Psychology in Everyday Life Chapter 6

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment.

Latent learning

Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Adaptability

Our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with our changing worlds.

Conditioned Reinforcer

(also known as secondary reinforcer) An event that gains it's reinforcing power through its like with a primary reinforcer.

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake

Cognitive Map

A mental image of the layout of one's environment.

Reinforcement Schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule is a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced: In continuous reinforcement learning is rapid bus so is extinction if reinforcement stops In partial (intermittent reinforcement learning is slower but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses Variable ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after an unpredictable number of responses Fixed interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods Variable interval schedules reinforce behaviors after unpredictable time periods

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior it follows

Primary Reinforcer

An event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?

Both types of conditioning are forms of associative learning and involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination In classical conditioning, we associate events we do not control and respond automatically (respondent behaviors) In operant conditioning, we link our behaviors (operant behaviors) with their consequences.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior modeled is prosocial (positive, helpful) or antisocial If a mode's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe

Three types of learning

Classical Operational, Operant Operational, Cognitive

What is classical conditioning, and how does it demonstrate associative learning?

Classical conditioning is a learned behavior where we link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events. It is demonstrated thru the UR, US, CS, and CR responses

What is classical conditioning and how does in demonstrate associative learning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. The process involves stimuli and responses: A UR (unconditioned response) is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation) in response to some stimulus. A US (unconditioned stimulus) is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation) A CS (conditioned stimulus) is originally an NS (neutral stimulus such as a tone) that through learning become associated with some unlearned response (salivating) A CR (conditioned response) is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

Biological constraints

Evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned by some animals than others

What are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?

If we perform a certain behavior for a prolonged time it becomes routine

What parts do acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning?

In classical conditioning the first stage is acquisition or the association of the NS with US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the US) Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of the formerly extinguished response, following a rest period Reesponses may be triggered by stimuli similar to the CS (generalization) but not by the dissimilar stimuli (discrimination)

Generalization

In classical conditioning the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the continued stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Unconditional Response (UR)

In classical conditioning, and unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (Such as food in the mouth)

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning the weakening of a response when it's no longer reinforced.)

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it's no longer reinforced.)

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Variable- Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Variable- Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Positive Reinforcement

Increases behavior by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Not a punishment)

What is Pavlov's work important and how is it being applied?

Ivan Pvalov taught us how to study a psychological process objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. Classical conditioning is applied to further human health and well being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders.

What are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information, such as by observation or language, that guides our behavior

What are some basic forms of learning?

Learning, associative, and cognitive

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS, US, UR, CS and CR?

NS= tone US= air puff UR= blinking eye to air puff CS= tone after conditioning CR= blinking after tone

Mirror Neuron

Neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

What is the operant conditioning and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Expanding on Edward Thordlike's law of effect, BF Skinner and others shaped the behavior of rats and pigeons placed in operant chambers by rewarding the closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior. In operant conditioning reinforcement is any event that strengthens a preceding response

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Positive reinforcers add a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of behavior Negative reinforcers remove and reduce a negative stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry) are naturally satisfying-no learning is required Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with primary reinforcers Reinforcers may be immediate or delayed.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequences (such as spanking) or withdrawing something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy.) Negative reinforcement aims to increase frequency of a behavior (such as putting on your seat belt) by taking away something undesirable (the annoying beeping) The aim of punishment is to decrease the frequency of a behavior (such as a child's disobedience) Punishment can have unintended drawbacks: it can 1) suppress rather than change unwanted behaviors; 20 encourage discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is absent) 3) create fear; 40 increase aggression

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Learning

The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

What limits does biology place on conditioning?

We come prepared to learn tendencies, such as taste aversions, that aid our survival. Learning is adaptive. Despite operant training, animals may revert to biologically predisposed patterns. Learning some associations is easier than learning others due to these biological constraints.

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence. We learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.

How did BF Skinner become famous for shaping rat& pigeon behaviors?

by delivering well timed rewards as the animals inched closer and closer to a desired behavior.

Observational learning

learning by observing others

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)