Psychology Exam #3
At what age do people appear to be the most aggressive? 1 to 3 years 12 to 18 years 21 to 30 years 40 to 50 years
1 to 3 years
Antisocial behavior that begins at age _____ is unlikely to continue into adulthood. 5 8 13 20
13
The stereotype content model suggests that we judge social groups on which two features? 2 billion 200 million 20 million 2 million
2 billion
Between what ages did Piaget speculate that children go through the preoperational reasoning stage of development? birth through 2 years 2 through 6 or 7 years 6 or 7 through 11 or 12 years from 11 or 12 years through adulthood
2 through 6 or 7
Uncritical trust in authority can lead to significant problems for several reasons. Which of the following is NOT one of them? Authority figures quite often have hidden agendas that must be protected against. Even well-intentioned authorities may not be correct about a given situation. Mindless respect for an authority can cause one to confuse specific expertise with general expertise. The authority figure may not be legitimate.
Authority figures quite often have hidden agendas that must be protected against.
__________ are systematic and predictable mistakes that influence judgment and decision making. Rationalities Biases Intelligences Exactitudes
Biases
Which of the following pairs of psychologists were responsible for the first recognized test of intelligence quotient, or IQ? Binet and Simon Spearman and Galton Thurstone and Gladman Wechsler and Terman
Binet and Simon
The questions on Binet's original intelligence test were developed by: psychologists who derived questions from their education experiences with children Binet, who applied "reasonable standards" for each question selection teachers who were asked to submit questions they thought children of particular ages should be able to successfully answer including questions that should tap the abilities of adults as well as children
Binet, who applied "reasonable standards" for each question selection
Which psychologist conducts research on the mindset of children looking at differences in high and low achievers with similar IQ scores? Carol Dweck Lewis Terman Howard Gardner John Carroll
Carol Dweck
Who of the following completed Nobel Prize-winning research on how people think and make decisions? Daniel Kahneman Max Bazerman Alfred Adler Martin Seligman
Daniel Kahneman
Ebony is trying to decide what she is going to do for her philosophy class project. According to the rational decision making model of Bazerman and Moore, her first step would be to: Define the problem that she is trying to solve. Consider a list of possible solutions. Consider a list of possible problems she might face as she proceeds. Assess the progress she has already made toward solving her problem.
Define the problem she is trying to solve.
When people are aware of stereotypes about their social group as it relates to scores on intelligence tests: They are able to overcome biases in the tests. Fear may undermine their performance. They will often work harder to overcome the stereotype but their performance will remain unaffected. Their fluid intelligence declines.
Fear may undermine their performance.
This person was among those who pioneered psychological measurement. Among other contributions, he was possibly the first to popularize the notion that the heritability of psychological traits could be assessed by looking at identical and fraternal twins. Francis Galton Alfred Binet Charles Spearman Theodore Simon
Francis Galton
Which historical event led directly to Milgram's research on obedience? German citizens' willingness to go along with Nazi leaders during the Holocaust The virtual eradication of Native Americans by the settlers in the United States The slave trade from Africa to the United States The Bolshevik revolution in Russia
German citizens' willingness to go along with Nazi leaders during the Holocaust
Alfred takes an IQ test at ages 25 and 55, measuring his fluid and crystallized intelligence. Based on research of their respective developmental trajectories, what are most likely changes in these two areas that we would see? Both his fluid and crystallized intelligence would increase with age. Both his fluid and crystallized intelligence would decrease with age. His fluid intelligence would increase with age, whereas his crystallized intelligence would decrease. His fluid intelligence would decrease with age, whereas his crystallized intelligence would increase.
His fluid intelligence would decrease with age, whereas his crystallized intelligence would increase.
In Bazerman and Moore's model of rational decision making, the second step is to: Identify the criteria necessary to judge possible solutions. Define the problem. Generate alternatives. Gather advice, input or ideas from other people.
Identify the criteria necessary to judge possible solutions.
Based on your understanding of the research of Solomon Asch, you know that of all of the following choices, the person most likely to demonstrate conformity would be: Guillermo, a 62-year old Italian man Marie, a 50-year old French woman Sven, a 42-year old Swedish man Mika, a 23-year old Japanese woman
Mika, a 23-year old Japanese woman
With regard to the 'Nature versus Nurture' debate, which of the following outcomes seems to be the final conclusion to this age-old question? Nature and nurture both work together to produce cognitive development. Nature is the essential factor in cognitive development, while nurture is relatively unimportant. Nurture is the essential factor in cognitive development, while nature is relatively unimportant. Neither nature nor nurture are essential factors in cognitive development.
Nature and nurture both work together to produce cognitive development.
Under which of the following circumstances would you expect a person to demonstrate the highest level of conformity in Solomon Asch's research protocol? Orlando has to give his choice out loud. Marsha has to write down her answer and submit it to the experimenter. Anquaan has to indicate his answer by pressing the associated number on a keyboard. Yadier has to tell his selection by holding up one, two, or three fingers.
Orlando has to give his choice out loud.
Which of the following is an accurate statement regarding blatant biases? People who openly hate one group of people also tend to hate others. Though blatant biases are very explicit, they tend to be directed at one singular outgroup. Blatant biases are often maintained by accurate, supporting data. Blatant biases tend to be directed toward members of one's ingroup, while implicit biases are usually directed at an outgroup.
People who openly hate one group also tend to hate others
Spearman viewed G as the general factor of intelligence. From his perspective: People generally show differences in their abilities in sub-areas of the intelligence test such as math scores and verbal score. Different sub tests in intelligence tests show no correlation. People who score high in one sub-area, such as math, tend also to score high on other sub-areas such as verbal scores. Traditional intelligence tests fail to tap true ability.
People who score high in one sub-area, such as math, tend also to score high on other sub-areas such as verbal scores.
__________ is the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Persuasion Compliance Conformity Obedience
Persuasion
Physically attractive people experience many benefits in life. Particularly, more physically attractive people have an easier time persuading others. Which characteristic is an example of why this occurs? Physically attractive people are seen as less intelligent. Physically attractive people are perceived as having higher moral character. Physically attractive people are seen as unkind. Physically attractive people are perceived as less successful.
Physically attractive people are perceived as having higher moral character.
Alice's Hotel has noticed that they spend a lot of money on water and electricity devoted to washing linens (towels, sheets, and pillowcases). In order to reduce this expense, the owner wants to encourage guests to reuse linens for more than one day. What would be the best way to accomplish this task? Put a note on the bed indicating that most of their guests reuse linens, and asking this guest to do the same. Put a card in the bathroom asking guests to reuse for the good of the environment. Put a picture of the ocean in the bedroom with a note that says, "Save the Environment. Reuse your linens." Offer a 1% reduction in the room cost for reusing linens for more than one day.
Put a note on the bed indicating that most of their guests reuse linens, and asking this guest to do the same.
Which researcher is well-known for having conducted a study of conformity that involved having participants express a judgment of the sizes of lines? Solomon Asch Stanley Milgram Leon Festinger James Carlsmith
Solomon Asch
Bosay is at the electronics store trying to decide which new game system to buy. She takes her time, studies the features of each, and is very effortful in her decision. When she finally buys a system, she feels confident that she has made the right choice. Bosay has used ________ decision making to assist with this purchase. System 2 Type A System 1 Type B
System 2
Ethical concerns have been raised about Stanley Milgram's obedience research. Specifically, some have suggested that the project caused too much distress in the participants, distress that could not be justified. If you were asked your opinion of this issue, which of the following would be a legitimate response? The majority of participants reported that they were pleased to have participated in the research, so it does not seem to have been damaging to most of those who were involved. Milgram's research was certainly unethical, because he conducted it even though he was advised not to do so by his University's Institutional Review Board (IRB). Milgram conducted a follow-up survey of his participants, and most of them indicated that they were very angry at having been deceived. This means that the research was likely unethical. Milgram's participants were paid for their participation, so there is no legitimacy to the statement that the research was unethical.
The majority of participants reported that they were pleased to have participated in the research, so it does not seem to have been damaging to most of those who were involved.
In Stanley Milgram's research examining obedience, the participant was able to discontinue the experiment only after what took place? The participant stated that he/she did not want to continue participating 4 consecutive times. The participant offered to return the check he/she had received for being part of the research. The participant began to raise his/her voice, indicating true distress or irritation. The participant stood up from his/her seat.
The participant stated that he/she did not want to continue participating 4 consecutive times
The observation that Chimpanzees are able to use deceptive tactics when competing for food indicates: Their survival instincts are powerful. They have emotional intelligence . They have a theory of mind. They are more intelligent than gorillas.
They have a theory of mind.
Why do some salespeople try to start a new interaction by asking for something small from a potential customer (e.g., "Just answer one quick question")? They know getting small acts of cooperation may lead to larger actions in the same direction. They believe that being friendly will influence someone to consider buying their merchandise. They are utilizing what is well known in persuasion research as "inoculation". They are hoping one person's cooperation will convince others nearby to follow the lead.
They know getting small acts of cooperation may lead to larger actions in the same direction.
What was one correct outcome of Asch's classic research on conformity in groups? Three-quarters of the participants conformed to the incorrect group norm at least one time. Very few of the research participants "fell" for the trick because the correct answer was too obvious. Men were far more likely than women to conform to a group norm. More conformity was found in people who came from an individualistic society than those who were from a collectivist culture.
Three-quarters of the participants conformed to the incorrect group norm at least one time.
__________ is the idea that an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure and can predict future performance or behaviors. Validity Reliability Explanatory capacity Standardization
Validity
Randy has a box of Smarties candies. Randy leaves the room, and while he is away, Michelle plays a trick on him. She removes the Smarties and replaces them with rocks. Their son, Zeven, notices this, and starts laughing knowing that his Dad, Randy, will be tricked! Zeven has mastered: a theory of mind secure attachment formal operations conventional reasoning
a theory mind
What group has one of the highest rates of specific phobias? girls children adolescents adults
adolescents
What is the difference between aggressive behaviors and violent actions? aggression may cause harm, but violence is intended to cause extreme physical harm (e.g., injury or death) violence may cause harm, but aggression is intended to cause extreme physical harm (e.g., injury or death) they are two words for the same concept violence is verbal or relational in nature, while aggression is a physical action
aggression may cause harm, but violence is intended to cause extreme physical harm (e.g., injury or death)
What are the three characteristics of a speaker that makes him/her more trustworthy when delivering a persuasive message? authority, honest, likability authority, attractiveness, familiarity honesty, similarity, expertise likability, expertise, familiarity
authority, honest, likability
While walking out of a convenience store, Nicholas openly mocks the clerk's accent to his friend. "EVERY convenience store I go into is owned by an Indian," he says. "Can't they do anything else?" Nicholas's open expression of his opinion and his lack of embarrassment suggests that this is a(n) ________ bias. blatant implicit prejudicial discriminatory
blatant
In general: Women score higher than men in verbal abilities. Males and females are essentially the same in their distribution of IQ scores. Visuo-spatial scores tend to be higher for men. both a and c
both a and c
Joseph is very focused on counting the number of acorns that have fallen from a tree in his front yard. He is concentrating so hard, in fact, that he fails to notice the obvious and important fact that there is dog poop underneath the tree as well. Failing to notice this available information leads Joseph to step in the mess. Which of the following is this an example of? bounded awareness bounded rationality bounded self-interest bounded willpower
bounded awareness
While humans try to make rational and logical decisions, we are prevented from doing so by our cognitive limitations that limit the quality and quantity of information available to us. This limitation is called: bounded rationality cognitive load heuristics overconfidence
bounded rationality
Marita is having difficulty deciding whether she should go on a date with Richard or with Lionel. She weighs the pros and cons of dating each gentleman, but according to the __________ framework, cognitive limitations will prevent her from making an optimal decision. bounded rationality eustress/distress diathesis stress general adaptation syndrome
bounded rationally
Which term, when applied to aggression, refers to the idea that acting aggressively or viewing such behaviors can purge angry feelings and impulses into harmless channels? catharsis sublimation cathexis projection
catharsis
While reading a magazine Juan notices an advertisement for tennis shoes. Juan is very interested in reading about the materials the shoes are made out of and logically concludes the tennis shoes would be a good purchase. Juan was likely in which persuasion route? central peripheral trigger heuristic
central
Which of the following is the best definition of conformity? changing one's attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm agreeing to a direct request to engage in a particular behavior performing a specific behavior at the direct request of an authority figure communicating a direct desire to have another person alter a previously held attitude
changing one's attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm
If a boy believed that the only variable that affected the distance a ball traveled when thrown was the force with which it was thrown and then conducted a biased "experiment" that proved his assumption which developmental phenomenon according to Piaget is involved? object permanence concrete operations conservation formal operations
concrete operations
Shania notices that all of her high school friends have started wearing glitter eye shadow to school. She doesn't really like the look but she wants to fit in with the crowd, so she starts wearing it too. Shania has engaged in __________. conformity compliance groupthink obedience
conformity
To study development researchers want to know how changes in thinking occur. When a change is gradual, linear, and quantitative, such as a child's height, development is considered to be: continuous discontinuous staged unstaged Title Piagetian Theory (Factual)
continuous
Adolescents tend to group together with people who share some characteristic. These large groups are known as ________. crowds dyads cliques friends
crowds
Clues to the important roles both nature and nurture play in development is seen in infants as they begin to gain the ability to actively perceive the distance from themselves to objects in the environment. This ability is also known as what term? light pattern response depth perception ocular maturation parietal brain activity
depth perception
What do information processing theories focus on? describing the cognitive processes that underlie thinking at any one age and cognitive growth over time describing development that occurs sequentially and discontinuously that allows for strict quantitative measures when observing changes development that occurs through a sequence of discontinuous stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages emphasizing how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture influence children's development
describing the cognitive processes that underlie thinking at any one age and cognitive growth over time
The spread of problem behaviors within groups of adolescents is known as ________. deviant peer contagion foreclosure moratorium cognitive pressure
deviant peer contagion
Piaget's stage theory can be described as which of the following? continuous and qualitative continuous and quantitative discontinuous and qualitative discontinuous and quantitative
discontinuous and qualitative
The stereotype content model suggests that when we interact with homeless people we feel what type of emotional prejudice? disgust envy pity pride
disgust
Oscar would like to go to a movie without supervision. To try and get what he wants, he starts by asking his mom if he can go on a trip to the Rollercoaster Park with just his friends. When his mom says no, like he predicted, he goes on to ask if he can at least go to the movies by himself. Oscar's strategy in asking to go to the movies is an example of what persuasion trick? foot-in-the-door reactance door-in-the-face sunk costs
door-in-the-face
Now that he's an adolescent, Oliver finds that he wants to ride all the fastest roller coasters. Oliver's brain rewards him for this sensation-seeking with __________. testosterone serotonin dopamine melatonin
dopamine
Some researcher say that ____________________ is really a set of skills including stress management and the ability to perceive moods. interpersonal intelligence emotional Intelligence street smarts practical Intelligence
emotional intelligence
Which of the following is not a part of the proposed "triad of trustworthiness?" expertise likability authority honesty
expertise
One external factor that can lead to aggressive behaviors is ________, which occurs when goal-directed behaviors are blocked. A good example of this would be getting stuck in traffic on your way to a class or an important meeting. frustration conflict eustress distress
frustation
Cognitive strategies that simplify decision-making by using mental short cuts are called __________. They are sometimes referred to as "rules of thumb." heuristics mental sets algorithms intuitives
heuristics
Which of the following combinations would most likely combine to create a person's schema of the "model minority" individual? high in competence but low in sociability high in competence and high in sociability low in competence but high in sociability low in competence and low in sociability
high on competence but low on sociability
Precious has several friends who look, act, and think in ways similar to her. This similarity is known as ________. homophily contagion peer pressure antisocial behavior
homophily
According to Piaget, the developmental processes that explain children's cognitive development are measured by how children reason, with fundamental changes tin thinking occurring in each stage the answers children give to each problem how well they work together to solve a problem a child's age
how children reason, with fundamental changes tin thinking occurring in each stage
Crystallized Intelligence is to Fluid Intelligence: ability to problem solve to a high level: ability to problem solve at a basic level ability to problem solve at a basic level: ability to problem solve at a high level information that has been acquired through experience: ability to reason and problem solve in novel situations ability to apply information in novel settings: ability to reason and problem solve in novel situations
information that has been acquired through experience: ability to reason and problem solve in novel situations
Paulo is being tested in the office of a licensed psychology. The test is examining Paulo's ability to acquire, process, recall, and apply information. In short, his cognitive capacity is being assessed. Paulo is probably undergoing a(n) __________ test. intelligence aptitude memory adaptive skills
intelligence
Leonard is a psychotherapist and is very good at his job partly because he has a strong sense of empathy for others. Which type of intelligence from Gardner's multiple intelligences theory does this most clearly indicate? interpersonal. intrapersonal. naturalistic. bodily-kinesthetic.
interpersonal
What is one intrapersonal factor that affects adolescents' academic achievement? parental involvement intrinsic motivation school quality peer pressure
intrinsic motivation
Marco has always struggled in math. Now that he is an adolescent, he is able to determine when he needs extra help understanding a new concept. This thinking about his thinking is known as __________. emerging awareness concrete operations metacognition processing speed
metacognition
Wesley is at a bar and has had far too much to drink. He now focuses his attention on a man sitting across the bar, and for no particular reason decides he doesn't like the man. Wesley pays attention only to the fact that the man is smaller than he, and neglects the fact that the man is sitting with 3 larger buddies. If Wesley provokes a fight, it may be in part due to alcohol _______. myopia inhibition blinders attributional bias
myopia
Ira brags about how wonderful he is, talks endlessly about his accomplishments, and pushes people to admire him. He lashes out when his inflated sense of importance is threatened by others. Ira would rate high in a measure of ________. narcissism psychopathy histrionics mania
narcissism
Hammond has just started working at a new job stacking items at the supermarket. He notices that most of his colleagues do stretching exercises before they begin their shift. Hammond assumes that this is a workplace regulation and also begins to do the stretching exercises. Which of the following concepts explains Hammond's behavior? normative influence informational influence obedience fixed action patterns
normative influence
Psychological tests are often used to measure characteristics (e.g., IQ) across people of different ages, who live in different places, and so on. In order that people can be properly ordered on the dimension of measurement (e.g., compare their IQs), it's important that these tests are: thought by psychologists to be adequate tests studied to see if the questions are factual ranked normed
normed
Persuasion is most effective when individuals are: intensely emotionally aroused given strong messages to conform not given the freedom to make a choice not feeling that their freedom to make a choice is threatened
not feeling that their freedom to make a choice is threatened
Playing Chutes and Ladders gives children opportunity to be exposed to spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time-based cues on the size of numbers. Understanding the properties that indicate the size of numbers is also known as what? numerical magnitudes hypothesized mathematics numerical varieties multisensory activity
numerical magnitudes
Eight-month old Jonathan was left by his mother at the baby-sitter's place. The minute his mother left and he could not see her, Jonathan started to cry. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development which concept would explain Jonathan's behavior? egocentrism conservation object permanence transformation
object permanence
After taking a 10 question pop quiz, John was confident that he got at least 9 questions correct. However, after grading he found that he actually only answered 6 questions correctly. John suffers from: hind-sight bias overconfidence heuristics System 2 thinking
overconfidence
Which of the following emotional prejudices might a person be most likely to experience in response to another person who is high in warmth but low in competence? pity pride envy disgust
pity
Adam is upset that his twin brother Ryan has two pieces of pie while he only has one. His Mom rightly states that it's the same amount of pie it's just that Ryan's piece fell apart into two pieces as it was transferred onto the plate. Still not satisfied, Adam begins to throw a temper tantrum. In a moment of desperation, Adam's Mom cuts his piece in half saying: "There, Adam, now you have two pieces!" This worked. Adam is now happy. What Piagetian Stage is Adam in? sensorimotor preoperational concrete operational formal operational
preoperational
What is the term for parents' manipulation of adolescents' emotional and cognitive world? moratorium abuse exploitation psychological control
psychological control
As he grows up, Jonah puts on weight each year. At his annual checkup his doctor informs him that, at age 10, he weighs 22% more than he did at age seven. What kind of change does this reflect? quantitative qualitative continuous discontinuous
quantitive
16-year-old high school student Gregory thinks of himself as a member of the "musical clique" at school and feels that the musicians are the best group of students. He thinks poorly of athletes and spends most of his time with peers who share similar interest. This is an example of __________ theory. self-categorization automatic bias subtle prejudice benevolent schemata
self-categorization
When a person positively values the outcomes of others, giving them more than necessary from a desire to be fair the person is operating under the bounds of: awareness ethicality self-interest willpowers
self-interest
System 1 is our intuitive system. Which of the following does NOT describe the typical characteristics of this system? effortless automatic slow emotional
slow
According to ________ theory, people tend to categorize each other into groups and then show favoritism to their own group. social identity blatant bias schematic stratification implicit personality
social identity
Ben is playing basketball with his friends one day when he notices everyone else has name brand shoes. He is uncertain how the quality of his shoes compares to his friends but because of __________ he feels pressure to conform and ends up buying name brand shoes for himself by the following week. social proof reciprocity foot-in-the-door scarcity
social proof
Which of the following would be good advice for treating aggressive tendencies? start the treatment young, when people are still malleable and open to change family therapy is almost always warranted, as aggression is often the result of abnormal family processes those who have aggressive tendencies should refrain from having new romantic relationships while in therapy, as this can impede the progress make sure to collaborate with a professional who can prescribe medications, as this will be very helpful for overall outcomes
start the treatment young, when people are still malleable and open to change
The________ content model suggests that we judge social groups based on their perceived warmth and competence. stereotype subjective external assessment dispositional
stereotype
Researchers pointed out to participants how gullible they were in being influenced by advertisements. As a result the participants were less affected by ads. What is technique effect called? blocking stinging door-in-the-face defending
stinging
Which of the following is one suggestion for increasing the effectiveness of aggression-reducing interventions? target as many aggression triggers as possible and deal with them all simultaneously do not work with children who have aggressive tendencies, as this can backfire and cause them to behave in more violent ways psychotropic medications are almost always necessary to help curb pathological levels of aggression research finds that those who have explosive aggressive tendencies almost never change their behaviors
target as many aggression triggers as possible and deal with them all simultaneously
Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding violence throughout history? the level of violence in the world has decreased over time, even over the last decades prehistoric violence levels decreased for centuries, but recent violence levels have risen at an alarming rate violence was almost nonexistent in prehistoric times, and has steadily increased in the millennia since violence was very low in prehistoric times, increased through the middle ages, and has dropped again in recent decades
the level of violence in the world has decreased over time, even over the last decades
Specific, sometimes minute, aspects of a situation that activate fixed action patterns are called __________ features. trigger central peripheral persuasion
trigger
In perhaps the most famous study ever conducted in social psychology, approximately ______ of men studied were willing to administer a lethal shock of electricity to a helpless victim when they were ordered to do so by a person who appeared to be in a position of authority. two-thirds three-quarters one-third one-half
two-thirds
It is possible to frame choices in a way that overcomes common decision making biases. Which of the following is NOT a plan that follows the principles of this type of "decision architects"? automatically enrolling employees in the company's retirement savings plan making organ donation the default and forcing people to opt-out using statistics to make decisions for hiring baseball players having two buttons when registering new software: a bright one for an expensive upgrade and a gray one for the free software
using statistics for hiring baseball players
Estimates suggest that if the wars of the 20 th century had killed the same proportion of the total population as ancient tribal wars did, then the death toll from those conflicts would have exceeded ________ people. competence and attractiveness attractiveness and values warmth and competence competence and values
warmth and competence
Which of the following is true of Milgram's (1963, 1965, 1974) research on obedience to authority? With each increment of shock voltage, fewer participants obeyed, but about 65% still administered 450 volts (the highest level). With each increment of shock voltage, a similar proportion of participants obeyed until the highest level (450 volts), where about 35% complied. Approximately one-third of participants complied at the highest level of shock (450 volts). Approximately two-thirds of participants refused to continue participation well before the highest level (450 volts).
With each increment of shock voltage, fewer participants obeyed, but about 65% still administered 450 volts (the highest level).
Aversive racism is an example of ________ bias. ambiguous ambivalent automatic implicit
ambiguous
During adolescence, people undergo physical, social, and ________ change. spiritual cognitive hormonal parental
cognitive
Children's ____________ ___ in pre-K and Kindergarten is the strongest predictor of reading ability in third and fourth grade. IQ phonemic awareness social class background vocabulary
phonemic awareness
Intentionally harming another person's social relationships, feelings of acceptance, or inclusion within a group is called ________ aggression. relational explicit tertiary societal
relational
