Psychology Chapter 8

Are people more likely to repress or remember traumatic events? (see notes on Blackboard)

People are more likely to over-remember traumatic events.

What is the serial position effect, including the primacy and recency effects?

The Serial Position Effect is the ability to more easily recall a piece of information based on where it is in a list (recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list). The Recency Effect is the phenomenon that when people are asked to recall in any order the items on a list, those that come at the end of the list are more likely to be recalled than the others items (such as those in the middle). The Primacy Effect is the tendency for the first items presented in a list to be recalled better or more easily than those presented later in the series. (If you hear a long list of words, it is more likely that you will remember the words you heard first at the beginning of the list rather than words that occurred in the middle).

What is believed to be the capacity and duration of long-term memory?

The capacity of LTM is not known, however the duration of LTM can last anywhere from a couple of days until death.

What is the forgetting curve? What does it indicate about forgetting?

The forgetting curve is the general/predictable pattern of the process of forgetting learned information (as displayed in graphical form). It was first described by the German Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. The forgetting curve shows the decline of memory retention over time. Initially, information is often lost very quickly after it is learned (memory retention quickly decreases). At a certain point, however the amount of forgetting/retention ability levels off which indicates that information stored in long-term memory is surprisingly stable (retrieval ability does not continue to decline until all of the information is lost). How the information was learned and how frequently it was rehearsed are factors in how quickly this information is lost/one's ability to retain this information.

What is the immediate memory span, and what is the "magic" number associated with it?

The immediate memory span is the maximum number of items that can be recalled perfectly after one presentation (around 20-30 seconds). The magic number associated with immediate memory span is 7. This means that the maximum number of items that can be recalled perfectly after one presentation is 7 (such as a telephone number).

What is the role of the hippocampus? What structures are involved in implicit memory? Where are explicit memories generally stored?

The role of the Hippocampus in memory is to move memories from STM to LTM. it also plays an important role in/stores explicit memories. implicit memory is stored in the cerebellum The Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex (the frontal and temporal lobes deal with the storage of LTM) are two major areas of memory storage, however there isn't a single location of memory storage. The process of encoding and retrieving memories is a complex one, requiring many structures to function.

What is believed to be the duration of short-term memory?

The storage capacity of STM is 7 items (give or take 2). The duration of STM is about 18-20 seconds, however STM eventually decays leading to memory loss.

What is automatic processing? Effortful processing?

automatic processing is unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well- learned information, as word meanings effortful processing is encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

What is the best way to form lasting memories?

elaborative rehearsal over a long period of time. Stored in Long Term storage and used in everyday life

What evidence supports the idea of retrieval failure?

you can learn something faster a second time, even if you can't remember it

How do synapses change when memory is formed? What neurotransmitters play a large role in memory? What is the role of hormones and emotion in memory? (see notes added on Blackboard)

A new memory may be the creation of a new synapse or the alteration of an existing one. The neurotransmitters that play a large role in memory are: Acetylcholine (damage to the production of acetylcholine in the brain has been shown to be plausibly associated with the memory deficits associated with Alzheimer's disease). Glutamate (used at most synapses that are capable of increasing or decreasing in strength - modifiable. Modifiable synapses are thought to be the main memory-storage elements in the brain) The hormone adrenaline can improve the ability or remember. Stress hormones such as cortisol and norepinephrine can negatively affect memories.

What is context-dependent and state-dependent memory? (see text)

Context-Dependent memory is that we remember information better when we attempt to recall it in the context in which we learned it. If we study with the TV or stereo on, we also take the test within the "Context" of the TV or Stereo. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------State-Dependent Memory is recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness. If you suddenly remember an appointment while you are drowsy an about to go to sleep, you need to write it down. Very possible, you will not remember it again until you are drowsy and in the same state of consciousness.

How does maintenance rehearsal differ from elaborative rehearsal?

Elaborative Rehearsal involves meaning based analysis (thinking about the meaning of an item, and thus making a connection between the item and previously learned knowledge). It involves deeper processing than maintenance rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal, on the other hand, does not involve meaning (it is the simple repetition of an item without taking into account its meaning or relation to other items). For examples: memorizing words on a page.

For what reasons is forgetting believed to occur as regards information stored in STM? In LTM?

Forgetting seem to occur in STM due to decay (the fading of unused memories) and displacement (a psychological defense mechanism that unconsciously shifts emotions or desires from the original object to a more acceptable or immediate substitute). LTM it is due to the failure to retrieve information and interference (forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other items).

What are the three stages of memory processing according to the Information Processing Model? (Know characteristics of each that we covered)

In the Information Processing Model of Memory the three stages of memory processing are: Sensory Memory: briefly retains the information picked up by the senses. Short Term Memory (STM): temporarily holds this information in consciousness. Long Term Memory (LTM): Retains this information for long periods of time (often until death).

What is infantile amnesia? (see notes on Blackboard)

Infantile amnesia is the common inability of adults to remember the events from the earliest years of their childhood.

Which is better for forming lasting memories (maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal)?

Maintenance rehearsal helps maintain information in short term memory but is not an effective way of transferring information into long term memory. Elaborative rehearsal is a good way to establish long term memories.

What is memory? What basic processes are involved?

Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. The basic processes involved in memory are ENCODING (allows perceived items of use/interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from short term or long term memory), STORAGE (the retention of information, which has been achieved through the encoding process, in the brain for prolonged period of time until it is accessed by the recall process) and RECALL(the retrieval of events or information from the past).

How is memory constructive? What are schemas and how do they influence our memories (schema theory)?

Memory is constructive because it is subjective, easily influenced, continually revised and influenced by expectations. In short, we construct out own memories (they are not objective). Schemas are mental/cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information as well as influence what we notice/remember. They influence our memories by molding information to fit into schemas. For example: we are more likely to notice things that fit into our schema. Also if something contradicts our schema, it may be encoded or interpreted as an exception or as unique.

Is it difficult to create false memories?

No it is not difficult to create false memories. Due to the subjectivity of memories it is extremely easy to distort, influence, and create false memories.

Can we reliably distinguish between false memories and real memories?

No we cannot reliably distinguish between false and real memories because confidence in a memory and the vividness of a memory do not indicate accuracy. Furthermore, due to the ease in which false memories are created/real memories are distorted, it is near impossible to distinguish between false and real memories.

What are retrieval cues? How do retrieval cues relate to spreading activation?

Retrieval Cues are stimuli that aid the retrieval of memory through a network of associations. Spreading activation occurs when a piece of information/memory is recalled due to a retrieval cue and this recollection causes many other memories to be retrieved/activated (like a memory web).

What characterizes retrograde amnesia? What characterizes anterograde amnesia? Who was H. M.?

Retrograde amnesias is a loss of access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, prior to an injury/disease (memories created prior to the amnesia are lost). Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia. This leads to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past (LTM from before the event remain intact). H.M. was as an American memory disorder patient who was widely studied from late 1957 until his death. His case played a very important role in the development of theories that explain the link between brain function and memory. In a surgery intended to correct epilepsy, H.M. lost parts of his temporal lobe (right and left) and consequently suffered from severe anterograde amnesia (although his working memory and procedural memory were intact, he could not commit new events to long-term memory). He could not remember anything new for more than 20 seconds.

What is the misinformation effect? What happened in Loftus' classic traffic accident experiment?

The Misinformation Effect is a memory bias that occurs when misinformation affects people's reports of their own memory (memory is easily distorted by questions and suggestions such as in eye witness reports). In Loftus' classic traffic accident experiment the aim of was to investigate whether or not an eye witness's memory can be altered by information supplied to them after an event. People watched footage of a car crash and later some of them were asked to estimate the speed of the car upon its collision. Based on the wording of the question (using one of the the verbs: smashed, hit or contacted) the estimated speed of the car upon collision highly varied. Those who were asked the question with the verb smashed were much more likely to "remember" seeing broken glass in a later question (in reality, no glass had been broken in the accident). They also remembered the car as driving much faster. (and vice-versa).

What is the self-reference effect? The spacing effect?

The Self-Reference Effect is the tendency for individuals to have an easier time remembering information that relates to oneself (the information references oneself) in comparison to material that has less personal relevance. The spacing effect is the tendency for humans and animals to more easily remember/learn items in a list when they are studied a few times over a long period of time, rather than studied repeatedly in a short period time (it is better to study a little bit every day for a week than to cram the entire day before a test).

Know the different types/categories of long-term memory and the characteristics of each.

The different types of LTM are: Explicit/declarative (conscious) memory - The knowledge of facts (what we know about places, things and people) and the meaning of these facts. Explicit memories can be further separated as episodic (remember events) or semantic (remember facts). Explicit memory is processed in the Hippocampus. Implicit (unconscious) memory - The unconscious recollection of information pertaining to how to perform something. We use implicit memory in trained, reflexive motor or perceptual skills such as driving a car and in CC. Evidence for implicit memory arises from priming (an effect of implicit memory) in which subjects show improved performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared.

What is working memory?

Working memory is the part of STM with the ability to actively hold/temporarily store, organize and manipulate the information in the mind needed to do complex tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and learning (a form of mental manipulation).

Why are some possible reasons for why we forget?

encoding failures, storage decay (the fading of unused memories) and retrieval failure.