Psychology Unit 1 Test
psychologists redefined psychology as...
"the scientific study of observable behavior"
There are five major views of the function of dreams.
(1) Freud's wish-fulfillment (2) Information-processing (3) Physiological function (4) Neural activation (5) Cognitive development
B. F. Skinner
-A leading behaviorist who studied how consequences shape behavior (operant conditioning)
GABA (gamma-aminobutyricacid) (neurotransmitter)
-A major inhibitory neurotransmitter -Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Serotonin (neurotransmitter)
-Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal -Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression.
Thinking critically
-Analyzing, rather than simply accepting, information -In addition to the scientific method, critical thinking helps develop more effective and accurate ways to figure out what makes people do, think, and feel the things they do. -Determining if flaw in information collection exists -Considering alternative explanations for facts or results -Searching for hidden assumption and deciding if you agree -Looking for hidden bias, politics, values, or personal connections -Discarding personal assumptions and biases and viewing the evidence
Association areas of the cortex
-Are found in all four lobes, where the claim that we "only use 10% of our brain" began -Electrically probing an association area won't result in an observable response (cannot be neatly mapped like other areas) -They interpret, integrate, and act on sensory information and link it with stored memories- a very important part of thinking.
cerebellum
-Baseball sized structure that aids in judgment of time, sound, and texture discrimination and emotional control -It also coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions -If you injure your cerebellum, you would have difficulty walking, keeping your balance, or shaking hands.
brainstem
-Begins where the spinal cord swells slightly after entering the skull
Biopsychosocial Approach: Psychology's Three Main Levels of Analysis
-Behavior or mental process 1) biological influences 2) psychological influences 3) social-cultural influences
neurons
-Building blocks of the body's neural information system -Neurons differ but all are variations on the same theme -Most of the neurons are in the brain but there are motor and sensory neurons throughout the body. The message does not travel down the axon in the same way an electrical signal does down a wire; in fact electricity in a wire travels 3 million times faster. In the body, neural signals travel about 2 to 180 miles per hour. However, the chemical signal has an advantage; it does not decrease in intensity as it travels down the axon. No signal is lost.
operational definition
-Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study -Define "less sleep" and "poorer memory"
proponents of humanistic psychology
-Carl Rogers -Abraham Maslow
Blindsight awareness
-Condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. -A patient suffered brain damage when exposed to carbon monoxide, leaving her unable to recognize and discriminate objects visually. However, when asked the width of a block in front of her, she was at a loss, but she could grasp it. -A scan showed that she had normal activity in the area concerned with reaching for objects, but damage in the area concerned with consciously recognizing objects. -walking down a cluttered hallway but unconsciously meandering around the obstacles
Marijuana and synthetic marijuana (K2 and Spice) (hallucinogens)
-Contains THC and produces mix of effects -Relaxes, disinhibits, and may produce euphoria -Is mild hallucinogen which amplifies sensory sensitivity, impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time -Disrupts memory formation and immediate recall -Impairs brain development with prenatal exposure -Can linger in body for weeks
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
-Controlled, artificial environments are created in laboratory experiments to test general theoretical principles. -These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.
cerebral cortex
-Covering the cerebrum, like bark on a tree, is the cerebral cortex- a thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells -the body's ultimate control and information-processing center -What makes us distinctively human mostly arises from the complex functions of our cerebral cortex. -Relaxes tight genetic controls and increases capacities for learning and thinking, enabling humans to be more adaptable. -contains 20 to 23 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections -Two hemispheres- Each hemisphere has four lobes: Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal -the amount of cortex devoted to a body part in the motor cortex (in the frontal lobes) or in the somatosensory cortex (in the parietal lobes) is not proportional to that body part's size. Rather, the brain devotes more tissue to sensitive areas and to areas requiring precise control. Thus, the fingers have a greater representation in the cortex than does the upper arm.
There were some case studies that helped localize some brain functions:
-Damage to the left side, caused paralysis to the right. -Damage to the back of the head, caused disrupted vision. -Damage to the left-front part of the brain produced speech difficulties.
barbiturates/tranquilizers (depressants)
-Depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment -Can impair memory and judgment; potentially lethal when combined with alcohol -Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal, some types of sleeping pills
Ways to test hypotheses and refine theories (types of research strategies)
-Description -Correlation -Causation -Experiments
surveys and interviews (descriptive research)
-Descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group -Many lie on surveys -Examines many cases in less depth: Wording effect- "aid to the needy" than "welfare"; Random sampling -Utilizes random sampling of population for best results
case studies (descriptive research)
-Descriptive technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles -Beneficial when it is a very rare case and there are not a lot of cases out there -Examines one individual in depth -Provides fruitful ideas -Cannot be used to generalize
naturalistic observations (descriptive research)
-Descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation -You CANNOT interfere -Records behavior in natural environment -Describes but does not explain behavior -Can be revealing -Studies using social media: Positive posts- late Sat night; Negative- Tuesday afternoon
structuralism
-Edward Titchener (mentored by Wilhelm Wundt) -introspection -"self-report" data
A Good Theory...(ON EXAM)
-Effectively organizes a range of self reports and observations -Leads to clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory -Often stimulates research that leads to a revised theory which better organizes and predicts what we know -May be replicated and supported by similar findings
Double-blind procedure (experiments)
-Eliminating bias -Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment. -Treatment's actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect.
Acetylcholine (ACh) (neurotransmitter)
-Enables muscle action, learning, and memory -With Alzheimer's disease, ACh - producing neurons deteriorate.
theory
-Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events -"Sleep boosts memory."
Inattentional blindness
-Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere
Margaret Floy Washburn
-First female psychology Ph.D. -Became second APA female president -Thesis was the first foreign study Wundt published in his psychology journal -Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization
selective attention
-Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, like a flashlight beam in the dark. -Your five senses take in 11,000,000 bits of information per second, of which you consciously process about 40. But your mind is making using of the other 10,999,960 bits (chair pressing against you).
Correlation (research strategies) (ON EXAM)
-General definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are "co"-related) -Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other -Correlation does not mean causation -Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but does not prove it. -The closer to (-/+)1.00, the stronger the correlation; 0 means no relationship
behaviorism
-Had no reference to mental processes since they cannot be observed and measured. -Believed that if something could not be observed and measured, it could not be studied. -Behavior could only be observed and measured. -Became a major force in psychology into 1960s.
Marijuana (Hallucinogens)
-Has leaves containing THC (delta- 9-tetrahydrocannabinol) which are smoked or eaten to produce increase sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells; lingers in body longer -Can also relax, disinhibit, impair motor and perceptual skills, and reaction time
Sleepwalking and sleeptalking
-Help return to bed, don't let walk around. -run in families -NOT DREAMING
Norepinephrine (neurotransmitter)
-Helps control alertness and arousal -Undersupply can depress mood.
Socio-cultural
-How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures -How are we alike as members of one human family? How do we differ as products of our environment? -Developmental; social psychology; clinical; counseling
Psychodynamic
-How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts -How can someone's personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas? -Clinical; counseling; personality
Behavior genetics
-How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences -To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression products of our genes? Of our environment? -Personality; developmental; legal/forensic
neuroscience
-How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences -How do pain messages travel from the hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? -Biological; cognitive; clinical
Evolutionary
-How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes -How does evolution influence behavior tendencies? -Biological; developmental; social
Cognitive
-How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information -How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems? -Cognitive neuroscience; clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational
Behavioral
-How we learn observable responses -How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say, to lose weight or stop smoking? -Clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational
Opiates (narcotics, methadone) (depressants)
-Include opium and its derivatives, such as codeine, morphine and heroin -Constricts pupils, slows breathing, causes lethargy -Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety -Causes withdrawal when ingestion is stopped -Short-term pleasure equals long term price- leaves user wanting more and progressively larger doses -Artificial opiates will eventually lead to the brain no longer producing endorphins -Marijuana prevents pain in different ways. Instead of blocking pain signals in your brain like opioids it activates both the endocannabinoid system and the opioid system
stimulants drugs
-Includes caffeine, nicotine (each year tobacco kills 5.4 million of its 1.3 billion consumers), and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy (MDMA), and methamphetamine that excite neural activity and speed up body functions -Involves dilation of pupils, increase in heart and breathing rates, rise in blood sugar, and drop in appetite -Often involves increase in energy and self-confidence
caffeine (stimulants)
-Increased alertness and wakefulness -Anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal
Dopamine (neurotransmitter)
-Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion -Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and loss of motor control in Parkinson's disease.
heroin (depressants)
-Initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition -Depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions
Cognitive neuroscience
-Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) -Explore and map conscious cortex function and can sometimes "read" minds.
Circadian rhythm
-Internal biological clock of 24-hour cycle of day and night -As morning approaches, body temperature rises, peaks during day, dips in early afternoon, and begins to drop in evening -Altered by age and experience
humility
-Involves awareness that mistakes are possible and a willingness to be surprised -People and animals will not always act in the way predicted, we need to accept this and keep going. -"The rat is always right.": If you're not getting the results that you want, you need to revaluate your methods. The rat will always do what you have prompted it to do.
Ecstasy (MDMA) (stimulants)
-Is a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen -Produces euphoria, but with short-term health risks and longer term harm to mood and cognition
medulla
-Is located at base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
nicotine (stimulants)
-Is the stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco -Signals the central nervous system to release a flood of neurotransmitters (epinephrine and norepinephrine- diminish appetite and boost alertness, dopamine and opioids calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain) -Involves challenging acute craving and withdrawal symptoms which contribute to relapse -Nicotine reaches the brain within 7 seconds, twice as fast as intravenous heroin. -Within minutes, the amount in the blood soars.
proponents of behaviorism
-John B. Watson (Classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (Operant conditioning) dismissed introspection
the limbic system
-Limbic system includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus -Is linked to emotions, memory, and drives
Forester and Penfield
-Mapped motor cortex and discovered body areas requiring precise control, such as the mouth and fingers, occupied most cortical space. -They did this in hundreds of wide awake patients since the brain has no sensory receptors.
Nature-Nurture Question
-Nature: To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth? 1) Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn 2) Descartes: Some ideas are intuitive 3) Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species; natural selection -Nurture: And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience? 1) Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses 2) Locke: Mind is blank slate
action potential
-Neural impulse that travels down an axon like a wave -A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often. But it does not affect the action potential's strength or speed. (Squeezing a trigger harder won't make a bullet go faster.)
neurotransmitters
-Neuron-produced chemicals that cross synapses to carry messages to other neurons or cells -When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
Summary of neurons
-Neurons are the elementary components of the nervous system—the body's speedy electrochemical system. -Neurons receive signals through branching dendrites and send signals through its axons. -Some axons are encased in a myelin sheath, which enables faster transmission. -Glial cells provide myelin and support, nourish, and protect neurons. These also play a role in thinking and learning. -If a combined signal received by a neuron exceeds a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse down its axon through a chemical-to-electricity process. -The neuron's reaction is an all-or-none process.
Perceiving order in random events
-People perceive patterns to make sense of their world. -Even in random, unrelated data people often find order, because random sequences often do not look random.
overconfidence
-People tend to think they know more than they do. -We tend to be more confident than correct (80% confident only 40% correct).
Understanding of the relationship between the brain and mind has evolved over time.
-Plato: Mind located in spherical head -Aristotle: Mind found in heart- pumps warmth and vitality to the body -Gall: Phrenology revealed mental abilities and character traits
LSD (hallucinogens)
-Powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) -Interferes with serotonin neurotransmitter system
Dual processing - conscious and unconscious
-Principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tracks -Further, it is believed that much of our brain works behind the scenes. -Perceptions, memory, attitudes, and other cognitions are affected
Parallel processing
-Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions -Parallel processing takes care of the routine business, while sequential processing is best for solving new problems that require our attention.
Methamphetamine (stimulants)
-Produces psychological effects depending on dosage and form consumed and user's expectations and personality -Is powerfully addictive -Over time, can reduce baseline dopamine levels.
cocaine (stimulants)
-Produces quick rush of euphoria by releasing dopamine, serotonin, and norepenephrine -Involves crash of agitated depression within 30 to 60 minutes after neurotransmitters drop -Cocaine use can lead to emotional disturbances, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure. -"Crack" is a faster working crystallized form of cocaine that produces a briefer but more intense high, the crash is also more intense -Produces psychological effects depending on dosage and form consumed and user's expectations and personality
correlation coefficient
-Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other. -Let's us see the extent to which two things relate.
Everything psychological—every idea, every mood, every urge—is biological.
-Psychologists working from a biological perspective study the links between biology and behavior. -Humans are biopsychosocial systems in which biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors interact to influence behavior. -Even habits are commanded by the brain -The brain is always working unconsciously -Neurons rapidly fire and tell us what to do -The brain unconsciously remembers memories and may respond according to that memory in the future
Wilhelm Wundt
-Psychology's First Laboratory -Defined psychology as "science of mental life" -Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology: carefully measured observations and experiments
insomnia
-Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep -Increased risk of fatigue and depression -Quick fixes are not the best option -1 in 10 adults
illusory correlation
-Refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists -How gently you roll a dice influences the number you get. -Superstition
In deciding when it is safe to generalize from a sample, we should keep three principles in mind:
-Representative samples are better than biased samples. -Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable (an average is more reliable when it comes from scores with low variability). -More cases are better than fewer. Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are unreliable.
Sleep patterns are genetically and culturally influenced.
-Researchers are discovering genes that regulate sleep. -Bright morning light activates light-sensitive proteins that trigger suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to cause decreased production of melatonin in morning and increased production in the evening. -Social jet lag may occur when sleep routines are disrupted during weekends.
damage to association area
-Results in different losses -Damage in the frontal lobes (enable judgment, planning, and processing of new memories)- the person has memory and skill to bake a cake but can't plan ahead to begin baking a cake.
Freudian psychology
-Sigmund Freud -Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior
Why Do Some People Become Regular Users of Consciousness-Altering Drugs?
-Some people may be biologically vulnerable to particular drugs, such as alcohol. -Psychological factors (such as stress, depression, and hopelessness) and social factors (such as peer pressure) combine to lead many people to experiment with—and sometimes become addicted to—drugs. -Cultural and ethnic groups have differing rates of drug use. -Each type of influence—biological, psychological, and social-cultural—offers a possible path for drug misuse prevention and treatment programs.
During the past century, researchers discovered
-Specific brain systems serve specific functions and information is integrated to construct a wide range of experiences -The adaptive brain is wired by experience (Experience can change brain structure) -Nerve cells (neurons) conduct electricity and communicate through chemical messages across tiny separating gaps
Mary Whiton Calkins
-Studied under James -First female in Harvard graduate seminar, all the men dropped out. -Refused the lower degree offered by Harvard. -Became memory researcher and first APA female president in 1905
SQ3R Study Method
-Survey: Scan/Skim what you are about to read, especially chapter outlines and section heads. -Question: Ask questions that the text might answer; write guesses. -Read: Look for the answer to your question, reading a manage-able amount at a time. -Rehearse: Recall what you've read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes. -Review: Recall what you've read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes.
hindsight bias
-Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it -"I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon"
hypothesis
-Testable prediction, often implied by a theory -"Less sleep, poorer memory."
the endocrine system
-The endocrine system is a set of glands that secretes hormones into the bloodstream. -Hormones travel through the body and affect other tissues, including the brain. -The pituitary is the master gland that influences hormone release by other glands, including the adrenal glands. -In an intricate feedback system, the brain's hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland, which influences other glands, which release hormones and influence the brain. -If the nervous system transmits information at text-message speed, the endocrine system delivers an old-fashioned letter. -Endocrine messages tend to outlast the effect of neural messages- one of the reasons why it takes us a bit to "settle down" -In a moment of danger, the ANS orders the adrenal glands on top of the kidneys to release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline): These hormones increase HR, BP, and blood sugar providing a surge of energy. When the emergency passes, the hormones-and feelings- linger a while.
Regression toward the mean (ON EXAM)
-The more you do something, the more likely you are to get to your average. -Refers to the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. -Extraordinary happenings tend to be followed by more ordinary ones- that's because average results are more typical than extreme results: Students who score much lower or higher on an exam than they usually do are likely, when retested, to return to their average.
How Do Neurons Communicate With Each Other?
-The neuron receives signals from other neurons; some are telling it to fire and some are telling it not to fire. -When the threshold is reached, the action potential starts moving. It either fires or it does not; more stimulation does nothing ("all-or-none" response"). -The action potential travels down the axon from the cell body to the terminal branches. -The signal is transmitted to another cell but must find a way to cross a gap (synapse) between cells. -An axon terminal of one neuron is separated from the receiving neuron by a synaptic gap less than a millionth of an inch wide. -When an action potential reaches the knob-like terminals at an axon's end, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. -The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron (key in a lock). -The neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the receiving site and electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron's readiness to fire. -During reuptake, enzymes break down the extra neurotransmitters or they are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.
example experiment
-Theory: Does Viagra work? Group 1 (experimental) Receive treatment (took Viagra) Group 2 (control) Does not receive treatment (do not take Viagra) -Dependent Variable: performance (what you are measuring) -Independent Variable: dosage (experimenters have control over) -Confounding variable: mood, exercise, energy, weight, stress, need for sleep -Results: yes, 69% of the time
corpus callosum
-This large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres
experiments (research strategies)
-To explore cause and effect researchers can isolate the effects of one or more factors by: -Manipulating the factors of interest to determine their effects. -Holding constant ("controlling") other factors: They create an experimental group and control group, then randomly assign people to each; the experimental group receives the treatment and the control group does not. -Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
Benzodiazepines (depressants)
-Very similar include Valium, Ativan, Xanax, and Klonopin -Very addictive, increase GABA to treat anxiety, 2-4 weeks -Most common withdrawal symptoms from discontinued use of the drug are increased anxiety, depression, autonomic instability, insomnia and sensory hypersensitivity. Can lead to seizures.
dream statistics
-We spend 6 years of our life in dreams -For both men and women, 8 in 10 dreams are marked by at least one negative event or emotion. -Common themes are repeatedly failing in an attempt to do something, being attacked, rejected, or experiencing misfortune.
When is an observed difference significant?
-When sample averages are reliable and difference between them is relatively large, the difference has statistical significance. -Observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples. -In psychological research, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means that the odds of its occurrence by chance are less than 5 percent.
functionalism
-William James -Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: What function might they serve? How might they have helped our ancestors survive? -Smelling is what the nose does, thinking is what the brain does. But why do the nose and brain do these things? It has a function.
Watson and Rayner
-Worked on championing psychology as the science of behavior. -They demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "little Albert" (classical conditioning)
curiosity
-a passion to explore and understand the world without misleading or being misled
Description (research strategy)
-a systematic, objective observation of people -The goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people's behaviors, thoughts, and attributes. -This research does not explain behavior, just describes behavior. -Three types: Case studies, Naturalistic observations, and Surveys -No control of variables; single cases may be misleading
neural impulse
-action potential -electrical signal traveling down the axon -Neurons transmit messages when stimulated by signals from our senses or when triggered by signals from neighboring neurons. -In response, a neuron fires an impulse called the action potential- a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon. -Depending on the type of fiber, a neural impulse travels at speeds ranging from a sluggish 2 miles per hour to more than 200 miles per hour. But even at its top speed, it is 3 million times slower than that electricity through a wire. -The brain is vastly more complex than a computer, but slower at executing simple responses.
Alcohol (depressants)
-acts as disinhibitor -Slows neural processing and potent sedative when paired with sleep deprivation -Disrupts memory and has long-term effect on brain and cognition; impairs growth of synaptic connections and disrupts memory consolidation (suppresses REM sleep) -Binge drinking can contribute to nerve cell death and reduces the birth of new cells (shrinks the brain) -Reduces self-awareness and self-control; produces myopia by focusing on arousing situation at expense of normal inhibitions and future consequence -Research has found that 79% of unwanted sexual intercourse (college students) experiences involve alcohol or drugs -Reduced awareness might explain why people who want to suppress their feelings of failures or shortcomings are more likely to drink. -Blackouts- suppresses REM
Psychoactive drugs
-alter perceptions and moods -They may produce tolerance—requiring larger doses to achieve the desired effect—and withdrawal—significant discomfort accompanying attempts to quit. -Continued use may lead to addiction, which is the compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences.
positive correlation
-between 0 and +1.00 -Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together
negative correlation
-between 0 and −1.00 -Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. -Nothing to do with strength of the relationship.
central nervous system
-brain and spinal cord are body's decision maker
Affects of Sleep Deprivation
-brain: decreased ability to focus attention and process and store memories; increased risk of depression -immune system: decreased production of immune cells; increased risk of viral infections, such as colds -fat cells: increased production; greater risk of obesity -joints: increased inflammation and arthritis -heart: increased risk of high blood pressure -stomach: increase in hunger-arousing ghrelin; decrease in hunger-suppressing leptin -muscles: reduced strength; slower reaction time and motor learning -Causes fatigue, irritability, slows reactions -Impairs concentration, productivity, and memory consolidation -Can also lead to depression (less than 5 hours-71% higher risk of depression), obesity, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance with a greater vulnerability to accidents -REM sleep's processing of emotional experiences helps protect against depression. -Can predict more conflicts in friendships and romantic relationships -Can increase "cyberloafing" due to difficulty concentrating -Can also make you gain weight -Just add 15 minutes a night to your sleep
Psychology's Subfields
-common quest: Describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it 1) Biological psychologists 2) Developmental psychologists 3) Cognitive psychologists 4) Personality psychologists 5) Social psychologists
components of scientific attitude
-curiosity -skepticism -humility
spontaneously (states of consciousness)
-daydreaming -drowsiness -dreaming
When is a Drug Use a Disorder?
-diminished control -diminished social functioning -hazardous use -drug action (tolerance/withdrawal) A person may be diagnosed with substance use disorder when drug use continues despite significant life disruption. Resulting changes in brain circuits may persist after quitting use of the substance (thus leading to strong cravings when exposed to people and situations that trigger memories of drug use). The severity of substance use disorder varies from mild (two to three symptoms) to moderate (four to five symptoms) to severe (six or more symptoms)
placebo effect (experiments)
-effect involves results caused by expectations alone. -To know how effective a therapy is, researchers must control for a placebo effect.
biological influences (three main levels of analysis)
-genetic predispositions (genetically influenced traits) -genetic mutations -natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations -genes responding to the environment
physiologically induced (states of consciousness)
-hallucination -orgasm -food or oxygen starvation
3 phenomena illustrate the need for psychological science
-hindsight bias -judgemental overconfidence -tendency to perceive patterns in random events
experimentation variables
-independent variable: Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied -confounding variable: Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect -dependent variable: Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
amygdala
-involved in responses of aggression and fear -Consists of two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system -Damage can turn a wolverine mellow or stimulation can make a cat cower to a mouse.
hypothalamus
-involved in various bodily maintenance functions, pleasurable rewards, and the control of the endocrine system -Is neural structure lying below the thalamus -Directs several maintenance activities to maintain homeostasis: hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior -controls the pituitary (the "master gland") by stimulating it to trigger the release of hormones.
psychological influences (three main levels of analysis)
-learned fears and other learned expectations -emotional responses -cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations
visual cortex
-of the occipital lobes at the rear of your brain receives input from your eyes. -aids in detection of word and emotion detection and facial recognition
Martin Seligman
-positive psychology (contemporary) -Everyone can flourish, they just need the tools to get there. -Explores human flourishing -Believe that happiness is a by-product of a pleasant, engaged, and meaningful life. -Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self
social-cultural influences (three main levels of analysis)
-presence of others -cultural, societal, and family expectations -peer and other group influences -compelling models (such as in the media)
Hippocampus
-processes conscious memories. -Animals or humans who lose their hippocampus to surgery or injury also lose their ability to form new memories of facts or events.
dendrites
-receive messages from other cells -Neuron extensions that receive messages and conduct them toward the cell body
humanistic psychology
-rejected behaviorism -Revived interest in study of mental processes. -Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied.
introspection
-reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli -used to build a view of the mind's structure -not reliable
modern definition of psychology
-science of behavior and mental processes -behavior: any action that can be observed or recorded -mental processes: internal, subjective experience inferred from behavior
cognitive psychology
-scientifically explored ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered. -Given us new ways to understand ourselves and to treat disorders such as depression.
psychologically induced (states of consciousness)
-sensory deprivation -hypnosis -meditation
different states of consciousness
-spontaneously -physiologically induced -psychologically induced
the scientific method
-the process of testing "hunches" about the world by setting up situations that test our ideas -If the data do not fit our ideas, then ideas are modified and tested again. -Curiosity may lead to a question, a hunch, then theory.
components of the scientific theory
-theory -hypothesis -operational definition -replication
Aristotle
-used observation and questioning to understand the body-psyche relationship -A meal makes us sleepy by causing gas and heat to collect around the source of our personality, the heart.
sleep stages
-waking beta -waking alpha -NREM-1 -NREM-2 -NREM-3 -REM sleep People pass through a multistage sleep cycle several times each night, with the periods of deep sleep diminishing and REM sleep periods increasing in duration. As people age, sleep becomes more fragile, with awakenings common among older adults
steps to action potential
1) Neuron stimulation causes a brief change in electrical charge. If strong enough, this produces depolarization and an action potential. 2) This depolarization produces another action potential a little farther along the axon. 3) As the action potential continues speedily down the axon, the first section has now completely recharged. Just as "the wave" can flow to the right in a stadium even though the people only move up and down, a wave moves down an axon although it is only made up of ion exchanges moving in and out. -Neuron receives message -Ions flow producing action potential -Gates open and then close for a resting period
Psychologists believe we sleep for 5 reasons:
1) Sleep may have played a PROTECTIVE ROLE in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods. Animals with the least ability to hide sleep less (giraffe). 2) Sleep also helps RESTORE AND REPAIR damaged neurons (immune system and brain tissue) 3) REM and NREM-2 sleep help STRENGTHEN NEURAL CONNECTIONS that build enduring memories (memory consolidation). 4) Sleep PROMOTES CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING the next day. 5) During deep sleep, the pituitary gland secretes a GROWTH HORMONE necessary for muscle development.
Having a passenger increased risk only by ____ times.
1.6
Multitasking distracts brain resources allocated to driving; driver brain activity decreases average of ____ percent when conversation occurs
37
Alcohol use disorder (alcoholism)
Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
waking alpha (sleep stages)
Alpha waves of an awake, relaxed state (when you are trying to go to sleep)
mean
Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores; can be distorted by few atypical scores
waking beta sleep (sleep stages)
Beta waves of an alert, waking state
nervous system
Body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems
Endocrine's feedback system
Brain → pituitary→ other glands → hormones →body and brain The nervous system directs endocrine secretions, which then affect the nervous system. A stressful event triggers your hypothalamus to instruct your pituitary to release a hormone that causes your adrenal glands to flood your body with cortisol, a stress hormone that increases blood sugar.
motor neurons
Carry instructions from your central nervous system out to body's muscles and glands (few million)
sensory neurons
Carry messages from body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to your spinal cord and brain for processing (few million)
interneurons within brain and spinal cord
Communicate with one another and process information between the sensory input and motor output (billions and billions)
addiction
Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known harmful consequences
standard deviation
Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Gall's speculations on phrenology
Despite initial acceptance of Franz Gall's speculations, bumps on the skull tell us nothing about the brain's underlying functions. However, different parts of the brain do control different aspects of behavior.
range
Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
withdrawal
Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
Fritsch and Hitzig
Discovered motor cortex at rear of frontal lobes by stimulating parts of an animal's cortex and seeing the body move.
Hallucinogens
Distorts perceptions and calls up sensory images without any input from the senses
Information-processing (function of dreams)
Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate them in memory.
most common dreams
Dreams incorporating previous days' experience
Freud's wish-fulfillment (function of dreams)
Dreams provide a psychic "safety valve," with manifest content (story line) acting as a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning that gratifies our unconscious wishes).
Cognitive development (function of dreams)
Dreams reflect the dreamer's level of development.
depressants
Drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions
neuron structure
Each consist of a cell body, dendrite fibers, and an axon. -Dendrites take in messages, Axons send out messages. -Some have a myelin sheath, which is laid down until about age 25. -If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis results (communication to muscles slows with eventual loss of muscle control).
Psychological science
Focuses on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors and less on particular behavior
glial cells
Glial cells support the billions of nerve cells. Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. -Neurons are like queen bees, on their own they cannot feed or sheathe themselves. -Glial cells are like worker bees- they provide nutrients, insulating myelin, guide neural connections, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters. A postmortem analysis of Einstein did not find more neurons, but did reveal a much greater connection of the glial cells than typical.
Resulting principles
Help explain everyday behavior, not specific findings
Night terrors
High arousal and appearance of being terrified. Child won't usually remember because it occurs during deep sleep
types of neurons
Information travels in the nervous system through 3 types of neurons: -sensory neurons -motor neurons -interneurons within brain and spinal cord
reticular formation
Involves nerve network running through the brainstem and thalamus; filters stimuli, relays info to other brain areas, and controls arousal
thalamus
Is area at the top of the brainstem; receives information from all the senses except smell and routes it to the higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching.
synapse
Junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron
threshold
Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
IRB ethics committees
Make sure that you are being ethical with people and animals during your experiment
median
Middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Agonist
Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action (produce or keep neurotransmitters)
Antagonist
Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action or release (Botox- blocks Ach receptor sites on muscles and causes paralysis)
mode
Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
THE BODY'S CROSS-WIRING
Nerves from one side of the brain are mostly linked to the body's opposite side.
All-or-none response
Neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
Reuptake
Neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
How neurotransmitters influence behavior
Neurotransmitters travel designated pathways in the brain and may influence specific behaviors and emotions. -Acetylcholine (ACh) affects muscle action, learning, and memory (Alzheimer's). -Endorphins are natural opiates released in response to pain and exercise ("runner's high"). -Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at synapses by either exciting or inhibiting neurons' firing. -Even though it is a lock and key, our brain reacts similarly to certain drugs because they fit like neurotransmitters.
skewed distribution
Note how just a few high incomes make the mean—the fulcrum point that balances the incomes above and below—deceptively high.
refractory period
Period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
Frontal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
Temporal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears.
Physiological function (function of dreams)
Regular brain stimulation may help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain
replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Reflex
Simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
pons
Sits above medulla and helps coordinate movements and control sleep
measuring sleep activity
Sleep researchers measure brain-wave activity, eye movements, and muscle tension by electrodes that pick up weak electrical signals from the brain, eyes, and facial muscles.
Sleep apnea
Stopping of breathing while asleep; associated with obesity, especially in men. Deprive them of slow wave sleep and can leave them feeling depressed and tired (loud snoring can be a sign)
Narcolepsy
Sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep, usually last about 5 minutes.
skepticism
Supports questions about behavior and mental processes -What do you mean? -How do you know?
normal curve (normal distribution)
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes -picture of normal curve on module 4
Experiment purpose
Test theoretical principles, not recreation of exact everyday life behaviors
Neural activation (function of dreams)
The brain attempts to make sense of neural static by weaving it into a story line.
The Brainstem and Thalamus
The brainstem, including the medulla and pons, is an extension of your spinal cord. The thalamus is attached to its top. The reticular formation passes through both structures.
Inattentional deafness (Inattentional blindness)
Volunteers were given earbuds to listen to recordings of men in one ear and recordings of women speaking in the other. When told to only listen to what the woman was saying, 70% did not hear a man saying over and over 'I'm a gorilla.'
Expectations influence behavior
When people believe that alcohol affects social behavior, believe they are drinking alcohol, they will behave accordingly.
tolerance
With repeated use, the desired effect requires larger doses
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
operant conditioning
a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior
REM sleep (sleep stages)
about an hour after first falling asleep -Rapid Eye Movement -Recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur (repeats about 90min for young adults) -Heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and every half minute your closed eyes dart around in momentary bursts of activity (beginning of dream) -Except during scary dreams, genitals become aroused regardless of dream content. -Brainstem blocks messages to the motor cortex. Sleep paralysis- immobility occasionally lingers as you wake up from REM. -When REM starts, snoring stops. -37% of people report rarely having dreams. However, if awoken during REM sleep, 80% of the time they will remember the dream. -Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. Alpha waves relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Change blindness (Inattentional blindness)
after a brief visual interruption, don't notice a change in the environment
peripheral nervous system
autonomic = automatic (involuntary control of self-regulated action of internal organs and glands) -sympathetic = fight or flight -parasympathetic = calming somatic = voluntary -sensory input -motor output controls skeletal muscles (sympathetic stimulation speeds up heartbeat, and parasympathetic stimulation slows it)
myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
Perceptual isolation
deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses.
NREM-3 slow (sleep stages)
delta waves, deep sleep that you are hard to awaken from (30min)
PET (Positron emission tomography)
depicts brain activity by showing each brain's area's consumption of glucose (chemical fuel), shows "hot spots" for most active brain areas (radioactive glucose)
Change deafness (Inattentional blindness)
fail to notice a change in sound, particularly someone's voice
daydreams
familiar details of our life
behavior genetics (contemporary)
focus on differences related to differing genes and environments
gender psychology (contemporary)
focus on differences; males and females are overwhelmingly similar
evolutionary psychology (contemporary)
focus on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history
cross-cultural psychology (contemporary)
focus on ways culture shapes behavior, but same underlying processes are universal
terminal branches of axon
form junctions with other cells
Cell-phone use (including hands-free) increase accident risk ________, just like drunk driving.
fourfold
fMRI (Functional MRI)
further, reveal the brain's structure and functioning (watches blood flow)
Left hemisphere
good at making quick, exact interpretations of language
Measures of variation
how similar or diverse the scores are compared to the average
auditory cortex
in your temporal lobes—above your ears—receives information from your ears.
Early psychologists focused on...
inner sensations, feelings, and emotions.
Humans cannot rely solely on...
intuition and common sense.
Right hemisphere
making inferences, modulating speech, and facilitating self-awareness
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
axon
passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging)
person's head is put in to a magnetic field which aligns the spinning of brain molecules
Occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Somatosensory cortex
processes information from skin senses and body parts movement (where the messages from the motor cortex go).
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
record brain waves through a shower-cap-like hat
NREM-2 sleep (sleep stages)
relax more deeply and are considered asleep (about 20min, sleep spindles occur)
Crashes or near-crashes increase ________ when dialing or reaching for phone.
sevenfold
NREM-1 sleep (sleep stages)
sleep, transition marked by slowed breathing (when you feel like you're falling)
Popout phenomenon (Inattentional blindness)
some stimuli makes us notice them because they are so strong- they draw our eye and demand our attention
cell body
the cell's life-support center
cognitive neuroscience
ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity.
cerebrum
two cerebral hemispheres contributing 85% of the brain's weight- that form specialized work teams that enable our perceiving, thinking, and speaking.
REM dreams
vivid, emotional, bizarre
Cocktail party effect (selective attention)
your ability to attend to only one voice among many
