Psychology of Gender and Sexuality EXAM 2

Factors that could explain gender difference in depression

-women seek more medical attention than men, so men could experience depression as often as women but don't report it. -Women tend to be over-diagnosed because women's health isn't seen equal to the "healthy adult." -Men with depression may cope with substances and be diagnosed with substance abuse problems rather than depression -Women respond differently from men when they are experiencing a depressed mood. -Women turn inward and focus on their symptoms.

5: Internalized Modern Racism/Oppression

1. System Beating. 2. Blaming the system. 3. Avoidance of Contact (with non-targets). 4. Denial of identity-related Differences. 5. Minimization of Political Stigma.

Minimization of Political Stigma

Being passive, misdirecting anger to people with less power, avoiding conflict.

employment and motherhood

College-educated mothers of color are more likely to be employed compared to white counterparts. Extended families are important for black, Latina and native American mothers.

Characteristics of Depression

Emotional symptoms: feeling sad, tearful, irritable, no pleasure Cognitive symptoms: thoughts that focus on inadequacy, helplessness, self-blame. Remember negative information more than positive. Physical symptoms: headaches, fatigue, generalized pain. Weight gain or loss. Behavioral symptoms: decreased ability to everyday tasks, decreased productivity, neglect personal appearance.

Meritocracy

Everyone has equal chances and if you try hard enough you will succeed and if you don't, it's your fault.

General discrimination in women as it's linked to depression

Forms of general discrimination increase the incidence of depression in women. Example -women are less likely to be hired and promoted in the workplace, this barrier could lead to symptoms of depression when she is devalued in the workplace. Makes her feel she has little control over her life.

System Beating

Getting over/around the system. There are many ways one can do this, often by playing others. This is the flip of dysfunctional rescuing. Based on awareness that one is an outsider. The target group person feels a need to "take care" of whites feelings or to hide parts of oneself for fear of being misunderstood Examples: -playing dumb or looking older so someone will raise your suitcase on a plane.

Dysfunctional Rescuing

Help that doesn't help. Non-target helps target on assumption they can't help themselves, this sets them up for failure. "You need my help" examples: -over coddling special ed children instead of giving them independence. -grabbing things for someone who is disabled

Gender roles and sexual disorders

In heterosexual relationships, men tend to have more power. People believe men should be sexual and aggressive whereas a woman doesn't need to enjoy sex. Our culture emphasizes length and endurance of penis. Physical attractiveness is emphasized more for females rather than males.

Marriage and other cultures

In other countries, couples aren't expected to marry for love (india). Different cultures value different characteristics in romantic partner.

Why are women scarce in traditionally male dominant occupations?

Individual approach → female socialization encourages women to develop personality traits that aren't appropriate for these "male jobs." Structural approach → characteristics of the organizational situation explain why women are rarely employed in these masculine jobs; personal skills or traits can't be blamed.

Avoidance of Contact, with non-targets

It's harder for targets to avoid non-targets, because you can go to a gay club but not a gay college. You can't understand cultural differences if you aren't around them. part of this is the idea that targets don't feel non-targets understand them or what they are going through. examples: -A Chinese employee who refuses to talk to a white supervisor about a job related problem because he says the supervisor will not understand.

Lesbians and Sexuality

Lesbians are more likely to experience an orgasm than heterosexual women during genital sexual activity.

Men and women responses to sex

Men and women are similar in their physiological reactions/components of sexuality but differ in sexual desire and consequences. They have similar responses inside their bodies but different external reactions.

What does old fashion racism look like

More institutional, overt and direct racism. People are actively racist. Laws cover institutional and cultural levels, not personal or interpersonal. This could be segregation laws, not allowing someone of color into a restaurant.

What does modern racism look like

More subtle, less institutional. This could be hiring a white person over a black person.

Schools and Sex Ed

Most schools focus on reproductive aspect. Don't hear about homosexual relations or the relation of sex with emotions.

Avoidance of Contact

Most white people don't have sustained contact with people of color. Modern racism can be manifested when non-targets don't make the effort to learn about life in communities of color. It's not hard for white people to avoid contact with people of color. Schools are still extremely segregated. Examples: - A white university administrator who lives in an all white neighborhood says, "I just don't have the opportunity to meet black people." Relates to contact hypothesis.

Body Weight and Eating Disorders

Most women in North American are preoccupied with their body weight. Body weight is judged more in women than men.

Do biological factors explain the greater prevalence of depression in women over men?

NO!

new metaphor for glass ceiling

New metaphor is proposed called the "Labyrinth" which says women in search of a promotion will encounter many difficulties along the route, including dead ends, detours and puzzling pathways.

Discrimination against overweight women and girls

Our society is biased against overweight females. Overweight women are less likely to be hired than slender women. They also earn lower salaries and are less likely to be promoted. They are easier targets for sexual assault.

5 Manifestations of Modern Racism (Non-targets do this)

People in target groups are in reactive positions. 1. Dysfunctional rescuing. 2. Victim Blaming. 3. Avoidance of Contact. 4. Denial of Cultural Differences. 5. Denial of Political Significance of Cultural Differences.

adolescents and sexual behavior

Predictions of early sexual behavior for young women include: low self-esteem, low family income, poor academics, early use of drugs and alcohol, etc. Ethnicity is another factor that may indicate early sexual experiences. (black female adolescents are likely to have sex 1-2 years before others).

Women's sexuality in research and textbooks

Researchers consider men's sexual experiences to be normative standard, but tend to ignore female sexuality. Sex in textbooks assumes heterosexual relationships. There is an overemphasis on biology that is consistent with essentialist perspective.

social class and women's health (life expectancy/morbidity)

Social class is correlated with life expectancy and morbidity. One factor in this is quality of health care.

3 things that are considered more prestigious than motherhood in society

Society considers money, power and achievement more prestigious than motherhood.

Blaming the System

Something is occurring because of the system, not me. ( I got a bad deal ). Blaming the system takes away the responsibility of the person because they say it isn't their fault. examples: -A black student, who is not studying, blames his teacher and the "system" for his bad grades. -A latina employee applies for a job for which she is not qualified, and says it is the system's fault when she does not get hired.

Valerie Batts

Studied modern racism, and makes a distinction between old fashion racism and modern racism.

Media and Sex Info

The Internet is an important source of information (and misinformation) about sexuality. Media often portrays women looking a certain way, and are portrayed as objects. Watching a lot of TV with sexual content makes adolescents less likely to believe sex can have negative consequences and therefore have sex sooner.

Steve Biko - freedom fighter

The most powerful tool in the minds of the oppressor is the minds of the oppressed.

Stereotypes about motherhood

The stereotype is that motherhood is totally happy and satisfying. A woman's ultimate fulfillment is achieved by becoming a mother. She will be a natural mother and have feelings of attachment right away.

Ideal Partners

There are two kinds of partners: sexual partners and marriage partners. There are different requirements that were noted from what people consider the "ideal" in each category. -Study found that female undergrads are looking more for "kind and attentive" rather than "macho."

Denial of Cultural Differences

To only see similarities denies someone else's cultures. It isolates people with the implicit message "I don't want to know about you or your culture." Denying cultural differences disregards existing issues. It minimizes the differences between target and non-targets. Equitable not equal (not all or nothing). examples: -racism: if you "don't see color" you don't acknowledge that racism is an existing issue. - saying gay people are just people denies the experiences that someone of the LGBTQ+ community.

Pregnancy and psychology

Topic of pregnancy is almost invisible in North American psychology journals.

Gavin Grimm

Transgender teen, case brought to supreme court. Sued school district.

T or F: Depression and eating disorders are more common among women than men.

True

Victim Blaming

We live in a meritocracy, so if you're poor it's because your doing something wrong. examples: - the way a girl dresses is an explanation for her rape -if black people want better jobs they should get a better education (even though school systems in african american communities are systemically under funded)

Denial of Political Significance of Cultural Differences

White people deny the profound impact regarding the social, political, and economic realities of the lives of People of Color. Victim blaming is easy if you don't take into account economic background.

Women of color and body dissatisfaction

White women are somewhat more dissatisfied with their bodies than black women. Black women also believe that an average-weight women is more attractive than a too-thin woman. White women, Latinas and Asian American women have virtually identical levels of body dissatisfaction.

Women and substance abuse

Women are almost as likely as men to smoke cigarettes with deadly consequences to women's health. Alcohol abuse in women is more likely to be ignored than men. Men and women are equally likely to abuse prescription drugs, but men are more likely than women to abuse illegal drugs.

Other discrimination in the workplace

Women are also more likely to receive negative evaluations than man. Lesbians also face discrimination in instances like not being hired. Many jobs require gay people to remain in the closet.

Break ups

Women are better at decoding emotions in a person's facial expressions. Men are more likely to distract themselves after a breakup. Women are more likely to blame their partner than men.

Women's concern with lower wages

Women are more concerned with their lower wages than men are.

Marriage: age, happiness

Women are more likely to anticipate getting married. 25 avg age of marriage for women and 27 for men. Young married couples are the happiest but that goes down in the following years and picks back up again in the next decade. Women are more sensitive to problems in marital relationships than men.

Parents and Sex Ed

Young women are more likely to hear about sexuality from their mothers than fathers. Pleasure is never really discussed.

Sexual disorder

a disturbance in sexual arousal or in sexual responding that causes mental distress.

Sexual desire

a need to engage in sexual activities for either emotional or physical pleasure.

Postpartum blues

a short-lasting change in mood that occurs during the first 10 days after childbirth.

Doula

a woman experienced in childbirth who provides continuous support to a family throughout labor and delivery.

Self-objectification

a women adopts an observer's view of her body - as if her body were an object.

Female orgasmic disorder

a women experiences sexual excitement but she does not reach orgasm.

Glass Escalator

applies to men who enter fields that are often associated with women and are often quickly promoted to management positions.

Entitlement

based on their membership in the male social group, they believe that they have a right to high rewards.

Antisocial personality disorder

behaviors that clearly violate the rights of other people; these behaviors include excessive aggressiveness, impulsiveness, and lying. They believe they are fine and everyone else has a problem. Men are more likely to have this.

Egalitarian marriage

both partner share power equally without traditional gender roles.

Amenorrhea

cessation of menstrual periods.

Ruminative style

contemplating possible causes and consequences of one's emotions. It can intensify a bad mood. More likely to blame themselves and creatE negative bias in peoples thinking. I.e. they worry about all things that are wrong in their life. Women use this more than men when they are depressed.

Sexual scripts

describes the social norms for sexual behavior, which we learn by growing up in a culture. example -In our culture, men are supposed to initiate.

Psychological disorders

emotions, thoughts and behaviors that are distressing and different from the social norm.

Psychodynamic therapy

focuses on unconscious and unresolved conflicts stemming from childhood; however, it emphasizes social relationships more than Freud did.

Major depressive disorder

frequent episodes of hopelessness and low self-esteem and finds little interest in most activities. One of give most prevalent health threats throughout the world. Women are x2/x3 more likely to develop this than men.

Morbidity

generalized poor health or illness.

Traditional Marriage

husband is more dominant than wife and both maintain traditional gender roles.

Glass Ceiling

invisible but rigid barrier that seems to prevent women and people of color from reaching the top levels in many professional organizations.

Denial of personal disadvantage

many women are reluctant to acknowledge that they are the victims of discrimination.

Social roles approach

men and women often occupy different social roles; they are also socialized differently, and they experience different social opportunities and social disadvantages.

Occupational Segregation

men and women tend to choose different occupations, where women's are lower paying and devalued compared to male occupations.

Hostile sexism

more blatant kind of sexism, based on the idea that women should be subservient to men and should "know their place." (People are rude to pregnant woman asking for a job)

Postpartum depression

more intense and serious disorder involving feelings of extreme sadness, depression, exhaustion, despair, etc. can last for many months.

Benevolent sexism

more subtle kind of sexism, argues for women's special niceness and purity. (People are kinder to pregnant women looking for help) Where maternity clothing is in a store shows how pregnancy is viewed (expensive stores put it with lingerie and inexpensive put them with uniforms and plus size).

attitudes towards childfree women and women with large families

negative

Psychotherapy

process in which a therapist aims to treat psychological problems and reduce distress, most often through verbal interactions.

Denial of Cultural Differences, denial of identity-related differences

profound dislike for others in your target group. This is seeing the inferior status of one's group, internalizing the stigma around it and being hostile towards people within that group. Parroting what's aid about your group allows you to be accepted by the powerful group. examples: -I see other women as the enemy -I hate poor people, but i'm poor -I'm latino but I don't want a latino doctor because they aren't qualified.

Three ways to treat psychological disorders

psychodynamic approach, pharmacotherapy, and cognitive behavior approach.

Cognitive behavioral approach

psychological problems arise from inappropriate thinking (cognitive factors) and inappropriate learning (behaviors factors). This approach encourages clients to develop new behaviors and thoughts about themselves.

Lesbians and Bisexual Women

reported higher self-esteem than heterosexual women. They aren't at a greater risk of suicide than heterosexual women. More satisfied in their lives if their families and friends support their identity

Modern sexism

sexual harassment, sexual double standard, dress codes, ignoring wage gap

Salience

something really relevant

Cardiovascular disease and women's health

stereotype that men are more likely to have heart attacks than women, they just experience them earlier than women do.

Old fashion sexism

telling a woman she can't do something, women's job section in newspaper, girls take home-ec classes, rule of thumb

Cognitive restructuring

therapist tries to change peoples negative thoughts about some aspect of sexuality and tries to reduce thoughts that interfere with sexual activity and pleasure.

Sexual minority

this is anyone who has same-gender attraction.

Culture of thinness

this is the idea that most North American females are concerned that they are overweight, even if their weight is appropriate. Media plays a big role in this.

Singlism

this refers to the bias against people who are not married. Treated with less respect than married women.

Pharmacotherapy

uses medication to treat psychological disorders.

Evolutionary-psychology approach

various species gradually change over the course of many generations so that they can adapt better to their environment. Psychologists argue this approach can explain the differences in views about ideal partners. Men prefer young, attractive women because they are more likely to be fertile. Therefore they will pass their genes on to the next generation. Women try to select a partner who will be committed to long-term relationship. Many feminist psychologists reject this.

Objectified body consciousness

viewing oneself as an object that can be looked at and judged by other people. Women's objectified body consciousness typically increases when they repeatedly encounter images of slender women in the media.

Privilege Deprivation

when you're used to privilege and a little is taken away and it feels like you have something actually taken from you. "What do you mean these things are going on."

comparable worth

women and men should receive equal pay for different jobs when those jobs are comparable.

Divorce

women are more likely to initiate divorce than men for three major reasons: emotional abuse, infidelity and drug/alcohol abuse. Divorce is stressful but women can experience a sense of relief.

Phases in genitals during sex

•Excitement phase → women become sexually aroused by touching and erotic thoughts. •Vasocongestion → clitoris and labia enlarge as they fill with blood. •Plateau phase → clitoris shortens and draw back. •Orgasmic phase → strong contraction in uterus. •Resolution phase → sexual organ return to earlier size.

neonatal infant mortality rates

•High neonatal infant mortality rates among low-income regions.

Marriage and women of color:

•Latina: emphasize important obligation to their family. •Black women: may be more egalitarian. •Asian American women: expectation to marry someone from their ethnic group.

positive sides of motherhood

•Positive side of motherhood includes sense of women's own strength; increase nurturing skills and intense joys.

Single women summary

•Researchers don't typically study single women •Single women tend to value their freedom to pursue their own leisure activities, but mention loneliness is a disadvantage

Factors related to women's birth control use

•Social class: middle/upper are more likely to use birth control. •Ethnicity: higher use for European American women and Asian, lower for Latina and black. •Level of education: some college = somewhat more likely to use •Feminist beliefs: feminists are more likely than non-feminists to use •Personality characteristics: young women are more likely to use if they have high self-esteem.

Biases against women and health

•Women are often neglected in medicine and medical research •Gender stereotypes are common in medicine. (women's complaints aren't as serious as man's complaints.) •Medical care provided to women is often inadequate or irresponsible. •Physician-patient communication patterns often make women feel relatively powerless.

Other factors that influence women's experiences of depression

•Women are often targets of violence including abuse and rape. Interpersonal violence among someone close to them contributes to depression. •Women of lower social classes have fewer options •Women who choose traditional housework roles are under stimulated and undervalued can lead to depression. •The emphasis on physical appearance.