Psychology Final
encoding
a basic activity of memory involving the recording of information in our brain. organizing and transforming incoming information to be entered into memory
retrieval
a basic activity of memory, involving recovery of information when we need it later. the continued activation of information to retain it in short-term memory
storage
a basic activity of memory, involving retention of information for later use
iconic memory:
a brief storage of raw data in the visual system, lasts about 0.5 seconds
making memories: code
a code is a type of mental representation, an internal "re- presentation" of a stimulus or an event you can store info in a visual or verbal code information stored as one type of code does not need to match the original input. visual stimuli can be coded verbally, verbal stimuli can be coded visually. information stored and accessed as visual code will activate the visual processing areas of the brain (occipital lobe)
Sperling's partial report technique
a tone indicated which row to report after the picture with the letters disappeared. High tone: top Medium tone: middle low tone was the bottom Findings: full report: 4-5 items correctly recalled partial report: 4 items correctly recalled, based on tone, presented after the stimuli disappeared conclusions: large capacity memory store that fades very quickly. information must be accessed before it fades, or it is lost. attention is necessary to move information from sensory memory to short term memory
mnemonic devices
a tool for remembering facts the great lakes: -superior, michigan, huron, erie, ontario. SUPER MAN HELPS EVERY ONE the planets without pluto: -mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, and neptune. MY VERY EDUCATED MOTHER JUST SERVED US NOODLES
example of depth processing
a word is used as a stimulus in all three questions below, each of which requires a yes/no response. the difference is in the type of processing required to answer the questions. stimulus- CAT depth of processing questions: shallow: is this word printed in capital letters? deep: does this word fit in the following sentence: "i have two pets. a ___ and a dog
driving with HM
after leaving the main highway, we asked for help in locating his house. he promptly and courteously indicated to us several turns, until we arrived at a street that he said was quite familiar to him. at the same time he admitted that were not at the right address. a phone call to his mother revealed that we were on the street where he lived before his operation. with her directions, we made our way to the residential area where HM now lives.
the repressed memory debate
are they real memories that are forced out of consciousness and then later emerge, as hypothesized by Freud or are they false memories? evidence is mixed
echoic memory:
auditory information is stored in a similar sensory buffer. echoic memory seems to last for several seconds
capacity: partial report
briefly present letters or digits and ask subjects to report only some of them. result: subjects can recall any 3 or 4 letters that are indicated by the arrow. what does this mean about the capacity of memory? there is some part of the perception system that stores huge amounts of information (if only a single letter is probed, instantaneous capacity seems to be unlimited)
functions of working memory
central executive- controls activity of the articulatory loop and VSSP. articulatory loop- tape recorder, most similar to original concept of short term memory. vssp- maintains mental images, location of objects etc.
semantic code
cognitive representation of info or an event based on the meaning of the info
rehearsal
conscious repetition of info in an attempt to make sure the info is encoded. the ancient greek philosophers recognized the value of rehearsal in memory. they advised students to repeat whatever they heard on the assumption that hearing and saying the same things would transfer new info into memory. rehearsal increases the liklihood that the info will indeed enter our working memory.
recalling episodic memory: context
context is important. location, physiological state, etc., affect the ability to recall and your confidence that you recalled correctly e.g. list of words are recalled better when recalled where they were first learned
what causes forgetting?
decay- theory that memories fade over time because relevant connections between neurons are lost interferences- theory that the disruption of the ability to remember one piece of info is caused by the presence of other info. retroactive: new info interferes with old. proactive: old info interferes with new
improving memory
depth and breadth of processing transfer appropriate processing distributed practice mnemonic devices: -visualize interacting objects -method of loci -pegword system -acronyms
capacity:
describe a single experiment that could measure the capacity of memory: briefly present some letters or digits and then ask the subject to report them (called whole report)
enhancing working memory
each of the 7 or so items that working memory holds can consist of more than a single digit letter or word, it can consist of a chunk of info. chunking pieces of info together into larger units enables us to encode more info in our working memory system and it also enables our working memory to store more info at a given moment. our ability to chunk comes from our long term memory system. info may enter working memory as either new info arriving from sensory memory or through retrieval from long term memory. in chunking, we use our stored, long term knowledge that certain letters spell certain words, or that words can be organized to form sentences to guide us in chunking new info.
breadth of processing
elaborative encoding involves organizing and integrating new info into what you already know. rehearsal in short term memory is not very effective for encoding new info in long term memory
effortful processing:
encoding of info through careful attention and conscious effort. this encoding is typically needed when a person learns new info such as new facts, names or tasks. such as studying. *whether you are encoding info through automatic or effortful processing you must be paying attention. your attention might be less apparent in automatic processing but if you do not attend sufficiently to info, in one way or another, you will simply not be able to encode it
automatic processing:
encoding of info with little conscious awareness or effort. example: don't need to consciously know how many steps there are to your door, but you don't need to practice the route, you don't get lost.
distinctions in long term memory
endel tulving: there are two broad categories of info that are represented in long term memory: episodic memory, semantic memory
role of attention in STM
exact role is unclear, but there is a relationship between the two. attention involved the ability to selectively process or enhance specific information for further processing, while simultaneously ignoring or inhibiting other info. that is, attention allows us to tune in to some info ( such as listening to a lecture or focusing on material to be studied) and to tune out other info (such as ignoring Facebook posts or classmates). we do know the role of attention is important during encoding and manipulation of info in working memory
spaced practice effect
facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time. sleep can help or hurt rehearsal. info acquired in the hours before falling asleep tends to be encoded into long term memory as long as we have time to process it before sleep sets in.
key differences between the two kinds of processing
first: the encoding of info by effortful processing tends to be disrupted when a person is forced to perform other tasks or to attend to other info while trying to encode the info at hand. ex/ you would not do very well while trying to play a video game and keep a lively conversation. in contrast, automatic processing, being so effortless, is disrupted only slightly by the performance of other tasks, ex/ pouring tea into your cup while talking on the phone because practice has made pouring an automatic processing task. second: as the name might suggest, putting extra effort into effortful processing makes it more effective. automatic processing is not significantly enhanced by a persons extra efforts to attend and encode. you could rehearse the path from your front door to your room and count the steps, but its unlikely that you'll know any more about the route than you knew this morning. in contrast, extra efforts can make an enormous difference in effortful processing.
chunking
grouping bits of info together to enhance ability to hold that info in working memory
flashbulb memories
highly emotional and detailed memories of personal experiences. where were you on september 11, 2001 who were you with what were you doing how did you feel when you heard the news
information processing model
holds that information must pass through three stages or systems of mental functioning to become a firmly implanted memory- sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory
types of long term memory
implicit memory explicit memory: two parts= semantic memory and episodic memory
implicit vs. explicit memories
implicit: cannot be voluntarily called to mind and verbalized. include motor skills explicit: can be voluntarily called to mind and verbalized. consist of both factual knowledge (semantic) and memory for personal experiences (episodic)
long term memory computer analogy
inactive info resides in long term memory (hard drive), when you retrieve info you are moving it from long term memory (hard drive) to short term memory (ram)
storage in working memory
information may enter working memory from two major sources. sensory info is briefly stored and then lost or sent on to working memory. in addition, we can bring system info that previously has been encoded in the long term memory system back into the working memory. during the time that info from either of these sources is residing in the working memory system, it can serve many important functions in our daily lives. the info stored in working memory also helps us do mental computations such as math problems. because working memory helps us do mental computations its often characterized as a temporary scratchpad that briefly retains intermediate info while we think and solve larger problems
two theories of how memory works
information processing theory: information is stored and retrieved piece by piece and moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage and retrieval. parallel distributed theory: memories are stored as part of a large integrated web of information and represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
eidetic memory
is a photographic memory. some people, however, produce visual images with extraordinary detail and near perfect accuracy. usually occur among children: as many as 5% of children encode images with this level of detail. the eidetic images can last for several minutes.
attentional control
is referred to as working memory by experimental psychologists and as executive function by neuropsychologists. although executive function refers more directly to processing info as it relates to goal directed behaviour there is clear overlap between the two functions. data reported by McCabe and colleagues link specific physiological structures to particular memory functions. their results suggest commonality of function in working memory and executive function. they argue that the two systems are controlled by an executive attention component that is responsible for overseeing the maintenance of goals and for controlling for interference while a person is engaged in complex cognitive tasks. eventually the information will drop out of working memory and will disappear unless it is further passed on to our long term memory system- the system that can retain a seemingly unlimited number of pieces of info for an indefinite period of time
diseases of explicit memory
korsakoffs syndrome alzheimers disease co poisoning herpes simplex schizophrenia aging *decline in temporal lobe size with age
long term memory: hermann ebbinghaus 1850-1909
learned lists of nonsense syllables such as cac, rit and dax. later recalled nonsense syllables to investigate forgetting. found that syllables early and late in a list are most likely to be recalled
two sides of the same coin
learning and memory: both are experience dependent behaviour. events required: encoding-> consolidation-> retrieval
characteristics of short term memory
limited duration: brown peterson task: subject is given a trigram (e.g C-F-W) to remember, vocal rehearsal is prevented by counting backwards, recall accuracy tested as a function of retention interval. short term memory decays over seconds, graph loop down. rapid loss of info in STM. over a period of seconds limited capacity: george miller: subject is given longer and longer lists of to be remembered items (words characters or digits) result: subjects are successful up to about 7 item. what confound must be considered? recalling takes time. it seems that the capacity of STM (measured in this way) depends on the rate of speech- faster speech leads to apparently larger capacity. some believe capacity is "2-3 seconds worth of speech"
recalling episodic memory: levels of processing theory
list: CAT pie PILLOW TREE result: best recall with deep processing worst recall with surface processing
retrieval: more than the past. false memories
loftus and colleagues (1978): people watched a series of slides that showed a red Datsun stopping at a stop sign and then proceeding into an accident. participants were asked: did another car pass the red datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign? or did another car pass the red datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign
model of memory: long term memory
long term memory store containing the accumulated knowledge base. characteristics: duration: hours to years, capacity: huge, possibly limitless. requires no active process of rehearsal (that we are conscious of)
transferring working memory into long term memory
long term memory- all of the info we have gathered that is available for use, such as acquired skills, people we know etc. spaced rehearsal- facilitates moving working memories into long term memory. don't cram- studying for a larger number of short bouts is better for memory organizing info- is necessary for proper storage in long term memory. organize info as you learn it to get info into long term memory you need to encode it
memory span
maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order, no memory span strays far from 7. miller described it as the magical number 7 plus 2.
procedural memory
memory for actions, capacity for long term memory is huge
sensory memory
memory involving a detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for a brief period of time. george sperling: wanted to demonstrate the presence of a brief visual storehouse equivalent to the buffer memory of a computer- that would hold a pic of our environment for a very brief period of time. he wanted to measure how long this buffer would last. used the letters on an eye chart. the longer spelling waited to play the tone after showing the letters the more performance declined. if we do not focus our attention on our sensory memories, as is usually the case, they will disappear forever. those that are attended to however may enter the working memory, the second system of memory
recalling episodic memory: interpretation
memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the info. interpretation- the successful use of memory depends on the number of connections that are made between related items and the degree to which these are initially activated
recalling episodic memory
memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the info. levels of processing theory: consider this experiment: list: CAT pie PILLOW TREE methods of learning: stating capitals or lower case repeating words putting words into a sentence recall is tested some time later
What is memory?
memory is recalling past events and past learning by: encoding- getting information into memory in the first place, storage- retaining memories for future use, and retrieval- recapturing memories when we need them
episodic memory
memory of an event in your life, autobiographical, has a temporal context (something about time is encoded along with the memory)
semantic memory
memory of facts, knowledge of the world, unconnected to an autobiographical event, no temporal context
three different memory stores
memory stores: sets of neurons that maintain information. each memory store has a different duration- the length of time information is maintained. and capacity- the amount of information that is maintained. fundamental distinctions among memory stores were first characterized by atkinson and chiffon (1968, 1971) and Waugh and Norman (1965). rehearsal is in short term memory. *figure 8-1 on page 293
the storage limits of working memory
once info enters working memory it can be stored for a limited period of time. concentrated efforts such as rehearsal, can lengthen the availability of info in working memory but eventually it is either passed on to long term or lost. theres limited duration and limited capacity. on average only 5-9 items can be stored there at any given time. studied and confirmed by ebbinghaus and miller.
organizing your memories
organizing info is necessary for the proper storage and retrieval of memories. chunking- is one way of organizing info to help enhance memory. chunking is chunking numbers from one long sequence into shorter sequences. organizing a list- of unrelated words into a story hierarchy- separate it into sections and subsections. pqrst method- preview: skim the section, look for basic themes question: examine the organization of the section, turn each subsection into a question read: read with the goal of finding answer to your question self recitation: ask yourself and answer aloud a set of questions that arose from the reading material test: test yourself by trying to recall
looking up a persons email address example
our sensory memory records the address and quickly passes it on to our short term memory. we can help retain the address in working memory by concentrating on this information or by repeating it over and over as we address an email or type it into our computers address book. but working memory itself can hold only so many pieces of info at a time. the capacity of working memory is often claimed to be 5-9 elements, more recent estimates say capacity is 3-4.
timeline of H.M
past: old memories: preserved old memories- inability to access old memories. retrograde amnesia may be incomplete, with older memories being accessible, whereas more recent memories are not. then retrograde amnesia. then the time point of brain injury. in anterograde amnesia into new memories. in the future there's an ability to form new memories.
different types of encoding
phonological- encoding based on sound visual- encoding based on how the info looks. people with amazing visual encoding skills have eidetic (photographic) memory semantic- encoding based on the meaning of the info
serial position effect
primary effect is early and percentage recalled is 100%, then in middle percentage recalled 50%, and late, recency effect the percentage recalled is 100%
short term memory problems
problems with the original concept of STM: not emphasizing active processing of info, rehearsal is relatively passive and does not sufficiently explain other processes for keeping info active in memory, not emphasizing visual info, original focus was on auditory info, not emphasizing the role of attention
short term memory
process by which we hold information in mind. ex/ temporarily remembering a phone number. the short term memory store is the only memory store whose contents you are aware of. characteristics: duration: several seconds without rehearsal, typically 30 seconds with rehearsal. capacity: small, typically 5-9 items. processes in short term memory: chunking, rehearsal
amnesia
retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. retrograde amnesia: disrupts previous memories. infantile amnesia. anterograde amnesia: leaves already consolidated memories intact but prevents the learning of new facts. patient H.M, movie memento
H.M experiment
rotating target on a rotating disc with a stylus. H.M's task is to trace between the two outlines of the star while looking only at his hand in a mirror, crossing a line constitutes an error. by the 3rd day, H.M shows normal improvement in this motor task, although he does not remember having performed it previously
working memory
serves important functions in our day-to-day lives. one of the most important is that of enabling us to hold on to info that we need for a short period. much of the time we use our working memory this way. whenever we read for example, our working memory enables us to keep the beginning of a sentence in mind while we are reading the last part of the sentence, so that the whole phrase will make sense to us. one way of helping to ensure that info is encoded into working memory is rehearsal, consciously repeating the info.
types of memory: atkinson- shiffron model
short term memory can via rehearsal enter long term memory and from long term memory info can be accessed to short term memory via retrieval. sensory memory is brief less than a second and preattentive/ parallel processing very large capacity
implicit memory: skills
skills are sets of behaviours that can be applied to a variety of stimuli within a domain, such as riding a bike. initially, skills rely on controlled processing and, given enough practice, shift to rely on automatic processing
George sperling
systematic investigation of memory capacity. result: subjects accurately recall 3 or 4 items. could it be the subjects had encoded but failed to retrieve info? what if recalling interferes with memory? what if they forgot the info before they could report it? how could you modify the experiment to measure the instantaneous capacity before any forgetting can occur?
rehearsal
the continued activation of information to retain it in short term memory
long term memory
the memory system in which we hold all of the info we have previously gathered, available for retrieval and use in a new situation or task. we hold all of the info we have gathered, available for use- often at a moments notice in a new situation or task. when we remember past events, previously gathered info, people we once met, past feelings or acquired skills we are using our long term memory system. just as rehearsal can help move info from the sensory memory system to the working memory system, it can also help move short term working memories into the long term memory system. information is more likely to pass into long term memory when our rehearsal sessions are spread out over a period of time, rather than attempting to take in a great deal of info all at once. this is known as the spaced practice effect.
mnemonic devices
the more meaningful a personal event the more readily it is encoded and later remembered. people can ensure that less meaningful info proceeds into long term memory by artificially adding meaning to it, or by elaborating on the meaning of the info. mnemonic devices are cognitive techniques that impose additional or intensified meaning on various pieces of info. techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of info as a way of making them more memorable
consolidation
the process of forming a relatively permanent memory trace in long term memory may take several years. patients who receive electroconvulsive therapy experience disruption of memory for recent events, even those that are no longer in short term memory. older memories are unaffected. consolidation of explicit memories involves the hippocampus
The three systems of memory proposed by the information processing model are comparable to the operation of a computer
the small icons on our desktop are essentially small images that represent much more complex programs. sensory memory works in a similar way, giving us a quick copy of the info in our environment. in addition, info saved to working memory is roughly equivalent to the info that a computer retains for as long as a document or website is open but which disappears if you do not save it. and the final memory system, long term memory is the equivalent of the computer hard drive, storing information until something causes disruption or loss of the memory. these three systems are referred to as memory stores. when you study, to eliminate competing stimuli you sit in an area free of distraction and focus on your work. this allows sensory memory to eliminate non-specific stimuli so the working memory can process the info for the task at hand. as you process material the info is gradually moved to long term storage.
depth of processing
the success of learning new info depends upon the depth at which it is processed: shallow- most superficial level of processing (e.g based on simple sensory stimuli, visual appearance sound etc) deep- based on more extensive associations, meaning, context, etc.
parallel distributed processing PDP or connectionist model
theory of memory suggesting that info is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks. holds that newly encountered pieces of info immediately join with other, previously- encountered pieces of relevant info to help form and grow networks of info.
how do we encode info into memory?
to get info into long term memory, you need to encode it. there are two ways to encode: automatic encoding, effortful encoding
when you don't remember, 2 reasons:
two reasons you don't remember. unavailability- it wasn't successfully encoded. something went wrong while you were studying. inaccessibility- memory is stored but cannot be retrieved, perhaps because appropriate connections aren't being made
baddeley and hitch, working memory model
used their working memory model to provide examples of parallel processing. they asked people to complete two tasks at once- one of the tasks was visual (using the visuospatial sketchpad watching for a visual target), and the other was sound-based (listening for a particular sound). they found that as long as the tasks were different (one visual and one auditory), people did about as well on each task as they did when they only did one of the tasks; they were able to do two things at once. however, when the tasks were the same (both visual or both auditory), peoples performance suffered when they tried to do them together. these networks of info result in sophisticated memories, broad knowledge, and the ability to make better decisions and plans in life. when the person in the figure sees an apple, connections to info involving things that are round, the colour red, or possibly grandma (b/c of apple tree in her backyard) are all activated while other, less relevant connections are inhibited. these connections are all part of the network of info related to apples that this person has stored. when one part of the apple network is activated, related neutrons throughout the brain also become activate and richer memories spring forth. the PDP model of memory has gained many proponents, largely because its principles fit well with the fields growing recognition that neutrons throughout our brains form networks of association as we respond to repeated learning experiences and events in life
organization and encoding
we can enhance the encoding of info into long term memory is organization. when we add or elaborate on the meaning of certain pieces of info or events, we are organizing them. that is we are giving the info a structure that is more familiar and available to us, as such we make it easier to encode into long term memory. typically we do this intuitively, you might naturally sort words into categories. organization by categories can be particularly useful in helping us to encode complicated situations. schemas are knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases. schemas can be helpful in allowing us to attend to and encode a lot of info in a hurry. schemas are knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases.
when we encode non-verbal info into long term memory
we tend to use phonological or visual cods (though other codes for things like smell are also likely at play). long after a concert, members may remember its intensity by visualizing images of the stage and lighting effects. to encode verbal info into long term memory, we tend to use semantic codes, representations based on the meaning of info. this means that we link the new things we learn to the things we have already memorized based on shared meaning. because we often rely on the meanings of info when transferring items into long term memory our later recall of events may be flawed to some degree. if you are listening carefully to a lecture focusing on a difficult concept, you may not be able to say much later about the facial expression or tone of voice of the lecturer as those bits of info are not stored semantically. it is worth noting that the various codes may operate simultaneously when info is being encoded. one of these codes- semantic, phonological or visual- may be used more actively than the others in particular instances but when we use multiple codes, the combined impact of these codes increases the likelihood and strength of the memory
using codes/ representation to encode info into working memory
when encoding info into working memory we can use phonological code, repeating the sounds of the numbers again and again, or we can employ a visual code, holding an image of how digits would look if written down. research suggests that people tend to favour phonological codes when recording verbal info, such as numbers, letters and words. we rely more on visual codes for non-verbal info such as a persons face or a speeding car. this tends to be flawed. sometimes we confuse words or items that sound or look similar to the items we are trying to hold in working memory.
sensory memory
when first confronting a stimulus the brain retains a sensory image(memory) of it for less than a second. sensory memories help us to keep items that we have experienced briefly alive a bit longer. as a result, we can then decide whether to pay further attention to them. sensory memories are basically copies of of the sensory data we have received. visual sensory memory= iconic memory, meaning it is like a small copy of the visual event we have just encountered (like how a computer icon is a small visually descriptive representation of a file) we assume there is a large capacity. very short memory store arising from the temporary activation of perceptual areas of the brain. Characteristics- duration is very short, less than a second. capacity is large. research: sperling's partial report technique, classic 1960 experiment
automatic encoding
when you automatically remember something with no effort. ex/ you didn't have to work to memorize what you had for breakfast this morning
effortful encoding
when you have to work to memorize something. ex/studying
forgetting from STM
why do we forget from stoma? does the memory trace decay? not likely because with very small lists like 1 item retention is high for long intervals, instead it seems that info piles up and begins to interfere. interference in STM is complex and specific. for example, severity of interference depends on meaning. subjects are given successive recall tasks with list items from the same category (e.g fruits). final list is of either same or different category. how good is the recall on this list? accuracy rebounds if category changes
working memory
working memory was proposed by Baddeley 1986 to address the limitations of the original short term memory model. three components of working memory: central executive, articulatory loop and visuospatial sketch pad (vssp)
dividing short term memory into two related processes
working memory: which consists of the things we are thinking of and working with consciously and the stores or places where we can put information we need to have nearby. badly and hitch identified two of these sorts of memory stores, one called the phonological loop (likened to a little voice that keeps repeating what we want to remember to keep it active in memory) and another called a visuospatial sketchpad, where we can temporarily store images and spatial locations we are working with.
transfer appropriate processing
you have better memory for info if you use the same type of processing when you try to retrieve it as you did when you originally studied it. ex/ stimulus: cat study: does this word rhyme with hat same processing at retrieval: a word that rhymes with bat different processing at retrieval: a word that means furry creature that catches mice
lack of recall: encoding info
your lack of recall may be because the info was never encoded, or entered into your memory. because we fail to encode many pieces of info that we come across in life, we do not actually remember most of the things we experience. encoding requires attention- that is we need to focus on or notice the info in the first place. we can only encode what we attend to. we are not also aware that we are attending to things in our environment. sometimes we attend to info- particularly info about time, space, or frequency without much conscious awareness and with little or no effort.
case study: the famous H.M
1926-2008 Henry Gustav Molaison. patient H.M. loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. onset of epilepsy at age 10, perhaps due to bike accident 1953: underwent temporal lobectomy to reduce seizure activity
implicit memories: 5 major types
5 major types: classically conditioned responses memories formed through non- associative learning habits skills priming
