Psychology Test 2
complex
Are instincts simple or complex?
simple
Are reflexes simple or complicated?
conscious, unconscious
observational learning adds social and cognitive layers to all basic associative processes, both _____ and _____.
associative learning
occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.
Habituation
occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.
conscious
operant conditioning tends to involve ________ processes.
operant conditioning
organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence; a pleasant consequence encourages more of that behavior in the future, whereas a punishment deters the behavior.
classical conditioning
organisms learn to associate events -or stimuli- that repeatedly happen together.
Pavlov's dogs discriminate between the basic tone that sounded before they were fed and the sound of a doorbell.
what is an example of stimulus discrimination?
time-out
when a child demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand.
stimulus generalization
when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
continuous reinforcement
when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior.
- schools - prisons - mental hospitals
where have token economies commonly been used?
Rosaline Rayner
worked on "little albert" experiment with John Watson, assistant and later wife to Watson
higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)
pairing a new neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus
continuous reinforcement
Which reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior?
ratio
means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements
interval
means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements
law of effect
A law first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike, which stated behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Behavioralism
A school of thought that arose during the first part of the 20th century, which incorporates elements of Pavlov's classical conditioning.
Skinner Box
A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
born
Both instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors that organisms are ______ with.
learned
Both reflexes and instincts help and organism adapt to its environment and do not have to be ________.
John B. Watson
Founder of behaviorism; he believed that all behavior could be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes.
Pavlov surgically implanted tubes inside dogs' cheeks to collect saliva. He then measured the amount of salvia produced to various foods. Over time, Pavlov observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food, but to other things. He then carried out a series of controlled experiments to see which stimuli would cause the dogs to salivate.
How did Pavlov conduct his study of dogs' digestive systems?
By focusing on what can be seen and measured, in other words behaviors.
How do psychological researchers study the associate process?
- Teachers can create sticker charts ( Each time children perform the desired behavior, they get a sticker. After they get a certain amount, they can get a prize) - Parents can create a behavioral chart that rewards children for helping around the house or brushing their teeth.
How do teachers and parents use behavior modification?
5 minutes
If a child is 5 years old, how long should they be in time-out?
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.
after
In operant conditioning, the stimulus occurs soon ____ the response.
second-order conditioning
It's hard to achieve anything above _________ __________.
conscious, unconscious
Learning involves a complex interaction of ______ and _____ processes.
Arvilla Merritte
Little Albert's mother
physiologist
Pavlov was a _________, not a psychologist.
Edward Thorndike
Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
specific
Reflexes involve the activity of ___ body parts and systems
whole, higher
Reflexes involved movement of the organism as a ____ and involve ___ brain centers.
fixed interval
Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals
evolutionary adaptation
Research into taste aversion suggests that this response may be an __________ _______ designed to help organisms quickly learn to avoid food.
negative punishment
Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
important, brief
Timing is ______ for conditioning to occur. Typically there should only be a ____ interval between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
punishment
Today, experts favor reinforcement over _________.
- knee-jerk reflex - contraction of the pupil with bright light
What are some examples of reflexes?
- sexual activity - migration
What are some examples of reflexes?
1. Punishment may teach fear. Kids can become fearful of their parents are their teachers. If they are fearful of their teachers, they may try to avoid school. 2. Punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial and delinquent behavior.
What are the drawbacks of physical punishment?
1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. 3. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. 4. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. 5. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.
What are the steps used in shaping?
He believed that it must not focus on mental processes because mental processes could not be seen or measured. Instead, he thought they should focus on observable behavior that could be measured.
What did John B. Watson believe that psychology had to focus on to become a legitimate science?
1. unconditioned (unlearned) responses or reflexes 2. conditioned (learned) responses
What did Pavlov learn in his experiment?
They all allow an organism to adapt to its environment.
What do instincts and reflexes and learning have in common?
It can help us develop strategies for challenges such as helping cancer patients through nausea induced by certain treatments.
What else can taste aversion be useful for?
- the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior - the reinforcement must matter to the child and be done consistently.
What has to be done for behavioral modification to be effective?
patient-controlled analgesia
What is an example of a fixed interval?
taste aversion conditioning conditioned stimulus = something ingested unconditioned stimulus = nausea or illness conditioned response = being averse to a food after a single, negative experience
What is an example of a type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours passes between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus?
Pavlov's dogs salivate to any sound that sounds like a bell.
What is an example of stimulus generalization?
Employment If a person gets paid then they will go to work. If a person does not get paid, they will likely stop showing up to work.
What is an example of the law of effect?
1. Make sure the child is being removed from a desirable activity. 2. Make sure the child is in time out for the appropriate amount of time (One minute for each year of age). Setting a timer helps the child know how long they will have to be in time-out. 3. Remain calm when directing a child to time-out and ignore the child during that time. 4. Give the child a hug or kind word after time-out is over.
What is important to remember for time-out?
Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement
What is the outcome of the fixed interval reinforcement schedule?
- spinal cord - medulla
What part of the central nervous system do reflexes use?
token economies
a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges
stimulus discrimination
a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
reflexes
a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment.
unconditioned response (UCR)
a natural unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus
secondary reinforcer
a reinforcer that has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer.
learning
a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience
neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
positive (operant conditioning)
adding something
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
unconscious
classical conditioning tends to involve ________ processes.
punishment
decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response
Cangi and Daly (2013)
found that use of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviors and reduced inappropriate behaviors in a group of autistic school children. Autistic children tend to exhibit disruptive behaviors such as pinching and hitting. When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behavior (not hitting or pinching), they received a "quiet hands" token. When they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.
"psychic secretions"
gastric secretions made by dogs in the absence of food
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism.
reinforcement
increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.
insticts
innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as aging and the change of seasons.
fixed
refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging.
variable
refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes
primary reinforcer
reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These types of reinforcers are not learned. Some examples include water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, pleasure, and touch.
spontaneous recovery
return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
reflexive
salivating is...
positive punishment
something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior
positive reinforcement
something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior
negative reinforcement
something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior
physiologist
study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms.
"Little Albert"
subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear
extinction
the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned response is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.
partial reinforcement
the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior
Observational learning
the process of watching others and then intimidating what they do.
negative (operant conditioning)
to take something away
- taking a toy or phone away from a child due to misbehavior. - timeout
what is an example of negative punishment?
- scolding a child - using corporal punishment
what is an example of positive punisment?
behavior modification
uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones.
- putting on your seatbelt so cars will stop going "beep beep beep" - riders will apply pressure to horses to get them to perform their desired behavior - "if you stop doing what you're doing, I'll do it"
what are some examples of negative reinforcement?
- giving a child money for cleaning their room - paying a child to read a book - giving children praise when answering a question correctly
what are some examples of positive reinforcement?
- praise (linked to affection) - money (only good when you can use it to buy other things) - stickers on a behavior chart - tokens
what is an example of a secondary reinforcer?
Your neighbors always have the tv blaring while. This noise is distracting and makes it hard for you to study. Over time, you notice the noise less and less.
what is an example of habituation?
