Psychology of Personality Unit 1-4 Chapter Outlines

Four basic styles of life Adler

(a) the dominant type who displays a dominant ruling attitude with little social awareness; (b) the getting type which is the most common, where a person expects to receive satisfaction from other people and so becomes dependent on them; (c) the avoiding type is a person who avoids any possibility of failure; and (d) the socially useful type who cooperates with others and acts in accordance with their needs.

style of life

According to Adler, we develop a unique or distinct character, or style of life. In an attempt at compensation, children acquire a set of behaviors. These behaviors become part of the style of life, a pattern of behaviors designed to compensate for inferiority. This style of life becomes the guiding framework for all later behaviors.

Ego

According to Jung, the ego is the center of the consciousness, the part of the psyche concerned with perceiving, thinking, feeling, and remembering. Jung believed that psychic energy could be channeled internally (introversion), or toward the outside world (extraversion). Extraverts are open, sociable, and socially assertive, while introverts tend to be withdrawn and are often shy. Jung also believed that everyone had the capacity for both attitudes, but only one would become dominant in the personality

Gender assessment

According to the authors, the assessment of personality can be influenced by a person's gender. For example, women score higher in depression, anxiety, and related disorders than men. More women are seen in therapy and for longer periods of time than men

Assessment in Adler's Theory

Adler assessed the personalities of his patients by observing everything about them, such as the way they walked or sat, the manner of shaking hands, even the choice of chair they sat in. A person's body language indicates something of our style of life, according to Adler.

inferiority feelings

Adler believed that inferiority feelings were common for humans to feel and the source of all human striving.

fictional finalism

Adler believed we live our lives around ideals such as the belief that people are basically good. These beliefs influence the ways we perceive and interact with people. Adler formalized this concept as fictional finalism, the notion that fictional ideas guide our behavior as we strive toward a complete or whole state of being

individual psychology

Adler called his approach to human nature individual psychology, which focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of biological motives and goals.

striving for superiority

Adler described a drive for perfection as a striving for superiority. We strive for superiority in an effort to perfect ourselves, to make ourselves complete or whole.

Reflections on Adler's Theory

Adler has influenced many other psychologists, such as Karen Horney and Gordon Allport, especially in the area of how social forces influence personality. These prominent Neo-Freudians promoted the importance of the study of psychosomatic illnesses, the inferiority complex, compensation, and birth order. Although Adler was criticized for his position on determinism and was vague in his specific formulation of style of life, his theories are used and usually accepted today with the issues of rearing children and family birth order.

Life of Alfred Adler

Adler received a medical degree in Vienna and chose to specialize in neurology and psychiatry. Adler associated with Freud for nine years, but eventually became a critic of Freud and his psychoanalytic theory. Adler went on to found the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912. Adler was active in organizing government-sponsored child counseling clinics and introduced group training and guidance procedures. In 1929, Adler moved to the U.S. where he wrote books and lectured, while becoming America's first popular psychologist.

Questions About Human Nature

Adler saw each person as striving to achieve perfection. Although some aspects of one's personality are innate, such as the potential for social interest and the striving for perfection, Adler believed a person has free will to construct their own unique lifestyle. Adler was a devoted socialist and was involved in school guidance clinics and prison reform, and had an optimistic view of expressing his beliefs in the creative power of the individual.

Alfred Adler

Adler suffered from illness in early childhood, was near death from pneumonia and experienced isolation from other children because of his illnesses. Because of his frailty, Alfred felt inferior to his healthy brother and to other neighborhood children. However, Adler worked hard to overcome these problems and achieved a sense of self-esteem and social acceptance from others. Therefore, Adler felt childhood relationships with other children and siblings were much more important in personality development than did Freud.

Social Interest Scale (SIS)

Adler supported the use of tests of memory and intelligence, but could not agree with the use of psychological tests to assess personality. Psychologists have developed tests to measure Adler's concept of social interest. One such test is The Social Interest Scale (SIS) which consists of pairs of adjectives, where the participant chooses the best word from the pair of words to describe their degree of social interest.

Birth Order

Adler viewed a person's birth order as a major influence in childhood. Even though siblings have the same parents and live in the same house, they do not have identical social environments.

Research on Adler's Theory

Adler's primary research method was the case study, though very few records of his cases have survived. As with Freud and Jung, Adler can be criticized, because his observations cannot be repeated or duplicated, nor were they conducted in a controlled and systematic fashion. Adler did not attempt to verify the accuracy of his patient's reports or explain the procedures he used to analyze his data. Although most of Adler's propositions have resisted attempts at scientific validation, several topics have been the subject of research. These include dreams, inferiority complexes, early recollections, memories of neglect in early childhood, social interest, and order of birth. According to Adler, some studies show that overindulgence in childhood can lead to entitlement and manipulative behavior on the part of the child. Studies have shown that first-borns score higher in intelligence, complete more formal education, and work in more executive or prestigious occupations than later-borns. First-borns tend to be more dependent and suggestible. Studies have shown higher rates of alcoholism in last-borns than first-borns. Finally, only-borns have reported higher levels of achievement, initiative, aspiration, industriousness, and self-esteem in a meta-analysis of 115 studies.

Life of Jung

After developing a significant reputation on his own, Jung met Freud in 1907. They became close friends and Freud literally "adopted" Jung as a son and heir to Freud's ideas of psychoanalysis. Freud and Jung went to the United States where Freud received an honorary doctorate. Eventually, Jung had his own ideas and unique view of personality, which conflicted with the views of Freud. Jung believed that middle age was a time of great crisis in personality development, not childhood. Jung's theory was more rational and used data provided by his patients to reinforce his theories. Jung explored different cultures to broaden his understanding of human nature. By the time he was 86, Jung was popular for his analytical approach to psychology and many of his works became known in the United States.

dream analysis

Although Adler agreed with Freud about the value of dreams in studying personality, Adler disagreed on the way the dreams should be interpreted. To Adler, dreams involve our feelings about a current problem and what we intend to do about the problem. The dream is unique to the individual, but some dreams have common interpretations. For example, flying is an attitude of striving upward, while falling indicates a person's emotional view involves a demotion or loss, such as a fear of losing self-esteem or prestige.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

An assessment instrument related to Jung's personality theory is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI is widely used for research and applied purposes, especially employee selection and counseling.

Extensions of Freudian Theory

Anna Freud was Sigmund's youngest and most favored daughter. At age 22, Anna began four years of psychoanalysis conducted by her father. He was later criticized for analyzing his own daughter. Analyzing one's child was a serious violation of Freud's rules for the practice of psychoanalysis. She devoted her life to her father and his system of psychoanalysis. Anna worked with children, expanded the role of the ego, and argued that the ego operates independently of the id. Anna Freud clarified the operation of the defense mechanisms, which may be her most significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

Assessment in the Study of Personality

Assessment measures are vital in our attempt to understand personality by differentiating between normal and abnormal behaviors and feelings. Clinicians are able to diagnose disorders and determine the best course of therapy. School psychologists assess student learning problems; counseling psychologists measure job applicants for certain employment requirements. Psychologists conducting research assess the participants to account for their behavior in an experiment or to correlate their personality traits with other measurements.

Life of Sigmund Freud

Because Freud lacked an independent income, he entered private practice in Vienna. He studied with Jean Charcot in Paris and learned how to use the technique of hypnotism for the treatment of neurosis.

Compensation

Compensation is the drive we need to overcome this sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of development. This process begins in infancy, when the infant is aware of his or her parents' greater power and strength, and the hopelessness of overcoming this power. This becomes an environment of helplessness and dependency on adults

History of Psychology

Concerned with studying human behavior, psychologists studied only those processes which could be controlled or manipulated by the experimenter

Death Instincts

Death instincts are the opposite of life instincts and one component is the aggressive drive which compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill.

The principal of opposites

Drawing his ideas from physics, Jung proposed three basic principles: opposites, equivalence, and entropy. The principal of opposites is a conflict of polarities and becomes the primary motivator of behavior and the generator of energy.

Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Each of these stages is defined by an erogenous zone of the body. In each developmental stage a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage

Human Nature

Each theorist has a conception of human nature. The study of these different theories allows meaningful comparisons of human nature

inferiority complex

For a child, an inability to overcome inferiority feelings intensifies them, leading to the development of an inferiority complex. Adler perceived that many adults who came to him for treatment, had this complex. Adler used his theory to explain how neglected, unwanted, and rejected children can develop an inferiority complex

Formal Theories

Formal theories are based on data from observations of large numbers of persons. We can generalize from formal theories more effectively to explain and predict the behavior of more kinds of people

Life of Sigmund Freud

Freud became convinced that sexual conflicts were the primary cause of all neuroses. Freud claimed that childhood fantasies of sexual events were quite common for all children. Whether these memories are from true events or just sexual fantasies is controversial today.

Life of Sigmund Freud

Freud began to publish articles and books and he also presented papers at scientific meetings. His disciples or followers included Carl Jung and Alfred Adler. Jung later broke with Freud in disputing Freud's approach to psychoanalysis. Freud received an honorary doctoral degree at Clark University in the United States in 1909, where his theories were warmly welcomed. By the 1920s and 1930s Freud was having much success, however he was to die several years later. Freud's books were burned by the Nazis and he fled to England where he died in 1939 by an overdose of morphine that was given deliberately by his physician.

Sigmund Freud

Freud called his theory of personality Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was based on his clinical observations of his patient's feelings and past experiences, which he creatively interpreted.

Assessment in Freud's Theory

Freud considered the unconscious to be the motivating force in life. He developed free association in which he would ask the patient to express spontaneously every idea and image that came to the patient's mind. Freud would then analyze and interpret these associations. Some memories might have been too painful to recall. Freud called these moments resistances. Dream analysis was used to assess what dreams represent, in symbolic form, along with repressed desires, fears, and conflicts.

Carl Jung

Freud perceived Carl Jung as the spiritual heir for his perception of psychoanalysis. However, Jung went on to develop a theory of personality that deviated from Freud. Jung called his theory analytical psychology. Jung disagreed with Freud's emphasis on the role of sexuality. Jung also believed the libido should be defined by psychic energy rather than always rooted in sexual themes. Jung believed that human beings are shaped by our future as well as our past. Jung added a new dimension to the unconscious: the inherited experiences of human and prehuman species.

Life of Sigmund Freud

Freud was born in Moravia in 1856. His father was a Jewish wool merchant. Since the age of five, Freud lived most of his life in Vienna, Austria. Freud had a passionate, sexual attachment towards his mother and childhood hostility towards his meek father. Many of his childhood experiences would influence his theories later in life. There were eight children in the family, but Sigmund had special privileges, such as his own room. Studying incessantly, Freud entered high school a year earlier and became fluent in several languages. Freud trained to be a physician and researched fish and eels. Freud also experimented with cocaine, before it became illegal. Freud unknowingly harmed a friend by prescribing cocaine and had used cocaine for himself.

Life of Sigmund Freud

Freud's attitude toward sex was negative and felt that sex was degrading, because it contaminated the mind and body. Freud, although having children, felt resentful toward his sex life with his wife. Freud diagnosed himself, as having an anxiety neurosis as he learned to psychoanalyze himself through the study of dreams. He was able to recall his dreams and interpret their meanings.

Research in Freud's Theory

Freud's major research method was the case study. These types of studies are neither replicable nor generalizable to other people. Freud did not keep verbatim records of his therapy sessions, so the data may have been incomplete, consisting of what he last remembered. Some critics have suggested that Freud's patients did not actually reveal childhood sexual experiences, because, in most cases, those experiences never occurred. Freud's cases were restricted to young, unmarried, upper-class women of good education; not a very broad sample of the population of his time.

Defense Mechanisms

If rational techniques to reduce tension do not work, then the person may resort to one or several defense mechanisms. Freud believed that defenses must, to some extent, always be in operation. These mechanisms deny or distort reality and operate unconsciously

Questions About Human Nature and Assessment in Freud's Theory

In Freud's system there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to reduce tension. Freud found little he liked about humanity. He was deterministic in his viewpoint of people and judged them harshly.

Gordon Allport

In the 1930's, formalized and systematized the study of personality in American psychology

William Wundt

In the early 20th Century was largely responsible for this development as he established the first psychology laboratory.

Individuation

Individuation involves becoming an individual, fulfilling one's capacities, and developing one's self. To strive for individuation, middle-aged persons must abandon the behaviors and values that guided the first half of life and confront their unconscious, bringing it into conscious awareness and accepting what it tells them to do. The true self is revealed through this process. Once the psyche's structures are individuated and acknowledged, transcendence can occur. Transcendence, according to Jung; is an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche.

Instincts

Instincts are the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Instincts, such as hunger and thirst, are internal. These instincts motivate people to behave in a way that satisfies the need. When the body is in a state of need, we become motivated to restore and maintain equilibrium by satisfying the need. These instincts are the source of energy for human behavior, but this energy may be expressed in a variety of interests, preferences, and attitudes.

the principal of equivalence

Jung also believed in the principal of equivalence where he stated that energy expended in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality

Questions About Human Nature

Jung believed the ultimate and necessary goal of life is the realization of the self. We rarely achieve this goal, but are highly motivated to strive for it. Jung's theory is more positive and hopeful than Freud's theories. Progress does not stop in childhood, but continues throughout life.

The Development of the Personality

Jung believed we develop and grow regardless of age and are always moving toward a more complete level of self-realization. The ego begins in early childhood, where a child is just a mere reflection of the parents. Parents urge or help a child to be an extension of themselves. When puberty comes, the psyche is marked by demands, difficulties, and the need to adapt. From the teenage years through young adulthood, they are concerned with education, a career, getting married, and starting a family. Middle age, according Jung; may be a time of personal crisis, where life may lose its meaning. This is an inevitable time of transition where a person goes through necessary and beneficial changes. Middle age is when we begin the process of realizing or actualizing the self.

Reflections on Jung's Theory

Jung has had an impact in a broad area of disciplines, including psychiatry, sociology, political science, philosophy, and history. Jung's Word Association Test and variations are used in assessment. The Rorschach inkblot test was inspired by Jung's theories and such ideas as extroversion, introversion and individuation are widely used today. However, Jungian concepts are complex, filled with mystical and supernatural explanations which are not considered as rational or reasonable scientific approaches to the study of personality.

Life of Jung

Jung isolated himself from his family by withdrawing into a world of fantasies and dreams. These dreams, from a very early age, would shape his theory of personality. To Jung, the interpreting of dreams allowed for the exploration of the unconscious. Jung's theory reflects his life and how he would avoid other children. His loneliness is reflected in his theory, which focuses on the inner growth of the individual rather than on relationships with other people.

Introverts and extraverts to Jung

Jung recognized eight different kinds of extraverts and introverts. These refer to different and opposing psychological functions of sensing, intuiting, thinking, and feeling

Life of Jung

Jung studied medicine at the University of Basel with a specialty in psychiatry. Jung later developed a private practice in Zurich and conducted research using his word-association test to investigate the emotional reactions of his patients.

Assessment in Jung's Theory: Word Association, Symptom Analysis, and Dream Analysis

Jung used both science and the supernatural in his assessment of personality. Jung formed his personality theory on the basis of his patient's fantasies and dreams, his explorations of ancient languages, alchemy, and astrology. Jung believed his patient's fantasies were real to them and accepted them at face value

Research in Jung's Theory

Jung used the case study method as did Freud. Jung called his method life-history reconstruction. As with Freud, Jung's data did not rely on objective observation and were not gathered in a controlled and systematic fashion. Jung did not keep verbatim records of his patient's comments, nor did he attempt to verify the accuracy of his patient's reports. Jung's data was subjective and unreliable. His work has been criticized for the use of his own dreams and visions. Most of the research relates to the use of the MBTI in this section. When a subject scores high in extroversion, they tend to seek employment as police officers, while teachers and social work students in studies showed high levels of intuiting and feeling. Introverted thinking types remembered significant life experience when they were alone rather than events with others. Introverts were more likely to recall dreams and intuitive types remembered more archetypal dreams. As far as individuation in research, executives who looked within themselves and were more spontaneous were action-oriented rather than reacting to external forces and pressures. Research has also explored both male and female mid-life crisis. While traditionally the research has seen men more likely to have negative effects in this stage, women are now undergoing similar crises. Women in mid-life undergo intense self-reflection around the issues of having a successful career and perceived success in marriage and family.

Libido

Jung used the term libido in two ways: first, as a diffuse and general life energy, and second, for a perspective similar to Freud's, as a narrower psychic energy that fuels the work of the personality which he called the psyche

word-association test

Jung used the word-association test, where a subject responds to a stimulus word with whatever word came to mind. Jung used word association to uncover complexes in his patients.

The Life of Jung

Jung was born in Switzerland into a family that included nine clergymen. Jung experienced an unhappy childhood, with a relationship with his father that was close, but who was perceived as weak and moody by Jung. Jung's mother was more controlling, but emotionally unstable. Jung became wary of women, based on the odd character of his mother.

dream analysis

Jung was concerned with more than the causes of dreams in his use of dream analysis. Jung would work with a series of dreams, where he believed he could discover recurring themes, issues, and problems that persisted in the patient's unconscious.

Ethnic and Gender Issues in Personality

Most early views held by personality theorists share the defining characteristics of nearly all being white men of European or American heritage. The study of ethnic minorities was limited. And yet, the personality theorists would imply that their scientific findings concerning personality were valid for all people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin. Today, research across cultures, naturalistic observations and our own experiences tell us that culture and ethnic issues really impact personality.

Extensions of Freudian Theory

Object relations theories focus more on interpersonal relationships than on instinctual drives. They place particular emphasis on the mother-child relationship, suggesting that the core of personality is formed at infancy. The object relations theorist also see as critical the emergence in the early years of a strong sense of self and the maturing of relations with objects other than the mother. Heinz Kohut's interest is on the formation of the nuclear self, which he described as the foundation for becoming an independent person. Melanie Klein formulated a system of personality development that focused on the intense emotional relationship between infant and mother. Emphasizing the first 5 to 6 months of a child's life, Klein assumed babies are born with active fantasy lives that harbor mental representations (images) of Freudian id instincts, which the images temporarily satisfy. Margaret Mahler, a pediatrician, observed the relationship that developed between the infant and mother. She argued that newborns are incapable of distinguishing between themselves and everything else that is not themselves. The infant must learn how to separate from the mother, which involves psychic energy in interpersonal or object relationships rather than the sexual energy that Freud proposed.

Two kinds of variables in an experimental group

One is the independent or stimulus variable, which is manipulated by the experimenter. The dependent variable is the research participants' behavior or response to that manipulation. The experimental group includes the research participants to whom the experimental treatment is given, while the control group is not exposed to the independent variable

early recollections

Our early recollections indicate the style of life that characterizes us as adults. Each memory was to be interpreted within the context of the patient's style of life, whether these early recollections were real or fantasy, did not matter to Adler.

Personal Theories

Personal theories are based on ourselves and others. With personal theories, we tend to evaluate our reactions to people we study with our own personal thoughts and feelings.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques were developed to probe into the unconscious and were inspired by Freud's work. The tests present a stimulus, such as an inkblot or a picture which can then be interpreted, especially with those who may be emotionally disturbed

Reflections on Freud's Theory

Psychoanalysis has contributed and influenced psychology from the early 20th century in the study of personality and motivation in psychology. Many of the Freudian concepts, such as the role of the unconscious, the importance of childhood experiences in Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis shaping adult behavior and the operation of defense mechanisms, have been absorbed into contemporary psychology. However, a growing number of people are choosing less expensive and time-consuming treatment programs. Freud's case study approach raises issues by experimental psychologists. Freud's emphasis on past behaviors, unhealthy behaviors, and concepts of inferiority of women are criticized. Sigmund Freud gave personality theorists a solid, challenging base on which to build.

History of Psychology

Psychology emerged from ideas borrowed from philosophy and physiology to become an independent and primarily experimental science.

Equivalent-forms method

Reliability is further measured by the use of the equivalent-forms method, which consists of two comparable forms of a test

Defense Mechanisms

Repression is an involuntary removal of something from the conscious awareness. Denial is related to repression and involves denying the existence of some external threat or traumatic event that has occurred. One defense against a disturbing impulse is to actively express the opposite impulse, which is called reaction formation. Another way of defending against disturbing impulses is to attribute them to someone else. This is called projection. Regression is the defense mechanism where a person retreats or regresses to an earlier period of life that is pleasant and free of frustration and anxiety. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves reinterpreting our behavior to make it seem more rational and acceptable to us. If an object that satisfies an id impulse is not available, the person may shift the impulse to another object. This is displacement. Finally, sublimation involves the altering of the id impulses to more socially acceptable behaviors.

Research in Freud's Theory

Since Freud's death, many of his ideas have been submitted to experimental testing. Some Freudian concepts—the id, ego, superego, death wish, libido, and anxiety could not be tested by the experimental method. Researchers found no evidence to support the psychosexual stages of development or a relationship between Oedipal variables and sexual difficulties later in life. Research has been done in the area of subliminal perception, which supports the idea that people may be influenced by stimuli of which they are not consciously aware. In research findings, too much or too little ego control is considered maladaptive, while high ego resiliency is positively correlated with IQ, good grades, and even popularity. Catharsis is popularly expressed as having an ability to express emotion to reduce anxiety and depression. In more negative settings, research has shown that subjects under much stress use displacement as a viable option which researchers conclude that anger is maintained and more likely to be expressed in an aggressive manner. A person who uses repression, and therefore pushes their memories from conscious awareness, is more likely to be identified as personally and emotionally threatened by recall of previous traumatic events or by negative experience in the present. The efficacy and impact of dream interpretations, psychosexual personality types, aggressiveness and age, and overall personality types have been researched with mixed results. Incidentally, research into Freudian slips, which is forgetting or substitution in usage of speech, indicates that hidden anxieties can have their embarrassing moments when we speak. Finally, the area of research into repressed memories of childhood abuse indicates that a person can indeed forget these memories for years. However, evidence has also been shown that false memories can easily be implanted and appear to be real to the person or even as threatening as an authentic or real memory.

Culture assessment

Some personality tests have been translated for use in other cultures; however there might be potential problems with "westernizing" important personality characteristics such as close family orientation, emphasizing harmony with others, and showing frugality in everyday lives. These values are important to Asian cultures, but not as valued in western cultures. When using assessment measures, the authors caution that psychological assessment techniques were developed largely for middle-class European-American populations. Cultural variations, various religious viewpoints and diversity must also be considered in the evaluative process. This requires knowledge of cultural differences and sensitivity in the assessment process

Standardization

Standardization involves the consistency or uniformity of conditions and procedures for administering a test. Everyone taking a test must take the test under the same conditions and in the same or similar environment as others. Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment device. There are several methods to determine the reliability of a test before use

Symptom analysis

Symptom analysis focuses on the symptoms reported by the patient and is based on the person's free associations to those symptoms, according to Jung

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 20 vague pictures. The subject is asked to make up a story about what they perceive in the pictures. The interpreter subjectively scores the TAT and these scores are used to measure specific aspects of personality, such as the needs for achievement, affiliation and power. Word associations and sentence completions require emotional responses from the client; however, interpretation of results can be highly subjective.

archetypes

The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns Jung called archetypes. Jung proposed such archetypes as the hero, the mother, the child, God, death, power, and the wise old man.

creative power of self

The concept of the creative power of self, is what Adler believed creates the style of life. We are not passively shaped by childhood experiences. Adler argued for the existence of free will. Adler proposed four basic styles of life for dealing with problems involving our behavior, problems of occupation, and problems of love:

collective unconscious

The deepest and least accessible level of the psyche is the collective unconscious. These are universal experiences inherited from previous ancestral generations. We inherit the potential to have fears, or are predisposed to behave and feel the same ways as generations of our ancestors have in their lives. Jung believed people have always had a mother figure who typically behaves in a nurturing and supportive manner. Jung discovered these concepts as he studied ancient cultures, both mythical and real. Jung also described how his patients, in their dreams and fantasies, recalled and described for him the same kinds of ancient symbols and themes which he believed was carried in each person's unconscious mind

Ego

The ego is the rational master of the personality and is driven by reality principle. The purpose of the ego is to help the id obtain tension reduction in the personality

first-born

The first-born child gets the full and undivided attention of the parents. As a result, first-borns have a secure, happy existence, until the second-born appears. First-borns may become stubborn, ill-behaved, and destructive as they try to regain their former position in the family. They may blame any discipline on the parents' love for the other child, who the first-born perceives is the cause of the problem. The advantages of being the oldest child include playing the role of teacher, tutor, leader, and disciplinarian, when helping with the younger children.

Id

The id is the reservoir for the instincts and the libido. The id is powerful in the structure of personality because it supplies all the energy for the other two components. The id functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain, so id is driven by the pleasure principle.

Research of Study of the Personality of Psychology

The ideographic approach involves the intensive study of a small number of research participants, where the goal of this approach is to gain enough knowledge about a subject to aid in treatment. The nomothetic research approach involves comparing and analyzing large samples of research participants with the goal of obtaining data that can be generalized to a broad range of people.

Formal/Personal Theories

The intent of formal theories is greater objectivity; personal theories tend to be more subjective. Personality theories are more subjective and may relate events in a theorist's life, much like an autobiography. The first stage in constructing a theory may be based on intuition, which is later modified and refined by the theorist's knowledge and experience. There is a sense of the autobiographical nature of personality in this text. There may also be distortions or errors in our information about a theorist.

Libido

The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development and the psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido

only child

The only child remains the focus and the center of attention. The only child spends more of their time with adults and may mature faster than others. Only children experience difficulties when they find they are not the center of attention. They may not have learned to compete, and if their abilities do not bring them sufficient recognition or attention, they are likely to feel keenly disappointed.

Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

The oral stage lasts from birth until some time in the second year of life. This stage is where the infant's principal source of pleasure is the mouth. Since the infant is in the primary care of the mother, the infant loves the mother and is satisfied. The anal stage begins about the age of 18 months, when a new demand, toilet training, is involved. Defecation, Freud believed, produces erotic pleasure for the child, but with the onset of toilet training the infant has to delay this pleasurable act. In the fourth or fifth year, the phallic stage begins. The focus shifts from the anus to the genitals, where the child again has to control their impulse in manipulating their genitals. The Oedipus complex is used by Freud to describe a boy or girl who desires to have sexual relations with their opposite sex parent. The boy or girl sees the same sex parent as a rival for their affections, so they may become hostile or jealous of the parents' love relationship. A girl would develop penis envy, because she believes she may have lost her penis. In castration anxiety, a boy would be afraid of losing his penis if the father was to discover the boy's love for his mother. The latency period lasts for five or six years where the sex instinct is dormant. The final stage is the genital stage, which begins at puberty. In this stage, the adolescent must conform to social sanctions and taboos that exist concerning sexual expression, but conflict is minimized through sublimation.

persona archetype

The persona archetype is a mask, a public face we wear to present ourselves as someone different from who we really are.

personal unconscious

The personal unconscious in Jung's system is similar to Freud's conception of the preconscious. This is stored information which may have been forgotten or suppressed because it was trivial or disturbing. A person is able to retrieve this material readily from memory and then return it at a later period in time. As we file more and more of these experiences, we begin to put them in groups. These groups are called complexes. A complex is a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme. These complexes may be conscious or unconscious, harmful, or useful

The principle of entropy

The principle of entropy, (which comes from physics); refers to equalization of energy differences. Jung believed these laws of psychic energy gave a human being balance or equilibrium in their personality

animus archetype and anima archetype

The psyche of the woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of the man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). Both of these archetypes should be expressed in men and women, or Jung believed one would be one-sided in their personality

Historical determinism

The question of whether or not we as humans have free will not is addressed by theorists in the text. The second area of questioning is with nature or nurture. Do our abilities, temperaments, and predispositions determine our personality, or are we influenced mainly by our parents, education, and training? Do past events, such as experiences in early childhood, shape our personalities to the point that is critical for personality development? This view is known as historical determinism. The opposite position considers personality to be more independent of the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present as well as the future. Is human nature unique or universal? Theorists differ on what constitutes our major motivation in life. Are we like machines that only seek equilibrium or balance? Are we optimistic or pessimistic? The final question that will be addressed in this text is in terms of cultural influences. Are we influenced by culture, religion, individualism, or groupness? The impact of cultural issues in personality development has been seen to be significant in research.

The self-archetype

The self-archetype represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality. Jung believed that we must strive towards wholeness as the ultimate goal in life. This is most crucial in middle age as we make goals and plans for the future.

The shadow

The shadow was Jung's most powerful archetype. The shadow contains the basic, primitive animal instincts and therefore has the deepest roots of all archetypes. The shadow is the source of evil which we are to overcome, but not totally suppress, or we would become dull and lifeless, according to Jung.

Correlation Coefficient

The statistical measure we use to compare the variables is the correlation coefficient. The relationship of the variables could be positive or negative, with a perfect correlation having a correlation coefficient of +1.00 or 1.00. The stronger the relationship, the more confident we become in making predictions about one variable to another. We cannot determine cause and effect with correlational research. Even though there may be a strong relationship between variables, this does not mean that one caused the other.

Since Allport's time

The study of personality includes the life span approach, the trait approach, the humanistic approach, the cognitive approach, as well as psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

Superego

The superego is the internal moral rules of conduct, which forms whether we are perceived as being good or bad. The superego is a powerful force in its quest of moral perfection.

superiority complex

The superiority complex involves an exaggerated opinion of one's abilities and accomplishments. A person may feel such a need and work to become extremely successful; or, the person may feel superior and self-satisfied and have no need to demonstrate his or her accomplishments.

youngest-born

The youngest child is driven to surpass all the older children and learn at a fast rate, even into adulthood. However, the youngest can be excessively pampered and come to believe they need not learn anything, therefore, they may become helpless and dependent as adults.

Theories

Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular class of phenomena, such as behaviors and experiences relating to personality. Researchers must be able to conduct experiments to determine whether aspects of the theory should be accepted or rejected.

Levels of Personality

There are two levels of personality, according to Freud. The conscious corresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. The unconscious is the invisible portion of personality below the surface. The unconscious becomes the major driving power behind all behaviors and we are not able to control this portion.

social interest

To Adler, social interest is defined as the individual's innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals. We depend on our early social experiences to realize our innate potential. The mother's role becomes vital in developing the child's social interest or can thwart the development of this potential. The mother must teach the child cooperation, companionship, and courage. Adler believed the evils we have in this world stem from a lack of community feeling in people.

Transcendence

Transcendence, according to Jung; is an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche.

second-born

With the second-born child, the parents are less concerned and anxious about their own behavior and may be more relaxed in their approach with the second child. Competition with the first-born may motivate the second-born. They become more optimistic about the future and may even excel in sports or scholarship. However, if the second-born feels they can not surpass the first-born, they may become an underachiever, performing below their ability.

Clinical Interviews

along with psychological tests, help evaluate the effects of past and present life experiences, general appearance, behavior, degree of self-insight and contact with reality

John B. Watson

an American psychologist, opposed Wundt's focus on conscious experience. Watson's movement was called Behaviorism. Behaviorism presents a mechanistic picture of human beings as well-ordered machines that automatically respond to external stimuli

Behavior assessments

are given with the use of questionnaires, while positive and negative experiences are observed in the use of thought sampling. This procedure is typically used with groups

Projective tests

are subjective and are not high in reliability or validity

Correlation Method

investigates the relationships that exist among variables and how behavior on one variable changes or differs as a function of the other variable. The reliability and validity of assessment devices are typically determined through the correlational method

Self-report inventory approach

involves a paper-and-pencil type test which subjects complete by themselves about their own behavior and feelings

Test-Retest method

involves giving a subject the same test twice over a period of time to see if the two sets of scores on the tests are highly correlated

Predictive validity

is a prediction, (before the test is given) on how well future behavior can be predicted by the test scores.

The Rorschach Inkblot Technique

is a test with 10 cards of black and sometimes colored ink. The subject is asked what they perceive in the inkblots. Responses are interpreted by the examiner. Several interpretation systems are available for scoring the Rorshach but it is a less valid test than MMPI

Personality

is derived from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. We may conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, (the aspects of us that other people can see). However, the word, personality may refer to enduring characteristics, which may be stable or not stable over a person's life. A definition of personality could be "an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations."

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

is the most widely used psychological test. A true-false test consisting of 567 statements for assessing personality issues, this test is a valid measure that can discriminate between neurotics and psychotics and between emotionally healthy and emotionally disturbed persons (MMPI-2). The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) provides 17 personality dimensions. These self-report measures are objective in their scoring and have led to the widespread use of automated personality assessment programs on a computer. However, research has shown that minor changes in the wording of such tests can lead to major changes in the results. A test-taker may give more socially acceptable answers, especially when taking tests for employment. Many Self-Report Inventories can be taken on a computer laptop, easing the constraints of administration with no significant difference in results over paper and pencil tests. Test-takers report greater privacy and a sense of anonymity when revealing personal information.

Split-halves method

is where a test is administered once and then the scores of half the test are compared with the scores of the other half

Content validity

refers to the test's individual items or questions, and whether or not they describe behavior accurately like we want them to do

Construct validity

relates to a test's ability to measure a construct, such as a question concerning behavior like a trait or motive

According to Freud

the most important life instinct is sex. Sex becomes our primary motivation, such as in erotic wishes.

The clinical method used in personality research is the case study

which researches patients' past and present to help with their emotional problems. Freud used psychoanalysis in his case studies to develop his theory of personality. Here, the psychologists would use techniques such as dream analysis, tests, and interviews to obtain data for assessment. However, the type of data obtained could be less accurate than either the experimental or correlational methods and could lead to different interpretations. For example, memories from childhood that are remembered as an adult may become distorted with time. One cannot control the preciseness of their own memories of the past when compared to memories that others have of the same life events.