proposes we seek traits and qualities in social relationships that fill gaps in ourselves

Reactance

-a motivational reaction to offers, persons, rules, or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. Reactance occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away their choices or limiting the range of alternatives -Psychological reactance is related to the layperson's notion of reverse psychology -Psychological reactance is an aversive affective reaction in response to regulations or impositions that impinge on freedom and autonomy

Equity theory

-based in the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness, and if they identify inequities in the input or output ratios of themselves and their referent group, they will seek to adjust their input to reach their perceived equity -states that humans have a natural tendency to maintain equity in their social relationships -Equity is a sense of fairness in the exchange of goods, services, time, and effort -Equity theory focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. It proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship.

Pennebaker (1979) Bar Study

-idea that everyone gets better looking when the bar is about to close because the window of opportunity for finding someone to take home dwindles Research teams visited three bars in a college town at different times of the evening.1 Specifically, male and female research assistants approached bar patrons of the other sex at either 9:00 PM, 10:30 PM, or 12:00 midnight on a Thursday evening (each bar was set to close at 12:30). The assistants made it a point to avoid selecting patrons who were clearly drunk (read our post on beer goggles here). Each participant was asked for a global assessment of the attractiveness of all members of the other sex who were currently in the bar. Specifically, they were asked: "On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 indicates 'not attractive,' 5 indicates 'average,' and 10 indicates 'extremely attractive,' how would you rate the men/women in here tonight?" Results indicated that for both male and female patrons, perceptions of attractiveness increased significantly as the night went on. In other words, as the opportunity for meeting potential partners and the number of available options decreased (due to people going home and/or pairing up with others), the remaining people started looking more desirable.

Attribute Ambiguity - Bernstein et al (1983)

-psychological attribution concept describing the difficulty that members of stigmatized or negatively stereotyped groups may have in interpreting feedback -a psychological state of uncertainty about the cause of a person's outcomes or treatment. It can be experienced with regard to one's own outcomes or treatment or those of another person, and with regard to positive as well as negative outcomes or treatment. It occurs whenever there is more than one plausible reason for why a person was treated in a certain way or received the outcomes that he or she received. -The relationships between fear of failure and attributional ambiguity in social and achievement settings are examined. The tendency to discount a person's physical appearance as a cause of social behavior is discussed

Situational influences -personal space -familiarity -proximity effect

-theory is deep rooted in the study of psychology and sometimes referred to as situationism, which has proven that people are as influenced by external, situational factors as they are by their internal traits or motivations, if not more -In an internal, or dispositional, attribution, people infer that an event or a person's behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings. In an external, or situational, attribution, people infer that a person's behavior is due to situational factors. -Personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when their personal space is encroached. -The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes called the familiarity principle. -Within the realm of social psychology, the proximity principle accounts for the tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relations with those who are close by. ... Also, proximity promotes interaction between individuals and groups, which ends up leading to liking and disliking between the groups or individuals.

what are the TWO major criticisms of Holmes & Rahe's scale?

1. It seems to suggest that any life changing event has the potential to damage health because of the significant readjustment it needs. Some critics now suggest that it is the quality of the event that is crucial with 'undesired, unscheduled and uncontrolled' changes being the most harmful 2. Ignores the fact that life changes will have inevitably have different significance for different people, e.g a loved spouse will have a bigger affect, rather than a hated spouse. Similarly a small stressor for some people, i.e; son leaving home could be more stressful for some then for other people.

Characteristics of the Individual -self-esteem -social motives -2 motives -Need for Affiliation -Need for Intimacy?????

1. Self-Esteem Self-esteem is the understanding a person creates of his or her worth, based on emotions and beliefs about how he or she fits into or performs in any given situation in life. For example, being a good runner can make a person's self esteem more positive and bad course grade could make a person's self esteem more negative. Self esteem is a fluid idea and can change frequently. 2. Social motives Social Motivation refers to the human need to interact with other humans and to be accepted by them. These interactions are considered to be social behaviors that address, either directly or indirectly, other people with the purpose of soliciting a response. -Need for affiliation (N-Affil) is a term that was popularized by David McClelland and describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group; McClellend's thinking was strongly influenced by the pioneering work of Henry Murray who first identified underlying psychological human needs and motivational processes (1938). It was Murray who set out a taxonomy of needs, including achievement, power and affiliation—and placed these in the context of an integrated motivational model. People with a high need for affiliation require warm interpersonal relationships and approval from those with whom they have regular contact. Having a strong bond with others make a person feel as if they are a part of something important that creates a powerful impact. People who place high emphasis on affiliation tend to be supportive team members, but may be less effective in leadership positions. A person who takes part in a group, whether it be a movement or project, create a push towards a sense of achievement and satisfaction for the individual and the whole. Intimacy This term comes from Erikson's theory of development, and refers to a person's ability form close, loving relationships, which he stated is the primary developmental task of early adulthood. You often hear women claim that men are unable to commit, are afraid of commitment, etc...Erikson would claim (if this absurd generalization were even remotely true) that this is because men have not developed intimacy yet. Intimacy refers to a spectrum of emotional and physical closeness between individuals. Colloquially used it generally refers to a sexual relationship although in a broader sense it can mean a relationship in which people feel free to express deep thoughts and feelings.

3 factors that let us disregard stereotypes????

1.Personal information- (the more you know about someone the less likely you will stereotype them 2. Cognitive ability- If the mind is busy, we will stereotype, but if we are not busy we will individualize therefore not stereotype 3. Perceivers motivation- if you are motivated to be accurate, we are not going to stereotype -if you are tired you will fall back onto stereotypes (physiological motivation)

Social Identity Theory

35:55 in Prejudice lecture Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Social identity is a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. In order to increase our self-image we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. For example, England is the best country in the world! We can also increase our self-image by discriminating and holding prejudice views against the out group (the group we don't belong to). For example, the Americans, French etc. are a bunch of losers! Therefore, we divided the world into "them" and "us" based through a process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social groups). This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them). Social identity theory states that the in-group will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image. The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image. Prejudiced views between cultures may result in racism; in its extreme forms, racism may result in genocide, such as occurred in Germany with the Jews, in Rwanda between the Hutus and Tutsis and, more recently, in the former Yugoslavia between the Bosnians and Serbs. Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into groups and categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate: 1. the differences between groups 2. the similarities of things in the same group. We categorize people in the same way. We see the group to which we belong (the in-group) as being different from the others (the out-group), and members of the same group as being more similar than they are. Social categorization is one explanation for prejudice attitudes (i.e. "them" and "us" mentality) which leads to in-groups and out-groups. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-identity-theory.html

Minimax Principle

A principle for decision-making by which, when presented with two various and conflicting strategies, one should, by the use of logic, determine and use the strategy that will minimize the maximum losses that could occur. This financial and business strategy strives to attain results that will cause the least amount of regret, should the strategy fail.

stress

A psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we must adapt to changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived, positive or negative. Although everyone has stress in their lives, people respond to stress in different ways. Some people seem to be severely affected while others seem calm, cool, and collected all the time. Regardless, we all have it. It's also important to note that there are two types of stress, Eustress (good stress) and Distress (not so good stress).

Mere Exposure

A psychological phenomenon whereby people feel a preference for people or things simply because they are familiar. Also known as the exposure effect and the familiarity principle. This is interesting because it has no basis in logic. Just because we see a stranger occasionally does not make them any more trustworthy...we just feel like they are because we "know" them. Example: Even if he has never met either of them, a person is more likely to feel an affinity with someone he passes on his street occasionally than for a complete stranger.

stereotype

A stereotype is a "fixed" way of thinking about people in which you classify others into specific categories without much room for individualism or variation. For example, if you believe that Asian people are smarter than other people, you are making a blanket statement that does not allow for some individual variation - such as some Asian people who are not so smart. In this case, you categorize all Asians as having the same characteristic and don't leave open the possibility that some people don't have these characteristics.

approach-approach vs. approach-avoidance conflict

APPROACH-APPROACH CONFLICT Approach-approach conflicts are unstable Lewin (1935) identified three patterns of conflict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance. In the first of these, approach-approach, the individual is faced with the necessity of making a choice between two (or more) desirable goals. Since both goals are desirable, this is the least stressful situation. "Shall I fly or take a boat to Europe?" might be easily resolved if both means of travel are seen as pleasurable. Such situations produce a state of unstable equilibrium. As soon as one goal is approached, its desirability increases and completely dominates, thereby making the choice easy. The choice becomes easier the closer one moves toward either goal. The approach-approach conflict situation: an unstable equilibrium A step toward either goal is sufficient to resolve the conflict by making that goal seem more attractive than the other. APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT Approach-avoidance conflicts involve only one goal The third conflict pattern is approach-avoidance. In this situation, the individual is both attracted and repelled by the same goal. The same goal has qualities that make the individual want to approach it and other qualities that make him want to avoid it. The timid man who wishes to propose to his girl friend fears rejection (the quality he wishes to avoid) and hopes for acceptance (the quality he wishes to approach). Hence he is in conflict about a single goal. If you are tempted to eat a certain food but know from experience that it gives you indigestion, you experience an approach- avoidance conflict. Approach-avoidance, like the avoidance-avoidance conflict situation, produces stable equilibrium. The approach-avoidance conflict situation is a stable equilibrium. As the individual nears the goal , the strength of avoidance increases more rapidly than that of approach, pushing him from the goal ; at this point the strength of approach is higher than the avoidance tendency. In this manner the person is brought back to the original point of equilibrium. http://online.sfsu.edu/psych200/unit10/101.htm

What creates the bias for beauty? - 4 explanations -aesthetic appeal -appeal of averages -what is beautiful is good stereotype a -assimilation

Aesthetic Appeal: -concerning or characterized by an appreciation of beauty or good taste -a philosophical theory as to what is beautiful -relating to, involving, or concerned with pure emotion and sensation as opposed to pure intellectuality -a particular individual's set of ideas about style and taste, along with its expression Appeal of Averages:

how did Allport & Postman (1947) show that stereotypes bias social perceptions?

Aim To see if schemas affect recall. Method 1)"White" and "Black" Americans participated in the study. 2)Firstly the "White" Participants were shown a picture of an argument between a well-dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man holding a cut throat razor. 3) Participant asked to describe picture to another white participant who in turn described it to someone else. 4) This method was repeated and the picture was shown to the "Black Participants" Findings White participants: After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the aggressor, holding the knife. Black Participants: Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There were more correct observations from the black participants in relation to the picture showed to them. Conclusions 1)This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we expect (based on stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and process into our memory. 2) White people were heavily influenced by the history of racism from the acts of the olden-days America, whom discriminated against and placed heavy prejudices on Black African American people. Thus, the history of how black men were portrayed as aggressive and dangerous may have also influenced how they interpreted the story, affecting their schemas. Connection 1) This study relates to how schemas affect memory. Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by participants' stereotypical schemas. 2) However in terms of a cultural aspect/viewpoint, the participants' backgrounds may have affected how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge of and history of their culture towards black people and hence influencing their schemas. Critical thinking Limitations: Lacks ecological validity --> artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience Ethics: Experiment demonstrates a racist schema When the participants found out they had a schema of a black person being aggressive they might have been distressed because they might not have considered themselves racist. They would have felt bad afterwards - didn't come out the same as when they went in

Implicit stereotyping/automatic prejudice

An implicit stereotype is the unconscious attribution of particular qualities to a member of a certain social group. Implicit stereotypes are influenced by experience, and are based on learned associations between various qualities and social categories, including race or gender. Individuals' perceptions and behaviors can be affected by implicit stereotypes, even without the individuals' intention or awareness. Implicit stereotypes are an aspect of implicit social cognition, the phenomenon that perceptions, attitudes, and stereotypes operate without conscious intention. The existence of implicit stereotypes is supported by a variety of scientific articles in psychological literature. Implicit stereotype were first defined by psychologists Anthony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji in 1995. Explicit stereotypes are the result of intentional, conscious, and controllable thoughts and beliefs. Explicit stereotypes usually are directed toward a group of people based on what is being perceived. An explicit stereotype example would be that all adolescent girls like to play with dolls and makeup. Implicit stereotypes are associations learned through past experiences. Implicit stereotypes can be activated by the environment, and operate outside of intentional conscious cognition. For example, we can unconsciously stereotype all pit bulls as being dangerous. This stereotype may be associated with one event that we may have seen in the past, but the source of these associations may be misidentified, or even unknown by the individual who holds them, and can persist even when an individual rejects the stereotype explicitly. automatic prejudice Definition: implicit awareness, unconcious and automatic first thoughts and judgements Researchers: 1.Anothony Greenwald (1998), 2. Kent Harber (1998), 3. Jennifer Eberhardt (2004) Experiment: 1. connect names to words, black names identified with words like bad and evil as oppossed to good and peace, 2. white teacher graded same essay but graded easier when told it was written by a black person instead of a white person, 3. police officers looked at faces and said black faces were more criminal

2 major coping strategies????

Application of cognitive or behavioral responses to stressful situation, consistent with individual's personal or social resources. Two principle forms. Positive or adaptive actions(helps you manage stress in healthy ways). Negative or maladaptive actions(doesn't address stressor and introduces new problems like doing drugs). Social Roles Theory: http://www.humanstress.ca/stress/trick-your-stress/steps-to-instant-stress-management.html

Characteristics of Others -physical attractiveness

Attractiveness (or physical attractiveness) describes how appealing or pleasing a person's physical features and aesthetic beauty are. This varies greatly across different cultures and time periods but some traits are generally universal like facial symmetry and an overall healthy appearance. The physical attractiveness stereotype (hyperlink) is the tendency to perceive physically attractive people as intelligent, talented, confident, well-liked, and honest. As a result, good-looking individuals have more persuasive power than individuals of average or below average looks and has an advantage in job searches, elections, and even criminal trials.

can stereotyping be avoided? Is it automatic? ????

Can stereotyping be prevented? Since stereotyping has been around for a long time, it's unfortunately inevitable. Stereotypes begin in childhood During our youth, when our minds are the most malleable, books and television imprint irreversible stereotype onto our brains. Even Disney movies-many child's' favorite-contain many various stereotypes, like the merchant in Aladdin. The Difference Between Prejudice and Discrimination A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude. Therefore, someone can be prejudiced towards a certain group but not discriminate against them. Also, prejudice includes all three components of an attitude (affective, behavioral and cognitive), whereas discrimination just involves behavior. There are four main explanations of prejudice and discrimination: 1. Authoritarian Personality 2. Realistic Conflict Theory - Robbers Cave 3. Stereotyping 4. Social identity Theory https://www.simplypsychology.org/prejudice.html

what are the 3 factors that are important to hardiness, and what is the KEY factor?????

Certain individuals who seemed to be generally better equipped than others to resist the effects of stress. Three main factors of hardiness is control, commitment and challenge. Control The individual has an internal locus of control as they feel they are in control of what happens to them rather than feeling they are a victim of circumstances. Commitment The individual gets involved in life and engages with those around them. This means they are less likely to give up when the going gets tough, especially if they have gathered social support around themselves. Challenge The hardy individual seems to appraise situations in a different way to others, seeing any changes in life as positive challenge. This leaves them less vulnerable to stressful feelings of being unable to cope.

authoritarian personality

Characterized by: submissive to authority, sexually inhibited, categorical thinking, dislikes who is different from them According to Adorno's theory, the elements of the Authoritarian personality type are: -Blind allegiance to conventional beliefs about right and wrong -Respect for submission to acknowledged authority Belief in aggression toward those who do not subscribe to conventional thinking, or who are different -A negative view of people in general - i.e. the belief that people would all lie, cheat or steal if given the opportunity -A need for strong leadership which displays uncompromising power -A belief in simple answers and polemics - i.e. The media controls us all or The source of all our problems is the loss of morals these days. -Resistance to creative, dangerous ideas. A black and white worldview. -A tendency to project one's own feelings of inadequacy, rage and fear onto a scapegoated group -A preoccupation with violence and sex To measure these things in subjects, Adorno devised a test that asked them to state how much they agreed with particular statements. Each statement was correlated to one of the above elements. For example: Q. The businessman and the manufacturer are more important to our country than artists and writers. (Distrust of artists and writers) Q. Every person should have complete faith in a supernatural being whose decisions he obeys without question. (Submission to established authority) Q. An insult to our honor should always be punished. (Aggression toward those who harbor unconventional thinking)

confirmation bias

Confirmation bias occurs from the direct influence of desire on beliefs. When people would like a certain idea/concept to be true, they end up believing it to be true. They are motivated by wishful thinking. This error leads the individual to stop gathering information when the evidence gathered so far confirms the views (prejudices) one would like to be true. Once we have formed a view, we embrace information that confirms that view while ignoring, or rejecting, information that casts doubt on it. Confirmation bias suggests that we don't perceive circumstances objectively. We pick out those bits of data that make us feel good because they confirm our prejudices. Thus, we may become prisoners of our assumptions. For example, some people will have a very strong inclination to dismiss any claims that marijuana may cause harm as nothing more than old-fashioned reefer madness. Some social conservatists will downplay any evidence that marijuana causes harm. Confirmation bias can also be found in anxious individuals, who view the world as dangerous. For example, a person with low self-esteem is highly sensitive to being ignored by other people, and they constantly monitor for signs that people might not like them. Thus, if you are worried that someone is annoyed with you, you are biased toward all the negative information about that person acts toward you. You interpret neutral behavior as indicative of something really negative. Wishful thinking is a form of self-deception, such as false optimism. For example, we often deceive ourselves, such as stating just this one; it's not that fattening; I'll stop smoking tomorrow. Or, when someone is "under the influence" he feels confident that he can drive safely even after three or more glasses. Self-deception can be like a drug, numbing you from harsh reality, or turning a blind eye to the tough matter for gathering evidence and thinking. As Voltaire commented long ago, "Illusion is the first of all pleasure." In some cases self-deception is good for us. For example, for dealing with certain illnesses having positive thinking may actually be beneficial such as cancer, but not diabetes or ulcer. There is a limited evidence that believing that you will recover help reduce the level of stress hormones, giving the immune system and modern medicine a better chance to do their work. In sum, people are prone to believe what they want to believe. Seeking to confirm our beliefs comes naturally, while it feels strong and counterintuitive to look for evidence that contradicts our beliefs. This explains why opinions survive and spread. Disconfirming instances are far more powerful in establishing truth. Disconfirmation would require look for evidence to disprove it.

Contact hypothesis

Contact hypothesis refers to the belief that prejudices can be lessened or eliminated by direct contact between groups. In the modern world there are many organizations that exist to create forums for different religions and ethnic groups to learn about each other and discuss their differences.

Need for affiliation

Desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships a term that was popularized by David McClelland and describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group; McClellend's thinking was strongly influenced by the pioneering work of Henry Murray who first identified underlying psychological human needs and motivational processes (1938). It was Murray who set out a taxonomy of needs, including achievement, power and affiliation—and placed these in the context of an integrated motivational model. People with a high need for affiliation require warm interpersonal relationships and approval from those with whom they have regular contact. Having a strong bond with others make a person feel as if they are a part of something important that creates a powerful impact. People who place high emphasis on affiliation tend to be supportive team members, but may be less effective in leadership positions. A person who takes part in a group, whether it be a movement or project, create a push towards a sense of achievement and satisfaction for the individual and the whole.

explanatory style, and how does that differ in optimists vs. pessimists?

Explanatory style is how an individual explains the events and situations that occur around them. Explanatory styles can be negative or positive. There are different ranges of explanatory style like pessimistic/optimistic or internal/external. Explanatory styles are attributional - they can cause people to have different perceptions of the same thing. For example, when driving a person almost rear ends the car in front of them. Someone with an internal explanatory style might say, "Wow, I wasn't paying attention" while a person with an external explanatory style would say, "That person came out of nowhere!" Optimism The term "optimism" refers to an emotional and psychological perspective on life. It is a positive frame of mind and means that a person takes the view of expecting the best outcome from any given situation. An optimistic person is one who sees the glass as 'half-full' instead of 'half-empty'. In psychology levels of optimism can be measured by use of the Life Orientation Test and Attributional Style Questionnaire. Levels of optimism (and its reverse pessimism) appear to have some links to heredity but are heavily influenced by health and environmental factors.

gender schematic????

Gender Schema Theory A theory of gender development that combines social learning and cognitive learning theory. Thus, gender roles are formed in part by observing others and learning from how others act, and from accomplishing different cognitive tasks specific to cultures that are done by men and by women.

Gender stereotypes

Gender Stereotypes are fixed ideas about men's and women's traits and capabilities and how people should behave, based on their gender. One example is the commonly held belief that men are better drivers than women. Although this is a positive stereotype for men, it is a negative one for women. Some people may feel that women lack a "natural" driving skill and that driving as a profession is a "man's job." Such a stereotype could lead to discrimination in hiring practices if a hiring manager refuses to employ a woman as a driver simply because she's a woman.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye was a young medical doctor who noticed that a lot of people were experiencing similar types of symptoms but did not have any physical cause for the problems. Over time, he came to realize that the problems were caused by stress. He later determined that the body has a natural, adaptive response to stress that is composed of three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion. When a person gets to the exhaustion stage, they may experience severe physical problems. General adaptation syndrome stages 1. Alarm reaction stage The alarm reaction stage refers to the initial symptoms the body experiences when under stress. You may be familiar with the "fight-or-flight" response, which is a physiological response to stress. This natural reaction prepares you to either flee or protect yourself in dangerous situations. Your heart rate increases, your adrenal gland releases cortisol (a stress hormone), and you receive a boost of adrenaline, which increases energy. This fight-or-flight response occurs in the alarm reaction stage. 2. Resistance stage After the initial shock of a stressful event and having a fight-or-flight response, the body begins to repair itself. It releases a lower amount of cortisol, and your heart rate and blood pressure begin to normalize. Although your body enters this recovery phase, it remains on high alert for a while. If you overcome stress and the situation is no longer an issue, your body continues to repair itself until your hormone levels, heart rate, and blood pressure reach a pre-stress state. Some stressful situations continue for extended periods of time. If you don't resolve the stress and your body remains on high alert, it eventually adapts and learns how to live with a higher stress level. In this stage, the body goes through changes that you're unaware of in an attempt to cope with stress. Your body continues to secrete the stress hormone and your blood pressure remains elevated. You may think you're managing stress well, but your body's physical response tells a different story. If the resistance stage continues for too long of a period without pauses to offset the effects of stress, this can lead to the exhaustion stage. Signs of the resistance stage include: -irritability -frustration -poor concentration 3. Exhaustion stage This stage is the result of prolonged or chronic stress. Struggling with stress for long periods can drain your physical, emotional, and mental resources to the point where your body no longer has strength to fight stress. You may give up or feel your situation is hopeless. Signs of exhaustion include: -fatigue -burnout -depression -anxiety -decreased stress tolerance The physical effects of this stage also weaken your immune system and put you at risk for stress-related illnesses. http://www.healthline.com/health/general-adaptation-syndrome#stages3

hardiness

Hardiness, in psychological terms, refers to a combination of personality traits that allows a person to withstand physical and psychological stress without developing physical illness. This mindset and personality type is one that views difficulties and stressful situations as personal challenges, rather than as roadblocks, and allows for personal growth in the face of adversities.

Buss' Evolutionary approach to Mating Preferences

Overall, these sex differences in mate preferences appear to reflect gender stereotypes as well as theories of evolutionary psychology, which state that men will prefer fertility to pass on their genes, while women will prefer resources to provide for a family. -Men more than women tend to prefer traits related to fertility, such as youth and physical attractiveness -Men also desired traits that could be seen as feminine stereotypes, including skill as a housekeeper -Men also desire for the traits healthy, easy going, and creative/artistic -Women, however, favor traits related to resources, such as good earning capacity, social status, education and intelligence, and ambition and industriousness -Woman also favor, more than men, the traits kindness and understanding, sociability, dependability, emotional stability, and an exciting personality. Parents of sons similarly ranked physical attractiveness at higher importance than parents of daughters, and parents of daughters ranked good earning capacity and education at higher importance -Parents often have different preferences in mates for their kids than the kids have for their own mates -Offspring tended to rank physically attractive and exciting personality higher than their parents, while parents found religious, kind and understanding, and good earning capacity to be more important factors -Parents also consistently ranked religion at a higher priority than their children, reflecting the idea that parents want in-laws with similar values to them -Offspring, meanwhile, ranked religious very low, reflecting the lack of religiosity in younger generations -The authors speculated that health was more important to parents because concerns about health problems tend to increase later in life

Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment

Phase 1. Group Bonding Phase 2. Intro of competition for scarce resource. Phase 3. Reduction of prejudice via super-ordinate means. Critical Evaluation The events at Robbers Cave mimicked the kinds of conflict that plague people all over the world. The simplest explanation for this conflict is competition. Assign strangers to groups, throw the groups into competition, stir the pot, and soon there is conflict. There is a lot of evidence that when people compete for scarce resources (e.g. jobs, land etc.) there is a rise in hostility between groups. For example, in times of high unemployment there may be high levels of racism among white people who believe that black people (or asylum seekers) have taken their jobs. The study was a field experiment which means it has high ecological validity. However, the Robbers Cave study has been criticized on a number of issues. For example, the two groups of boys in the study were artificial, as was the competition, and did not necessarily reflect real life. For example, middle class boys randomly assigned into two separate groups is not rival inner city gangs, or rival football supporters. Ethical issues must also be considered. The participants were deceived, as they did not know the true aim of the study. Also, participants were not protected from physical and psychological harm. Nor should the results be generalized to real life because the research used only 12 year old white middle class boys and excluded, for example, girls and adults. The sample was biased. https://www.simplypsychology.org/robbers-cave.html

prejudice

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist).

Realistic Conflict Theory

Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT) is a social model that attempts to explain why prejudice, negative stereotypes, and discrimination are developed towards members of other social groups. Socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and differing lifestyles are often examples of factors that separate people into different groups. RCT is a social theory that suggests that conflict can arise between different groups of people that have differing goals and are competing over limited resources. When two or more groups are competing over limited resources (either from real or perceived scarcity) prejudicial feelings and negative stereotypes can develop towards the other group. Conflict and negative attitudes towards other groups can be reduced if both groups have a superordinate goal (a mutually beneficial goal for both groups in which both groups need to participate in order to reach the goal). The most famous RCT research occurred in the 1950s with the Robber's Cave Experiment in Oklahoma. Two groups of young boys in a summer camp setting who were initially unaware of each other and which allowed friendship and norms to develop within in each group. During the next phase the groups were introduced to one another and competition was fostered between the two. After awhile prejudicial attitudes and negative stereotypes were each being attributed to the other group, including name calling and vandalism.

Reciprocity (liking those who like us)

Reciprocity is the act of mutual giving and receiving. For instance, in the matter of professional licensure. sometimes two states will recognize each others licensure process and criteria and offer a professional the opportunity to license in that other state without additional testing and paperwork.

Scapegoat theory of prejudice

Scapegoat theory is a social psychological term that relates to prejudice. According to this theory, people may be prejudice toward a group in order to vent their anger. In essence, they use the group they dislike as their target for all of their anger...as a vent. One example that has been suggested is the holocaust. According to scapegoat theory, the Germans used the Jews as scapegoats for all of their countries problems (which included economic problems across the country), focused all of their anger on the Jews, allowed their anger and hatred to build, and focused all of their anger, frustration, and problems on the Jews. (This is not "the" explanation for the holocaust, but one component of it.)

daily hassles

Small stressful events that can happen in the course of a day - late trains, slow people, etc. Daily hassles are 'irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree characterise everyday transactions with the environment' (Kanner 1981) - i.e. the straw that broke the camel's back! Kanner et al (1981) Empirical Study Aim: Kanner et al (1981) were interested in investigating whether it is daily hassles, rather than major life events that are the most stressful. They developed a 117 item hassles scale and a 135 uplifts scale to examine the relationship between hassles and health. Procedure: An opportunity sample of 100 American participants, including 52 women and 48 men, all white, well-educated and middle class were asked to circle the events on both scales that they had experienced the previous month and rate each according to severity (for the hassles) and frequency (for the uplifts). Each participant was tested once a month for ten consecutive months using the two stress measures together with another two psychometric tests for psychological well-being. Results: They found the hassles scale tended to be a more accurate predictor of stress related problems, such as anxiety and depression, than the SRRS. Uplifts had a positive effect on the stress levels of women, but not men.

Social dominance orientation

Social Dominance Theory is a social psychological theory based on the idea that "all human societies tend to be structured as systems of group-based hierarchies" consisting at the minimum of "one or a small number of dominant and hegemonic groups at the top and one or a number of subordinate groups at the bottom" (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999, p. 31). A part of this theory is the aspect of social dominance orientation (SDO). SDO is a personality trait measuring the support that an individual gives to the dominance of certain groups over other groups based on factors such as race, sex, nationality, religion, etc. (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999, p. 61). Essentially, SDO is a measure of the preference one has for inequality when that inequality leads to one's group dominating over another's. For this blog entry I will review recent literature on the subject of social dominance orientation in order to better understand the current thinking on the subject. In their 1994 study, Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Betram looked at how SDO related to social and political beliefs that support this group-based thinking (Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994). In this study, Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Betram had 1,952 college students fill out questionnaires to assess the participants' levels of SDO and compare that to other identifying factors such as age, sex, and demographic background. They found that men tended to have higher SDO than woman, and, perhaps most importantly, SDO scores could be used to predict social and political attitudes. In relation to the social and political attitudes aspect, the researchers found that higher SDO was associated with pursuit of hierarchy-enhancing jobs, ideologies involving group prejudices, support for chauvinistic and law and order policies as well as military programs, and political-economic conservatism. More recently, researchers have found that SDO and political group identities can be used to predict attitudes toward a variety of different groups. In his 1999 study, Heaven found that SDO was a strong predictor of negative attitudes towards women's rights (even stronger than political group identities) (Heaven, 1999). Bassett found in his 2010 study that higher SDO was associated with stronger negative attitudes towards illegal immigrants (Bassett, 2010), and in their 2000 study Whitley and Ægisdόttir found that SDO could be used to predict attitudes towards gays and lesbians (Whitley & Ægisdόttir, 2000). In regards to social position, Sanders and Mahalingam found a Class x Race interaction with upper-class, non-whites having the highest levels of SDO (Sanders & Mahalingam, 2012). But how does understanding SDO help us? By understanding SDO, we are better able to understand the different processes involved in social interactions and group identities, and even how social influences can have an impact on our attitudes (Poteat, Espelage, & Green, 2007). Research like this can be used to combat these negative stereotypes by understanding the best manner in which to counter these negative attitudes (Danso, Sedlovskaya, & Suanda, 2007), the result of which could be very positive for those groups being dominated. Social Dominance Theory is a social psychological theory based on the idea that "all human societies tend to be structured as systems of group-based hierarchies" consisting at the minimum of "one or a small number of dominant and hegemonic groups at the top and one or a number of subordinate groups at the bottom" (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999, p. 31). A part of this theory is the aspect of social dominance orientation (SDO). SDO is a personality trait measuring the support that an individual gives to the dominance of certain groups over other groups based on factors such as race, sex, nationality, religion, etc. (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999, p. 61). Essentially, SDO is a measure of the preference one has for inequality when that inequality leads to one's group dominating over another's. For this blog entry I will review recent literature on the subject of social dominance orientation in order to better understand the current thinking on the subject. In their 1994 study, Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Betram looked at how SDO related to social and political beliefs that support this group-based thinking (Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994). In this study, Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Betram had 1,952 college students fill out questionnaires to assess the participants' levels of SDO and compare that to other identifying factors such as age, sex, and demographic background. They found that men tended to have higher SDO than woman, and, perhaps most importantly, SDO scores could be used to predict social and political attitudes. In relation to the social and political attitudes aspect, the researchers found that higher SDO was associated with pursuit of hierarchy-enhancing jobs, ideologies involving group prejudices, support for chauvinistic and law and order policies as well as military programs, and political-economic conservatism. More recently, researchers have found that SDO and political group identities can be used to predict attitudes toward a variety of different groups. In his 1999 study, Heaven found that SDO was a strong predictor of negative attitudes towards women's rights (even stronger than political group identities) (Heaven, 1999). Bassett found in his 2010 study that higher SDO was associated with stronger negative attitudes towards illegal immigrants (Bassett, 2010), and in their 2000 study Whitley and Ægisdόttir found that SDO could be used to predict attitudes towards gays and lesbians (Whitley & Ægisdόttir, 2000). In regards to social position, Sanders and Mahalingam found a Class x Race interaction with upper-class, non-whites having the highest levels of SDO (Sanders & Mahalingam, 2012). But how does understanding SDO help us? By understanding SDO, we are better able to understand the different processes involved in social interactions and group identities, and even how social influences can have an impact on our attitudes (Poteat, Espelage, & Green, 2007). Research like this can be used to combat these negative stereotypes by understanding the best manner in which to counter these negative attitudes (Danso, Sedlovskaya, & Suanda, 2007), the result of which could be very positive for those groups being dominated. https://sites.psu.edu/movingpsychology/2012/09/06/an-introduction-to-social-dominance-orientation/

how does social support affect our psychological and physical health?

Social support is one of most important factors in predicting the physical health and well-being of everyone, ranging from childhood through older adults. The absence of social support shows some disadvantage among the impacted individuals. In most cases, it can predict the deterioration of physical and mental health among the victims. The initial social support given is also a determining factor in successfully overcoming life stress. The presence of social support significantly predicts the individual's ability to cope with stress. Knowing that they are valued by others is an important psychological factor in helping them to forget the negative aspects of their lives, and thinking more positively about their environment. Social support not only helps improve a person's well-being, it affects the immune system as well. Thus, it also a major factor in preventing negative symptoms such as depression and anxiety from developing. http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/clark.html

illusory correlation

Sometimes a perception can be formed that there is a relationship between events, actions and behaviors when, in fact, no relationship exists. Some examples of illusory correlation include: -A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. -A woman believes that pit bulls are inherently dangerous. When she hears of a dog attack in the news, she assumes it is a pit bull that attacked. -A child forms the belief that all teachers are nice, so when she meets a teacher she automatically trusts her.

Stereotype threat

Stereotype Threat is when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group (i.e., men, women). For example, we sometimes hear that men are better than women in math and science. A woman who is aware of this stereotype may try to fight it by getting a really high score on a math exam, but the anxiety and distraction caused by the stereotype may actually lead her to get a lower score on the exam than she would otherwise. Thus, women's performance in math may not be due to lower ability compared to men but to negative stereotypes.

Rogers & Prentice-Dunn (1981) experiment

Students in a behavior-modification experiment shock a confederate of the experimenter. The confederate was either Caucasian or African-American, and either acted pleasantly toward the subject or insulted them. The subjects in the experiment were all Caucasians. When the confederate insulted the subject prior to the experiment, they "shocked" African-American confederates at a higher level than Caucasian confederated. When the African-American confederate was not insulting, they were less aggressive toward them than a white confederate.

thought suppression

Suppression is similar to repression, but there are some subtle differences. In repression the person "unconsciously" pushes painful or difficult memories, actions, etc. out of consciousness. However, suppression is a "conscious" exclusion (or "pushing" down) of these painful memories, thoughts, etc. In this way, we control impulses consciously as opposed to unconsciously.

Modern racism????

Symbolic racism was renamed as "modern racism" (1978 to emphasize the contemporary nature. The principal tenets of modern racism are: a) Discrimination is a thing of the past; blacks now have the freedom to compete in the marketplace and to enjoy those things they can afford. b) Blacks are pushing too hard, too fast, and into places where they are not wanted. c) Tactics and demands of activists are unfair. d) Recent gains are undeserved. e) Prestige granting institutions of society are giving Blacks more attention and status than they deserve. f) Racism is bad. g) Beliefs of modern racism do not qualify as racist because they are alleged to be empirically grounded (McConahay, 1986, pp. 91-126) h) Those whose beliefs are described s modern racism do not define their own beliefs and attitudes as racist.

in-group vs. outgroup

Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. In order to increase our self-image we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. For example, England is the best country in the world! We can also increase our self-image by discriminating and holding prejudice views against the out group (the group we don't belong to). For example, the Americans, French etc. are a bunch of losers! Therefore, we divided the world into "them" and "us" based through a process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social groups). This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them). Social identity theory states that the in-group will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image.

outgroup homogeneity effect

The Outgroup Homogeneity Effect is the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as "all the same," whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied. For example, a woman who lives in a big city might believe that everyone from the country or a small town is stupid, whereas she thinks that people from the city can be smart, stupid, or something in between. When the woman meets a small town person who is very intelligent, she considers him or her an exception to the norm. Overgeneralizing in this way about outgroup traits contributes to stereotyping.

Holmes & Rahe (1967) measure of stress on the SRRS

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, also known as Holmes and Rahe Scale, was created in 1967 as a means of measuring personal stress levels. This scale uses a list of 43 stressful life events, and a numerical score for the power of each event, and asks the user to indicate how many of these events have occurred in their life in the previous 12 months. When finished the values of all events noted are added up. A score of 300+ indicates an 80% chance of the individual suffering from a significant level of stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed a questionnaire called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) for identifying major stressful life events. Each one of the 43 stressful life events was awarded a Life Change Unit depending on how traumatic it was felt to be by a large sample of participants. A total value for stressful life events can be worked out by adding up the scores for each event experienced over a 12 month period. If a person has less the 150 life change units they have a 30% chance of suffering from stress. 150 - 299 life change units equates to a 50% chance of suffering from stress. Over 300 life units means a person has an 80% chance of developing a stress related illness.

discrimination

The ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli. It is considered a more advanced form of learning than generalization, the ability to perceive similarities, although animals can be trained to discriminate as well as to generalize. Application of discrimination procedures permits description of the sensory acuities of laboratory animals. For example, if a dog's salivation response was to be conditioned to a red light by pairing it with food, while a green light was intermittently presented always without food, the dog would salivate to red light but not to green. It then might be inferred that the dog discriminated between colours. If, however, the brightness of the green light was varied, a brightness would be discovered to which the dog salivated. No amount of additional discrimination training with red and green lights would lead to differential response. The conclusion would be that the dog is colour-blind (which, in reality, dogs are).

Implicit Association Test

The implicit-association test (IAT) is a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory. The IAT was introduced in the scientific literature in 1998 by Anthony Greenwald, Debbie McGhee, and Jordan Schwartz. The IAT is now widely used in social psychology research and is used to some extent in clinical, cognitive, and developmental psychology research. Although some controversy still exists regarding the IAT and what it measures, much research into its validity and psychometric properties has been conducted since its introduction into the literature.

Religion's role in prejudice????

The more orthodox, the more intolerant. Does religion contribute to, or inhibit, prejudice? Although major world religions espouse tolerance and love toward others, empirical evidence provides little support for the effectiveness of such religious teachings, and a considerable body of research suggests that, at a general (and simplistic) level, religion and prejudice are positively correlated. Suggestions that this relationship is actually curvilinear and possibly a result of differences in intrinsic I extrinsic religious orientation are questioned. Recent investigations suggest that conceptualizations of religious fundamentalism and quest offer better ways of distinguishing between more and less prejudiced individuals. Further, the fundamentalism and quest relationships with prejudice are especially meaningful in light of an association with right-wing authoritarianism. Limitations and implications of the related research are discussed. In the end, it would seem that it is not religion per se, but rather the ways in which individuals hold their religious beliefs, which are associated with prejudice.

Social Roles Theory

This theory suggests most behavioral differences we know about between males and females is the result of cultural stereotypes about gender (how males and females are supposed to act) and the resulting social roles that are taught to young people.

type A vs. type B personality

Type A Personality Friedman and Rosenman conducted studies on the relationship between stress and heart disease. One of the outcomes was the discovery of Type A and Type B personalities. People who are classified as having Type A personality have characteristics like: they have a sense of time urgency, find it difficult to relax, and often become impatient and angry when they get delayed (or if they are going to be late) or are around other people whom they view as incompetent. They are the opposite of Type B people. Type B Personality People who are classified as having Type B personality are better at relaxing without feeling guilty and working without becoming anxious or agitated. Some of the other characteristics include being more relaxed about time (they don't get overly stressed about being late), and are not easily angered. You probably know people who just seemed to be relaxed people who don't get angry often (they roll with the punches well)...these are the characteristics of a Type B. They are the opposite of Type A people.

how does stress affect the immune system, and how is stress linked to illness?

When long term stress becomes chronic, many systems in the body are affected. Chronic stress results in high levels of cortisol and other corticosteroids circulating in the blood for a long period of time. While there are few side effects from short term exposure to these hormones, over the long term mental and physical damage may occur. People who suffer from chronic or long term stress can experience symptoms like anxiety, depression and sleep problems. Physically, they risk high blood pressure, heart disease and digestive problems. Another danger they face is a weak immune system. The immune system is the body's form of defense. It is comprised of organs, tissues, cells and cell products that all work together to fight harmful substances like the pathogens that cause infection and disease. There are two main ways that stress has a direct, negative effect on the immune system: 1. It creates chronic inflammatory conditions 2. It lowers the immunity of those who otherwise might have a healthy immune system. According to Dr. Mary Meagher, "people exposed to chronic social conflict experience high levels of stress and consequent dysregulation of the immune system, thereby increasing vulnerability to infectious and autoimmune disease".

Face-ism

a form of sexism in that in the advertising business, men are supposedly portrayed using their faces implying their intelligence, over women who are portrayed by their bodies. FACE-ISM: "Many claims pertaining to face-ism, stem from groups who believe they advertise women by using their raw sexuality not intelligence for example."

Subtyping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule" A subtype represents a social group containing atypical instances of a larger social group (see Richards and Hewstone 2001 for a review). For example, researchers commonly discuss the Black businessman as a Black subtype. Devine and Baker (1991) found that the content of the Black businessman subtype differs significantly from the content of the general perception of Black people. As Devine and Baker (1991:48) note, the characteristics of the Black businessman "overlap very little with the global stereotype of Blacks." Participants described the Black businessman subtype as ambitious and intelligent, and Black people as lazy and poor. Thus, rather than change their perception of Black people when they encounter Black businessmen, people often create a new category. This process prevents their original perception from changing in the face of contradictory information, because it allows for the acknowledgment of deviant category members, but prevents them from affecting the perception of the larger group (Johnston and Hewstone 1992; Weber and Crocker 1983). https://uiowa.edu/crisp/sites/uiowa.edu.crisp/files/9.8.pdf

Subgrouping (in class,we called this subcategorization)

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group Richards and Hewstone (2001) described subgroups as similar to subtypes in the respect that both represent smaller categories within a larger group of people. However, unlike subtypes, people do not perceive members of subgroups as the deviant members of the category. In fact, people perceive subgroup members to possess many of the characteristics that members of the larger group possess. However, people perceive them as representing the characteristics of the larger group in a slightly different manner. As an example, if people perceive members of a volunteer organization as successful, helpful, and outgoing, they may perceive a subgroup as successful and helpful, but shy. Similarly, researchers commonly discuss the welfare/jobless Black subcategory. Devine and Baker (1991) found that the content of the welfare/jobless Black person overlaps in many respects to the content of the general perception of Black people. As Devine and Baker (1991:49) note, this subcategory contains a "fair amount of overlap with the global stereotype." Prior research indicates that subtypes and subgroups differ not only in terms of their content, but also in terms of the functions they serve (Richards and Hewstone 2001). https://uiowa.edu/crisp/sites/uiowa.edu.crisp/files/9.8.pdf