Psychology Final Exam
Fundamental attribution error
This is the tendency, when analyzing others' behavior, to overestimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effects of the situation
How are trait theories developed
Trait theorists started with a thesaurus and tried to group descriptors into clusters of behavioral tendencies that occur together. Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits This theory holds that a traits are continuous dimensions
Sublimation
Transforming forbidden thoughts and impulses into constructive behaviors Convert base impulse into a socially responsible behavior
What are Trait Theories of Personality
Unlike Psychoanalytic and Humanistic Theories, there is no attempt to explain behavior and thus, no belief that people are driven to be positive or negative. Rather, Trait Theory only tries to describe behavior as it is.
Similarity
We are attracted to people who are similar to ourselves in attitudes, beliefs, interests, age, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, economic status, and even level of physical attractiveness
Id
We are born with our Id, which operates on the pleasure principle (wants immediate gratification) Unconsciously asking to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and be aggressive Irrational, impulse-driven, unrealistic
Conditions that strengthen conformity
When you feel incompetent or insecure. When a group has at least three people When everyone else agrees When you admire the group's status and attractiveness When you have not already committed to another response When you know they are being observed When your culture encourages respect for social standards
Role of Familiarity/ Mere-Exposure
Which just means that exposure creates a sense of familiarity and people show increased liking for things they are familiar with
Obedience
Yielding to a direct request from a person in a position of authority or higher social status.
self-fulling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Distinctive
different from the way other people might react
Attitudes and Behavior
feelings influenced by beliefs, that predispose reactions to objects, people, and events, behaviors are what we do
unconditional positive regard
from others (an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings)
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
Consistency
is associated with personal strength and intellectual superiority; Is the hallmark of logic, rationality, stability, loyalty, and honesty.
central route
offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses
Inconsistency
on the other hand, is undesirable and associated with being confused, two-faced, fickle, irrational, disjointed, unstable, uncertain, scatterbrained
What are traits
stable, enduring qualities/attributes that predispose individuals to behave consistently across situations
Psychoanalytic Perspective
the focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the conscious mind.
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
elaboration likelihood model
theory identifying two ways to persuade with attitude: a central route and a peripheral route
Normative social influence
to gain approval (we want to be liked and fear the consequences of appearing deviant)
Self-regard
unwavering regard for the self
peripheral route
uses incidental/superficial cues to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes
informational social influence
want to make correct judgements and assume that by agreeing with others will be right
Oral
(0-18 months)- Pleasure centers on the mouth-sucking, biting, chewing
Anal
(18-36 months)- Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
Phallic
(3-6 years)- Pleasure zone in the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
Latency
(6 years to puberty)- A phase of dormant sexual feelings, cannot become fixated in this stage
Genital
(puberty on)- maturation of sexual interests
Physical Attraction
The first thing we notice about a potential partner and it is most powerful predictor of initial liking
Proximity
The measure of physical distance/closeness between people We are most likely to like those who are close by
Repression
The process of banishing anxiety-provoking thoughts and impulses from conscious awareness Preventing recall of anything that might remind one of a source of anxiety
Denial
The process of refusing to acknowledge a source of anxiety Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities.
Conitive Dissonance
The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change. Dissonance occurs because people are motivated to feel (and appear) consistent.
Social influence
The study of how our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are influenced by the opinions, desires, and direct requests of others.
Conformity
The tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behaviors in ways consistent with social/group norms. It can be automatic or deliberate
Passionate love
The type of love we typically feel at the beginning of a relationship that is full of excitement and sexual arousal Arousal + Attribution = Attraction
external attribution
The weather, traffic, parking, roommate, family, emergency, etc. made the person late
Humanistic Personality Theories (Positive Psychology)
Theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth Believed that humans had a drive for self-actualization
Intellectual Bloomers Study
Pygmalion Effect is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area.
Reaction formation
Behaving in the opposite way of your true feelings Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.
Kitty Genovese
28 year old bartender Stabbed outside of the apartment building where she lived in Queens Two weeks after the murder, The New York Times published an article erroneously claiming that 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack, and that none of them called the police or came to her aid
Personality
A complex set of psychological qualities that influence an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving across different times and situations
Companionate Love
A deep affectionate attachment felt for those with whom our lives are intertwined, usually experience later in a relationship Characterized by feelings of trust, calmness, and bonding
Attractiveness Stereotype
A gating mechanism (gatekeeping)- we don't get to know the stuff underneath if they do not meet a minimum level of attractiveness
What are Projective Tests
A type of personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner feelings and reveal unconscious motives
self-actualization
According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological Neds are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill ones potential
How are defense mechanisms developed
All defense mechanisms functioned indirectly and unconsciously. Just as the body unconsciously defends itself against disease, so also does thee ego unconsciously defend itself against anxiety.
social cognition
An important aspect of studying social psychology is understanding how people select, interpret, and remember social information Examines how our beliefs shape our conclusions about what "really happened" People observing the same event often report seeing different things
Behaviors and Attitudes
Attitudes can shape out behaviors, but behaviors can also shape out attitudes. Our attitudes (and subsequent behaviors) are sometimes based on thoughtful consideration of facts, but other times they are based on more superficial aspects of the situation
Projection
Attributing your forbidden thoughts or impulses to someone else Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
What is the take-away from this debate?
Behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner disposition with our environment A person's average traits are persist over time and are predictable over many different situations But traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation At any moment the immediate situation powerfully influences a person's behavior
Neuroticism
Calm, secure, self-satisfied, Anxious, insecure, self-pitying The degree to which people are anxious, angry, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable as opposed to being more emotionally stable Negatively correlated with happiness, relationship success, and health
Rationalization
Creating a false, but plausible excuses to justify our unacceptable behavior Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions.
Regression
Dealing with anxiety by reverting back to a more immature pattern of behavior (a retreat to an earlier developmental stage) Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.
Superego
Develops around 3-5 years old and focus on ideal behavior; strives for perfection This is our internalize set of ideals, or moral conscious, telling us what is right/wrong; what w "ought" to do Learned from society
Conscientiousness
Disorganized, careless, impulsive, Organized, careful, disciplined The extent to which people are diligent, disciplined, well-organized, punctual, and dependable as compared to unreliable, irresponsible, and careless Higher GPA and better job performance
What are the enduring benefits of Freud's work?
Drew attention to the unconscious mind Showed importance of human sexuality Identified forms of defense mechanisms and unconscious terror-management defenses Addressed conflict between biological impulses and social restraints
social-responsibility norm
Expectation that people have a responsibility to help those who depend on them and/or are less fortunate than them
Reciprocity norm
Expectation that we will help the people who have helped us and vice-versa. We will return benefits for benefit
Male attraction theory
Females have to carry/deliver/feed babies and thus need to show signs of fertility and health, men prefer younger women with hour glass figures
What are some enduring benefits/uses of Humanistic Personality Theories?
Focus directly on improvement Had a pervasive impact on counseling, education, parenting, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve Laid groundwork for positive psychology Renewed interest in concept of self
Psychosexual stages of development
Freud believed that personality forms during the first few years of life as children pass through five psychosexual stages During these stages the Id's pleasure-seeking energy (the libido) focuses on different pleasure sensitive body areas (called erogenous zones) Unresolved conflicts at any stage can leave a person's pleasure-seeking impulses fixated at that stage and unable to move on to full, healthy development
Iceberg model of the mind
Freud beloved the mind is like an iceberg. He thought most things in our mind (memories, desires, thoughts) are hidden "below the surface" in our unconscious
psychoanallytic theory
Freud observed patients with disorders that had no physical explanations and concluded their problems reflected psychological issues He believed ailments were the result of unacceptable thoughts and feelings hidden away in the unconscious mind Freud developed the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms
internal attribution
He/she is not punctual, responsible, conscientious person (they come to class late)
Bystander Effect
Tendency for a bystander to be less likely to give help if other bystanders are present, (the more people present at an emergency, the less likely anyone is to help)
Why aren't more people actualized?
Humanistic theorists believed that only 1% of humans have reached self-actualization This is because it is hard to do- it is easy to get bogged down by habit, cultural pressure, insecurity To become self-actualized, one must have enough courage to sacrifice safety for personal growth rather than let fear derail self-actualization
Person-Situation Debate
Important controversy between the fields of personality and social psychology centered around the question, "Which is more important for determining what people do, the person or the situation?" Both are important, each illuminates different aspects of the human condition
Altruism
Is an unselfish concern for the welfare of others
Role of Convenience
It is convenient to enjoy the rewards of those who are close by (think about how much more work a long-distance relationship is)
Ego
Operates on the reality principle seeking to gratify the Id's impulses/desires, while also considering what the Superego's would deem moral/proper behavior This is executive decision maker The Ego is what a person consciously thinks and does
Trajectory of love over the course of a relationship
Love transitions from Passionate to Companionate In all relationships, passionate love transitions to a calmer companionate love Attraction and sexual desire endure, without obsession of the earlier stage
Female attraction theory
Males are tasked with supporting partners during the demanding reproduction process and thus need to show signs of being a good provider, women prefer older men who can provide (have wealth, status, power, ambition, influence)
Example of an objective test
Minnesota Multi-phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
What are critiques of Freud's work?
Modern day research contradicts many of Freud's ideas Freud's scientific methodology is lacking He used many after the fact explanations, which gives us no ability to predict behaviors and traits We now know that development is lifelong, not just fixed in childhood Oedipus complex questioned Repression is challenged by PTSD Gender identity develops earlier than Freud theorized and is possible without influence of same-sex parent in home Belief that dreams disguise and fulfill wishes is disputed The idea that suppressed sexuality causes psychological disorders is doubtful
Rorschach Test
Most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach Seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots; People must say what they see. What you say tells the therapist about what you have in your unconscious
Chameleon effect
Non-conscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners.
Reasons why "good" people may not help
People are most likely to help when they notice an incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping. Odds for being helped are also increased if the person appears to deserve help or is a woman Similarity to self, unhurried or in a good mood, feeling guilty, focused on others and not preoccupied also raises likelihood of being helped
Milgram's shock study
People obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person Strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or exhibit cruel behavior In any society, great evil acts often grow out of people's compliance with lesser evils
Festinger's Peg Turning study
People were asked to complete a boring task, and then asked to lie and say it was interesting- this created dissonance People could reduce the dissonance by changing their attitude about the study and deciding that they actually enjoyed the task People who received $1 experienced thee most dissonance and thus the most motivation to change their attitude. People who received $20 didn't experience as much dissonance, because they had a legitimate reason for telling a white lie.
Conditions that strengthen obedience
Person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure. Research was supported by a prestigious institution. Victim was depersonalized or at a distance. There were no role models for defiance.
What are Objective Tests?
Personality Inventories consisting of a series of statements that you endorse/agree with Designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once Test items empirically derived, and tests objectively scored
Openess
Practical, prefers routine, conforming, Imaginative, prefers variety, independent The degree to which people are curious, flexible, imaginative, artistic, and unconventional as opposed to conforming and less creative Tends to be correlated with being political liberal and having artistic ability
What are critiques of Humanistic Personality Theories?
Presents vague and subjective concepts Advances individualism and self-centered values (which could encourage selfishness and self-indulgence) Offers naively optimistic assumptions Fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil and lacks adequate balance between realistic optimism and despair
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes Story gives insight into your personality
Displacement
Redirecting an impulse from a dangerous target to a safe target Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.
Asch's line study
Researcher asked people to judge line length The trick was that he had confederates give the wrong answer before the participant got to give his answer. Oddly enough most participants conformed to the wrong answer because they didn't want to feel isolated/alone.
Why do wee make this error
Result of selective attention When we act, our attention is focused on environment When we see another person act, out attention is focused on them (not the environment)
Extraversion
Retiring, sober, reserved, Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate The extent to which people are outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, and talkative as opposed to cautious, reclusive, and shy Positively correlated with popularity and physical attractiveness
Agreeableness
Ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative, Soft-hearted, trusting, helpful The degree to which people are trusting, sympathetic, cooperative, and good-natured as compared to suspicious, antagonistic, and aggressive Have a good sense of humor and be psychologically well-adjusted as well as honest
What are the needs listed in Maslow's Hierarchy?
Self-actualization Esteem needs Belonging needs Safety needs Physiological needs
Attribution theory
an attribution is the "why" we give when something happens, and attribution theory looks at how we go about assigning/deciding "why" for the events in our life
Consistent
relatively stable over time and across situations
