Pyschobiology

Direct benefits (Social behaviour and communication)

(immediate effect on survival and reproduction of individuals) •are not generally sufficient to explain the most sophisticated forms of group living involving high levels of altruism Altruism •Behaviour which increases the fitness of the recipient at some cost to the donor Reproductive altruism •is the most extreme form eg molerats & eusocial insects (ants, bees, termites)

Exploring the brain

-As a whole the nervous system takes inputs (senses), performs computations and generates output (behaviours). -So does each part of the nervous system -Different parts of the nervous system perform different computations - so have different functional roles - but they are very interconnected.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

-Autonomic nervous system -Somatic nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS)

-Brain, spinal cord -Computation -things towards the back of spinal cord --> dorsal -towards the stomach --> ventral -brain stem (Midbrain, pons, medulla) -cerebellum -forebrain (Cerebral hemisphere, diencephalon)

Taste aversion learning (Garcia and Koelling, 1966)

Animal has ability to drink sweet water (flavour) and heard a noise and saw bright light (conditioned stimulus) Compound CS •Bright, noisy & Sweetened water US (divided into two groups) •Mild Footshock (immediate discomfort) •X-rays (delayed illness) Test: choice between bright/noise water or sweetened water choice test phase Bottle A- Bright noisy water Bottle B - Sweetened water •Group 1 - immediate fear response- contiguity •Group 2- receive same compound stimuli, showed delayed fear

Language-like abilities in animals

Animals can attach acoustic labels to objects and events (semantics) But little evidence for higher order structure (syntax) - certainly nothing equivalent to Duality of Patterning in humans (where meaningless phonemes are combined into morphemes and words, words combined into sentences)

Other life threatening eating disorders

Anorexia nervosa •a syndrome in which individuals severely deprive themselves of food Bulimia •marked by periodic gorging and purging by vomiting or laxatives Binge eating •gorging with more food than is necessary to satisfy hunger

Cerebellum

-'little brain' -organised structure- laminar -computations- modifies descending commands to make them more adaptive and accurate: balance, procedural memory, motor learning, cognitive functions

Appetite as a motivational system

Appetite as a negative feedback homeostatic system based competitions between hunger and satiety signals: 1.Dedicated drive signals indicating the need for nutrients (hunger) a)Lateral Hypothalamus b)Hormones, e.g., Ghrelin, orexin 2.Dedicated signals relating to food ingestion (satiety) a)Ventral Medial Hypothalamus b)Hormones, e.g., CCK, PYY, Leptin 3.But, signals for food (e.g., smells or tastes) often increase feeding even under food sated conditions a)Stimulation of appetite through taste and smell b)Learned associations - Garcia and Koeling Taste Aversion Experiment (Learning & Memory lecture II) c)These are better understood as positive feedback or Non-regulatory mechanisms.

Classifying emotions

Approaches here vary in the extent to which they accept that there may be a small number of (biological coded) primal emotions: •Social constructionist approaches suggest that emotional responses are constructed to give shape and meaning to a social world •Others, influenced by Darwin, assume that basic emotions can be distinguished, although not often expressed in a 'pure' form. •Paul Ekman (1960's onwards), developed a coding system for facial expressions, with this underlying assumption. •Jaak Panksepp (1970's onwards), worked from with a similar theoretical perspective, though his approach was rooted in neuroscience.

So what about those principles of associative learning?

Association by contiguity? •But little contiguity between taste and illness Arbitrariness? •No learning between taste and shock or click/light and illness Empty organism? •Certain associations are easier established than others •("Preparedness principle"; Seligman 1970) Learning through reinforcement •But latent learning in absence of reinforcement

Taxonomies of memory

Associative versus non-associative L&M 1.Non-associative learning - learning based on repeated experience with a stimulus •Habituation - decrease in effect •Sensitization - increase in effect 2.Associative learning - learning relationships between stimuli, behaviours and/or events •Respondent (Type 1) conditioning •Operant (Type 2) conditioning

Early experiments: Hare et al. (2000- 2001)

Early evidence that chimpanzees can attribute a visual perspective to others Chimpanzees appear to: •know what other individuals do and do not see •can recall what a conspecific has and has not seen in the immediate past

Choice for best mate

In sedge warblers (work by Catchpole & colleagues) Females prefer males who sing more song types (larger song repertoires). These males: •get mates first •are more stimulating to females in lab Evidence that males with large repertoires provide good genes Choice for best mate Detailed features of song also count - female choice for best trill performance in song sparrows: Ballentine (2009)

Relating social systems to mating systems and sexual selection

Mating system affected by •system parental care •defensibility of females (extent to which females economically defensible) Sexual selection affected by •RELATIVE importance of particular physical or behavioural traits in determining breeding success in the two sexes - often more pronounced sexual dimorphism (sex differences) in polygynous breeding systems where males defend access to multiple females

Case study: chimpanzees

Opens a window on differences and similarities humans and animals •Chimps are our closest relatives and we are theirs •Chimps and humans share 96% of their DNA sequence

Hypovolemic thirst

Overall change in volume of water in your body •Loss of extracellular fluid (ECL) levels can induce thirst in the absence of osmotic (salt) changes •The thirst stimulus arises from 2 systems which measure blood pressure -1. in the kidneys -2. in the heart •This combined information stimulates brain sites which leads to drinking

Pavlov's cortical model of learning & memory

Pavlov hypothesized that, when (psychological) connection between the CS and US is conditioned, the area of the cortex activated by the CS becomes physically connected with the activated by the US. •Hypothesis: some sort of connection between auditory part and for food

Synaptic basis of learning and memory

Pavlov's cortical model: formation of (psychological) associations (CS-US) creates new cortical connection

Feeding homesotatic mechanisms

Peptide hormones from the gut and/or adipose tissue-especially the 6 shown here - are carried to the brain where they help regulate appetite and feeding •Insulin- conversion of simple sugars into complex sugars stored in liver, regulates storage of glucose

Hypovolemic thirst (definition)

Thirst that is produced by a loss of overall fluid volume from the body

Osmotic thirst

Thirst that results from an increased concentration of dissolved chemicals in body fluids

Recreational use of drugs

Varied groups of compound including: -Nicotine -Alcohol -hallucinogens -cannabis -psychostimulants (e.g. cocaine) -opiates •widespread in human cultures •use is frequently associated with issues such as addiction, tolerance, dependence and withdrawal

Abilities to label social relationships

are also evident in some species and this is one of the contexts in which labelling may have been selected for •In response to playback of an infant's scream, group members look towards the infant's mother •First demonstrated by Cheney & Seyfarth in vervet monkeys •Also occurs in macaques and baboons

Female versicolor

avoid males with high pulse rate in low temperature and vice versa

Cell body

contains nucleus and other organelles for making proteins

dendrite

greatly increases surface area and collects information from other cells

Referential signalling

signals to functionally denote external object and events Meerkats both referential and response urgency

Axon

single fibre of a neuron that carries messages to other neurons

Effects of TMS during a reaching task

• As you produce the contraction, the rate at which motor neuron is firing out the cortex, it is sensitive to feedback that you get can show this by TMS, can show that the interference with the action is getting stronger the close the action is being terminated • Good feedback control of movement • Deliver low amplitude transcortical magnetic stimulation (TMS) to motor cortical hand region at different points during the reach sequence. Disrupts neuronal firing. • Muscles involved in grasp become more sensitive in late stages - probably additive effect with the increased sensitivity of cortical cells to tactile input.

Homeostasis and negative feedback

•Early ideas about motivation applied the idea of negative feedback developed in physical systems (like thermostats) to behaviour •Negative feedback = a process whereby the effect produced by an action serves to diminish or terminate that action.

The action potential in detail

•Early phase: sodium (Na+) enters, the axon depolarises. •Late phase: potassium (K+) leaves, the axon repolarises, and briefly hyperpolarises (refractory period). •If GABA also hyperpolarises (negative ions outside to inside) the cell, this will make action potentials less likely - an 'inhibitory' effect -Going to make postsynaptic membrane to produce action potential -Inhibitory effect

Ghrelin and orexin Peripheral hunger signals?

•Ghrelin and orexins are recently-identified peptide hormones secreted in the gut and from adipos tissue + hypothalamus, respectively -Orexin and Ghrelin administration increase hunger •These peptides could be dedicated hunger signals?

Structural basis of memory?

•Golgi silver stain •identifies neurons •Cajal proposed that structural/morphological changes store memories •e.g., the formation of new synapses, growth of dendritic processes (branches and spines)

Appeasement & reconciliation after fights achieved through

•Grooming-enables individuals to maintain bonds , non human primate of gossip •Vocal signals: the importance of vocalisations in facilitating social living generally

Amphetamine

•Has some clinical uses (e.g. ADHD, narcolepsy) but also, at higher doses, used recreationally. Was also widely used as a decongestant (benzedrine inhaler). •Enhances dopamine release and reduces reuptake.

Measuring taste hedonics in humans and rats? Neurobiology behind feeding (Kent Berridge)

•He can closely monitor mouth movements •His point is that when you look at species/humans, they show similar mouth movements when seeing something pleasurable •Child example- sweet- lip licking same in rats / bitter- same in rats and children •Responses human infants -To sucrose very hedonic responses -Water- neutral -Sour, you get aversive response •Responses Rats -Sucrose- hedonic responses -Salt- hedonic -Sour- aversive •We can measure pleasure in rats

Dedicated memory storage areas of the brain

•Hippocampus - declarative and spatial memories (e.g., review case of H.M.) •Cerebellum - procedural memories (simple Pavlovian associations) •Amygdala - emotional memories - Pavlovian associations •Frontal cortex - short-term/working memory

Dualist hypothesis

•How the mind controls the body •Descartes suggested that the mind resides in the pineal gland, where it directs the flow of fluid through the ventricles and into the body to investigate •objects and to become informed about their properties

Large potential functional benefits if deceptive act performed with understanding of outcome - particularly mental state understanding

•However, thought bubble isn't necessary to explain this behaviour - may be the result of associative learning •Key issue is distinguishing understanding another's behaviour from understanding another's mind

Key points of human evolutionary psychology

•Human behaviour per se was not designed by selection, instead most human behaviour is the product of the interaction of multiple psychological mechanisms - and, over the course of our evolutionary history, these mechanisms would have been shaped by selection •Our behaviour is influenced by biological predispositions AND the social environment (cultural influences/social learning crucial) - ignoring social environment would be a logical error, and so would ignoring the influence of genetics and evolutionary history - balanced, critical, approach necessary •As our environment has changed, psychological traits originally selected for may be of little or no adaptive value now (could even be detrimental) •Human behaviour is uniquely flexible and most aspects of it are under conscious control

Regulation of body-temperature

•Humans (and all other endotherms) generate heat by metabolism •Sensors: Cells in the Pre-Optic Area of the Hypothalamus sense brain temperature & we have thermal sensors throughout our periphery •The Hypothalamus controls physiological & behavioural responses to regulate temperature

Contrasting ideas on why humans are social

•Humans primarily selfish, solitary and aggressive, but enter into a social contract to curb their naturally selfish instincts •Group living benefits individuals, so that behaviours which facilitate group living are favoured Mark the evolutionary explanation

Need to be extremely wary when attempting to apply evolutionary principles to human behaviour

•Hunter gathers for 96% of our history •Humans no longer live in the environment in which most of our evolution would have taken place - in very recent history (particularly last 10,000 years) we have made huge changes in many aspects of our lives (agriculture, industry)

Angiotensin & drinking

•Hypovolemia causes the release of the enzyme renin from the kidneys •Renin converts a blood-borne molecule (angiotensinogen) into angiotensin •Angiotensin stimulates pituitary and kidneys to release hormone to conserve water and salt •Increase blood pressure by vasoconstriction •Stimulates drinking by binding on receptors in the Subfornical Organ (SFO) •Water retention by kidney via calcium uptake and vasopressin •Retention of calcium by kidney via aldosterone •Salt appetite •Increased drinking via subfornical organ

How a heating system works!

•If temperature in room goes above thermostatic set point --> system switches off, heater system goes off, decreases heat and reduces temperature of room •--> negative feedback •if temperature increase --> decreases

Papez circuit: a functional model

•In Le Doux's version of Papez's circuit the cingulate cortex integrates signals from hypothalamus and sensory cortex. •Emotional, conscious feeling •Hypothalamus important producing responses we make to that emotional stimulus

Hormones, neurotransmitters and receptors

•Left - the standard mechanism in which binding to a cell surface receptor stimulates intracellular production of a second messenger. •Right - steroids can directly penetrate the cell membrane (fat soluble) and act on intracellular receptors, though they also interact with cell surface receptors •Steroid dissolve through cell membrane and move into nucleus and bind with receptors there and have direct effect on which genes will be expressed

Brain areas in involved in taste pleasure and feeding.

•Opioid systems in nucleus accumbacne, opioid receptors, if you inject opioid animals have higher pleasure they get from food •GABA systems are involved •Cannabinoid systems involved- increase pleasured derived from foods

Facial action coding systems in humans and chimps (FACS)

•Originally developed for humans by Ekman & Friesen Parr et al., 2007 •Action units in human & chimp face •Convergence of action units involved in particular expressions •Muscles action units that causes these facial expression in chimpanzees have strong parallel to those in humans

Synthetic cannabinoids

•Originated in the work of John Huffman who synthesised a range of compounds, some acting as full agonists (e.g. JWH-018) with high affinity and efficacy. •By comparison, ∆9-THC has high affinity but lower efficacy and is a partial agonist. •Others have synthesised antagonists with high affinity (stickiness to a receptor), but negligible efficacy (the extent to which the drug is able to activate the mechanism that the receptor works through) (e.g. rimonabant, the failed appetite suppressant). •Full agonist - produces maximal stimulation of the target at higher doses. •Partial agonist - produces a smaller effect than a full agonists, even at higher doses, and can compete with a full agonist, reducing it's effect. •Antagonist - produces a negligible effect regardless of dose, and also, by competition at the receptor, reduces the effect of partial and full agonists.

Neural circuits for 'fear'

•Outputs from the amygdala can modulate different aspects of fear, including autonomic symptoms (blood pressure heart rate), hormonal changes (increased adrenalin, cortisol) and processing of fear-related stimuli.

Panksepps's emotional arousal systems

•Panksepp's approach has given rise to the field of affective neuroscience. •Around fear, panic, seeking, rage and components associated with these •Derived from understanding the underlying neural rather than behavioural classification

Hypothalamo-pituitary Axis (HPA)

•Pituitary gland- hanging belong the brain •Pituarity gland is made up of posterior (downgrowth of brian tissue) anterior (upgrowth from primitive gut tissue) •Through the stalk, run important set of communication: portal system and axon from neurons tat run down and have nerve endings within the posterior pituarity •In terms of stress responsenses, hormones ACTH (produced by anterior gland) does that under the influence of another hormone CRH hormone (released from cell body of neurons that innovate this portal blood supply) •CRH carried from where released and carried down into the cells of the anterior •Double mechanism from brain from producing CRH to pituarty releasing ACTH •With these neurons that run down to anterior, here you get release of other kinds og hormones into blood stream •ACTH release into general blood stream from anterior, circulates around body and acts on receptors that are present in adrenal gland , which sits ontop of the kidney

Brain-reward self-stimulation (BRS) (Intracranial self-stimulation, ICSS)

•Placing electrode into adjacent region, heavily related to dopamine activation and its relation to reward •Using these experiments, animals went crazy when pressing the lever •Rat is willing to pay a high price to get a reward, just like human addict

Seminar reading (feeding homeostatic)

•Planted electrodes into nucleus acucmbance to alleviate some symptoms of depression

Breast feeding as anticipation

•Prior to 3 months, babies take large breast feeds first thing in the morning (feed on need) •At around 3-6 months they switch to a large feed last thing at night •This large meal anticipates the relative difficulty of obtaining night-feeds

Sexual selection:

•Process by which secondary sexual traits become elaborated because they increase the owners ability to gain mates •First coined by Darwin to explain the evolution of apparently extravagant characteristics that didn't enhance survival •Arises not from struggle for existence but from struggle for possession of mates •Genetic life or death is the key element of evolutionary theory

Mesolimbic dopamine system

•Projections coming from midbrain (VTA and substantial nigra) and sends projections neurons that project to the nucleus accumbance in the forebrain •Is this system involved in food? •Nigrostriatal , mesolimbic and mesocortical (projection to nucleus accumbance) release dopamine

Stress and response to painful stimuli

•Projections from cortical, amygdala via hypothalamus down to brain stem to pariactel grey, neurons activate RVM, which produces axon that reach to down to the dorsal horn of spinal cord •Neurons release neurotransmitter (serotonin) onto synapses that are processing the information and turn off the onward projection within the nervous system •Stress is able to block pain down to the spinal level •Acute stressors (including painful stimuli) induce an 'analgesic' effect that involves suppression of incoming 'nociceptive' information. •This process involves the release of endogenous opioid peptides and monoamines, among other neurochemical mechanisms. Different types of stress activate different mechanisms e.g. a cold water swim and a skin inflammatory response both evoke an analgesic response, but with different underlying neurochemistry.

Blood brain barrier

•Protects that brains ionic balance and denies neurochemicals from the rest of the body passage into the brain where they can dirupt communication between neurons •It protects brain from hormones and toxic and infectious substances •Cells of capillary walls lacks a blood-brain barrier

Garcia effect: Learned preference

•Rats that received shock avoided the bright/noisy water •Rats that became ill following X-ray avoided the flavoured water •Tells us what we like or what we don't like (pleasure) •Example how we have certain preference fore foods independent of nucleus accumbence

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

•Recording from neuron •Applied tetanus, lots of electricity to pre synaptic voltage rapid stimulation •Now high activation •When recorded same way original neurons, this neuron became more active •Originally not very responsive, high stimulation neuron more active •Long lasting changes in hippocampal synaptic efficacy following high frequency (tetanic) stimulation

Mesolimbic dopamine system activation and reward

•The meso-limbic dopamine system may also be activated by a wide range of natural rewards - even those with a strong cognitive element. •An imaging study showed that the 'funny' cartoons evoked laughter, activation of motor areas, other cortical areas and also the ventral striatum, part of the mesolimbic dopamine system.

Could rats be capable of empathy?

•Learn to open door to release a trapped rat from container •When faced with 2 containers, one with trapped rat and one with chocolate chips, subjects opened both containers and shared the food (prosocial behaviour). •Not just seeking company, will release the trapped rat into a separate cage •Particularly interesting as this is not empathic distress, rats overcome any fear they pick up from alarm calls of trapped companion and act prosocially

Operant conditioning

•Learning association between behaviour and consequences •Ubiquitous - all species show operant learning •Learning based on positive or negative consequences •Behaviours shaped by schedules of reinforcement •Thorndike and Skinner: all learning is instrumental/operant conditioning? •Behaviourist revolution - anti-mentalism

Associative learning

•Learning associations between stimuli/events •Learning associations between actions and stimuli/events

Instrumental/operant conditioning (Burrhus F. Skinner, 1904-1990)

•Learning of adaptive behaviour -Through experience of success, failure •Organism operates on the environment -Behavior changes the environment •Behavior is instrumental -Obtains desired effect •Associations between response and outcome (R-O learning)

The study of associative learning

•Learning that certain relations exist with stimuli/events

Limbic system (learning)

•Learning, motivation and emotions are inextricably related •Limbic meaning boarder •Moving concepts- structures added and taken out •Determining our motivating behaviour and in varies types of learning

Tolman's Latent learning effect

•always reinforced- first time they do it takes long time but next time they get better at it •never reinforced (control)- when reached gold box- got nothing- they don't get better •reinforced after day 10- after 10 days the started learning savings and learning •you don't need reinforcement to learn

Reaching for the box: Penfield's 'motor homunculus

•as mapped by electrical stimulation of the human motor cortex. This area lies at the back of the frontal cortex, adjacent to the central sulcus. •Output of motor cortex •Axon from motor cortex project directly through pyramidal track down to spinal cord and innovate the motor neurons that run out to the muscles that control the hand

Possible to identify emotional faces in chimps

•based on the action of particular groups of muscles •Baredteeth, Relaxed open mouth / playface, Scream, Panthoot, Pout, Stretch pout whimper, Alert face

Food specific visual & auditory cues (CS+) enhance feeding in children

•bell/food •Look at whether bell increase feeding •Kids were eating in cafeteria (favorite foods) and in background was music/lightning changes •At some lunch break they stopped eating and now they back with music •That when played music and other stimuli associated with favourite food they ate again and ate more and quicker

Benzodiazepines and the GABAA receptor

•binding site, allow negative chloride ions passing out from in, when GABA acts •also have other sides- benzodiaziepine -enhances action of GABA •Here you can see how the receptor is constructed from a series of subunits. •A benzodiazepine enhances the effect of GABA but •has 'no' effect by itself. •The GABAA receptor also has (separate) binding sites for alcohol and barbiturates. -Magnify effects of benzodiazepine when bind

Components of emotion

•triggered by events of some significance / relevance •encompasses a co-ordinated set of changes in brain and body •appear adaptive in that directed towards coping with challenge posed by triggering event •have onset, dynamic course and offset (in contrast with moods) Relevant dimensions •Level of arousal Valence (positive or negative

Laughter in great apes and humans

•very similar characteristics (eg, Davila Ross et al., 2009) •similarities in facial expression and acoustic Laughter in rats? •When rats play they emit trains of high frequency (50kHz) chirps - also induced when tickled by humans (Panksepp 2005)

Blood Supply

−Brain needs lots of energy (20% of body energy when calm) −Therefore has a specialized blood supply to get oxygen −Blood vessels dilate locally and transport blood to areas −Stroke: blocked cerebral blood vessels starve the area fed by that vessel. −brain is highly vascularized - dense network of blood vessels that feed it with oxygen and glucose −brain can regulate its blood supply −means increase in regional brain activity increases blood supply to that region. −this increase in the blood supply is the basis of the signal detected using functional MRI. So these studies don't directly measure neuronal activity - but are a surrogate measure. −Collateral flow

Medualla

−Lots of connections pass through medulla on way up to and down from brain −Nuclei (collections of cell bodies) −Computations: regulate many autonomic functions. -Eg. Breathing, heart rate, vomiting, sneezing

Connections between brain areas

−MRI can be used to reconstruct white matter tracts - the connections between brain areas. −MRI follow diffusion of water −Brain regions are highly connected to each other- point to remember when thinking about where a certain function is carried out- it is performed by a neuronal circuit that often takes in several different brain areas. −See this with neuropsychology experiments where damage to lots of different brain regions impairs a function, e.g. Memory - hippocampus, mammillary bodies. −Also while different brain regions do carry out specific functions, they need these inputs and outputs to perform these computations correctly. −Stroke not only damage brain areas but the connections between brain areas −but part of the symptoms can be caused by damage to the white matter connecting parietal and frontal and temporal regions than just the grey matter

Cells

perform different functions, largely because of the different proteins they express

Intra-sexual competition

competition between members of the same sex over mates

The principle of homeostasis

A number of physiological variables must be maintained within narrow limits for the body to function: -Temperature -Hydration - Drinking -Nutrients - Feeding

Components of a homeostatic "system"

1.System variable: variable controlled by systems (e.g., temp, hydration, nutrients) 2.Set-point: the desired level of a variable 3.Sensor: a mechanism for measuring the variable (ex. Thermometer) 4.Effector system: behavioural /physiological mechanism(s) to change variable and restore homeostasis

What is motivation

"Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences" "Mentalistic terms associated with reinforcers and with the states in which reinforcers are effective make it difficult to spot functional relations". --> Environmental control over behaviour hunger, thirst, drive

Skinner's Operant Behaviorism

"Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences" •Reinforcer •Positive reinforcer •Negative reinforcer •Punishment •Omission

Proteins

-Chains of amino acids -Coded by DNA -Different sorts of proteins e.g. -Controlling gene expression -Making things (e.g. ATP - energy substrate) -Channels

Currents flow down nerves as a wave of charge movement

-Charged particles don't flow far along a nerve when stimulated -Instead charge flows across the cell's membrane. -This current changes the voltage across the membrane -This voltage change propagates along the axon, like a wave - this is the action potential.

Ventricles

-Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) -CSF bathes and cushions brain -CSF produced from cells that line the ventricles (ependymal cells) -Fluid filled chambers within the brain. -Volumes of fluid within brain -CSF circulates around brain - between the membranes (meninges) that surround the brain and along large blood vessels as well as through the ventricles. -CSF also fills the small extracellular space around neurons. -CSF cushions the brain from impacts to the head, but also clears the brain of unwanted products such as broken down proteins. E.g. beta amyloid. Which is flushed out and cleared into blood vessels.

LH lesions decrease feeding and weight

-Damage to lateral hypothalamus (LH) causes a large decrease in feeding (aphagia) & reduced body size - Hunger center -Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) has opposite effect by increasing feeding (hyperphagia) - Satiety center -Recent work shows that the LH contains glucose receptors (along with the liver)

Somatic nervous system

-External environment -Touch -Motor neurons making legs/arm move -Nerve comes into spinal cord, bundles of neurons coming in at different levels -Different levels map ontop different parts of body --> dermatomes -Motor neurons- send projections out to nerves

Conduction in nerves is slow vs. wires

-Hermann von Helmholtz (1849) - measured speed of nerve conduction by stimulating frog sciatic nerve and measuring time to constrict muscle. -Nerve conduction ~ 30-40 m/s, 1 million times slower than electricity flows down a wire. -When he stimulate the sciatic nerve at different places it constricted differently -He could measure how fast electricity was conducted down the nerve

Thalamus

-Information hub- relays ascending and descending information from widespread brain areas -Computations: eg. Vision- first binocular processing, memory, motor control , sensation

Autonomic nervous system

-Internal environment -Sensory neurons give some non specific information -Motor neurons give more information -Sympathetic divdision -Fight or flight -Parasympathetic division -Rest and digest

Pons

-Lots of connections (tracts) pass through pons -eg. Spinl cord to thalamus, forebrain to cerebellum -Lots of nuclei -Computations: eg. Auditory processing, breathing rate, arousal state, sleep -Periaqueductal grey: pain modulation, freezing behaviour

Neurons

-Neurons - key information-transmitting brain cell. Transmit and process information using electrical signals. -Lots of different shapes and sizes - suggests different function. But all have dendrites, soma, axon etc. -Information goes into dendrites, get integrated at the soma, signal passed to axon hillock, which makes decision whether to send signal or not, output sent onto axon terminal

Concentration gradient

-Outside the cell: lots of sodium (Na+; positively charged), lots of chloride (negatively charged; Cl-), some calcium (Ca2+) -High concentration of sodium and chloride -Inside the cell: lots of proteins (negatively charged), lots of potassium (K+) But there are some holes in the membrane -Eg. Potassium channel -Only lets potassium through -Let's some potassium leave the cell and go outside the sell -Positive charges left the inside -So negative potential inside relative to the outside -Electrical gradient: now the inside is negative relative to the outside -Stops more potassium leaving the cell -When inside of the cell becomes negative, because potassium is positive, it is attracted inside the cell --70 mV

Hypothalamus

-Regulates several homeostatic processes such as feeding and drinking -Links to brain to endocrine system (hormones) -Computations: include regulation of stress, metabolism, growth, reproduction, immune and traditional autonomic responses

Ohms Law

-The amount of current that flows depends on how much potential there is (how much stored energy - how big is the battery?) and how easy it is for the current to flow through the circuit -Current (charge per second or amps) = potential (volts) x conductance -Current = potential / resistance -Conductor - charge can flow through the material

Midbrain

-lots of tracts on their way through from other strucutres Computations: -Superior colliculus: orientating, directing behaviour -VTA: involved in reward expectancy, motivation

Propagation of nerve impulses

-nerve impulse is an action potential that travels along axon -there is an action potential whenever a part of the axon reaches the threshold potential of -50mV - an action potential in one part of the axon triggers an action potential in the next part (propagation of nerve impulse) -due to diffusion of sodium ions between a region with an action potential and the next region that is still at the resting potential -diffusion of sodium ions long axon, both inside and outside is called local currents -it changes the voltage across membrane from resting potential of -70mV to the threshold potential -50mV -this causes an action potential, because voltage-gated sodium channels open

Californian ground squirel

-response urgency signalling

A symptom centered model

-suggests that drugs, such as anxiolytics and anti-depressants, produce specific changes in aspects of mood, motivation and cognition that make a condition, such as clinical anxiety, less disabling. -But there is no necessary assumption that the pharmacological effect of the drug 'reverses' some pre-existing neurochemical abnormality.

The origins of emotional response

1. Folk Psychology 2. The James-Lange Theory

Glia

1. Astrocytes -wrap processes around neurons -contact blood vessels. -Lots of supportive roles -Surround synapses -Signaling results 2. oligodendrocytes -wrap myelin sheath around axon to insulate the axon -allow impulses to travel faster -myelin sheath allows signal to travel faster 3. Microglia -the brain's resident immune cell -processes that are consistently moving -surveys brain for infection or damage and gobbles up damaged tissue or infection

Sources of energy

1. Carbohydrates (Saccharides): ~4 kcal* per gram, carbs get converted to glucose and provide principle source of energy. Storable form of carbohydrates are called glycogens: stored in liver and muscles - short term storage (non-essential) 2.Amino Acids (Protein): ~4 kcal per gram. Comes from proteins, basic building blocks for all cells. 20 amino acids, 9 cannot be produced by body = essential amino acids. Amino acids can be converted to glucose. 3.Lipids (Fats): ~9 kcal per gram. Long term energy storage. Fats can be converted to free fatty acids as alternate energy source (essential). Cell membranes are made from fats 4.Vitamins and Minerals: needed to assist in bodily functions (digestion, cell building, homeostasis, etc.) (essential) glucose is primary 'fuel' for the body

Drug action at synapse

1.Synstheiss of the neurotransmitter can take place in the cell body or axon 2.Storage of the neurotransmitter in granules or in versicles or both 3.Release of the transmitter from the terminals presynaptic membrane into the synapse 4.Receptor interaction in the postsynaptic membrane, as the transmitter acts on an embedded receptor 5.Inactivation of excess neutransmitter at the synapse 6.Reuptake into the presynaptic terminal for reuse 7.Degradation of excess neurotransmitter by synaptic mehcanisms and removal of unneeded by products from the synapse

Oscilloscope traces

1. axon membrane is at a resting potential of -70mV and then rises to the threshold potential of -50mV, either due to local currents of binding of neurotransmitters 2. membrane depolarises due to voltage gated calcium channels opening and calcium ions diffusing in 3. membrane repolarises due to volateg gates potassium channels openning and potassium ions diffusion in 4. membrane returuns to resting potential due to pumping of calcium ions out and potassium ions into the axon 5- this rebuilds concentration gradients so another action potential can occur

Brain cell types

1. neurons 2. glia 3. blood vessels

Resting potential (book)

1. resting potential is the voltage across the membrane of a neuron when its not conducting a nerve impulse 2. there are sodium/potassium pumps in membrane of axon 3. pump sodium out and potassium in (active transport) 4. concentration gradients of sodium and potassium are established 5. inside of neuron develops negative charge compared with the outside 6. therefore there is a potential across the membrane --> resting potential at -70mV

Anecdotes of tactical deception described by primatologists (compiled by Whiten & Byrne):

1.Concealment 2.Distraction 3.Creating an image 4.Manipulation of target using social tool 5.Deflection of target to a fall guy 6.Countering of deception Concealment & distraction were most commonly reported types of deception in primates; 3-6 were more common baboons and chimpanzees than in any other primates. many of these categories would be connected with the manipulation and monitoring of visual attention But anecdotes aren't sufficient to demonstrate intentional deception - ie deception that involves manipulation of another individual's mental state

Sensory motor integration key points

1.Even the simplest voluntary action is likely to require the integrated action of a large number of brain areas and systems. 2.Visual information projects via retina and lateral geniculate to visual cortex and then on to at least two processing streams (dorsal and ventral). 3.Motor responses involve coordinated action of cortex and striatum (CSTC loops) as well as cerebellum. 4.Reward or reinforcement related processes also provide an important component of the planning and execution of action.

Recreational drug key points

1.Key components of any definition of addiction are 'loss of control' and 'compulsive use. 2.A wide range of psychoactive compounds are associated with addiction, and in every case, interact with one, or more, brain neurotransmitter systems. 3.Brain dopamine systems, in particular the mesolimbic dopamine system, are one component of the mechanisms underlying reward and reinforcement. 4.'Wanting' and 'liking' may change during the development of an addiction, with long term changes in brain function and structure underlying enhanced 'wanting' and relapse.

The role of dopamine in reward

1.Rats show pleasure responses and will drink sweet but not bitter solutions. 2.Depleting dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (selective lesions of dopamine neurons) makes rats aphagic but does not change taste pleasure (it wont eat/drink and eventually die) iShows that wanting is not the same thing as liking things, sometimes that addicts may be taking drugs bevause of wanting and not liking due to the different brain systems •Wanting is dependent on dopamine

Ten principles of the nervous system function

1.The nervous sytem produces movement within a perceptual world the brain creates 2.The hallmark of nervous system functioning is neuroplasticity 3.Many of the brains circuits are crossed 4.The central nervous system functions on multiple levels 5.The brain is both symmetrical and asymmetrical 6.Brain systems are organized both hierachially and in parallel 7.Sensory and motor divisions exist throughout the nervous system 8.Sensory input to the bran is divided for object recognition and motor control 9.Functions in the brain are both localized and distributed 10.The nervous system works by juxtaposing excitation and inhibition

What are emotions for?

A biological perspective suggests that they have evolved through natural selection: •Allow coordination/organization of responses to environmental challenges. A 'fear system' helps coordinate the various behavioural and physiological responses to a threatening stimulus, •A basis for social communication, especially through facial expressions and body posture, •A component of the neural mechanisms that support conscious evaluation and appraisal of a situation. The first of these may be ancient in evolutionary terms.

Hope of psychopharmacological treatment

A disease-centered model A symptom centered model

Principle of Mass action:

Ability to learn is proportional to the amount of cortex available

learned taste aversion

Acquired association between a specific taste and illness leads to an aversion to food to have the taste

Principles of Respondent Conditioning ("The associationists")

Acquisition when CS-US reinforcement (DVs) •Magnitude of conditioned response •Probability of conditioned response

Overweight and obesity trends

Adult obvesity in the US and Uk • About 60 million adults, or 30 percent of the adult population, are now obese, which represents a doubling of the rate since 1980. • At least 60% of adults in the UK are overweight, 20% are considered obese (BMI > 30) • Over 30,000 deaths a year are caused by obesity in England alone. • Disruption of biological control systems is though to a major factor • Social & cultural factors play a major role in development of eating disorders

Drug treatment of anxiety

Alcohol -self medication for anxiety barbiturates, mepobromate -have a low therapeutic index and act in a relatively non-specific way. Induce tolerance and dependence. -Become tolerant (when dose to get same effect increases with time) to the effect of the drug -When stopping drug, side effects similar to the ones you had before taking drug benzodiazepines - drugs such as valium. -There is evidence for a specific anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) effect and they are substantially safer than barbiturates in overdose. -Used for a number of other clinical conditions. -Initially thought not to induce dependence but now major problem -Issue of tolerance Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors -the first line pharmacological treatment (NICE guidelines 2011) for many anxiety disorders, including General Anxiety disorder (GAD), although they do have a delayed onset of action

Principle of Equipotentiality:

All cortical regions can mediate learning equally

Functions of learning & memory

Allows for adaptations in behaviour within individual lifetime •Non-associative learning -Learning that stimuli exist in the world •Associative learning -Learning associations between stimuli/events -Learning association between actions and stimuli/events

Allele

Alternate form of a gene: a gene pair contains two alleles

Papez circuit and memory

Although the Papez circuit is usually associated with emotion it is also heavily implicated in memory. Emotions are elaborated in response to past experience and stimulus from the environment •Hippocampus associated with special functioning, within the hippocampus there are different types of cell (plate cell), response when animal is in a particular space •Black - where rat has been over the past minutes •Red- responding of individual place cell in hippocampus, only fires when animal is in particular space

Differential effects of hippocampal and amygdala lesions on fear conditioning

Amygdala lesions abolish both specific CS and contextual conditioning whereas the hippocampal lesion effects are confined to context. The cortical lesion is a general control for the effects of surgery, and has no effect. •Exposed and cortex lesion the animal freezes •Amygdala abolishes the simple conditions to specific and contextual and hippocampus only affects contextual condition

'Liking' modified by opioids in nucleus accumbens

An opioid agonist only enhances hedonic responses to sweet (red) in some areas, but suppresses aversive responses to bitter (blue) in others. •Ingestive response •Shows opioid peptides (stimulating opioid system) is able to stimulate hedonic response and ingestive responses •Other areas behind accumbens you generate aversive responses --> Specific brain areas involved in emotional processing and output

Klüver_bucy syndrome

Behavioural syndrome, characterized especially by hypersexuality, that results from bilateral injury to the temporal lobe

Darwin, James and the origins of emotional responses

Both Charles Darwin and William James wrote of the role that facial expression might have a role in leading to, or amplifying emotional responses: •The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand its repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions. He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree. (Darwin 1872, The Expression of the Emotions in Animals and Man - p. 365, Chicago Press edition 1965). •Refuse to express a passion and it dies ... If we wish to conquer undesirable emotional tendencies in ourselves, we must assiduously, and in the first instance, go through the outward movements of those contrary dispositions which we prefer to cultivate. (James 1890 Priniciples of Psychology p. 463).

Sexual displays

Bring sexes together for mating and influence outcome of: •intra-sexual competition •inter-sexual choice Information is transferred via signals (and more static cues) that may be visual, acoustic or olfactory (chemical/ pheromonal)

Cellular Basis of memory- Neurogenesis

Creating Novel Circuits Predominant view prior to the mid-1990s: •The mammalian brain does not make new neurons in adulthood There is some evidence that neurogenesis does occur in the mammalian brain •Olfactory bulb, hippocampal formation, and possibly the neocortex •Reason for neurogenesis is still unclear

Cannon and Bard's objections to the James-Lange model

Cannon (a student of William James) and Bard made a five broad criticisms of the James-Lange model during the 1920's and 1930's: 1.Disconnection of the viscera from brain does not disturb emotional experience (both experimental and clinical evidence)- ex. adrenal gland 2.The same visceral changes occur in diverse emotional and non-emotional states- can have high heart race when exercising but not having any emotional response 3.Viscera are 'poorly' innervated. 4.Visceral changes are too slow to be the direct source of emotional experiences 5.'Artificial' induction of visceral responses does not lead to specific emotional experiences. Powerful criticisms, which were highly influential for several decades. But the James-Lange hypothesis survived

Cerebrum

Cerebral cortex -Computations: include sensation, movement, decision making -Sub-cortical strucutres- hippocampus, basal ganglia, amygdala, olfactory bulb -6 layers of cell- sparseness defines layers -sensory cortex has a white layer- sensory information coming in from peripheral/thalamus -in layers where sending out information to other parts of brain/spinal cord, they are bigger in motor cortex, as main function of motor cortex is to send out

Language animals (evidence for language)

Chimpanzee •lexicon keyboard to communicate captive dolphin •labels to objects Parrot •labelling things, counting, naming colours

The 'somatic marker hypothesis' revisited

Clinical evidence using the Iowa gambling task indicates the importance of frontal cortex and amygdala in emotion-related decision making. Participants with damage to either prefrontal cortex or amygdala are impaired in acquiring the task, and also show no anticipatory SCRs. •Skin reductions change when exposed to excessive cards •Shows in people who have damage to amygdala or to the prefrontal cortex area, that the way in which the selection of cards develops over time is impaired •We don't see those anticipatory changes in skin redactors in those groups- loss of correlative emotional response However on a simple aversive classical conditioning task VMF and amygdala damage produce different effects on skin conductance - almost entirely absent in the amygdala group. •Habituation - one of four slides (different colours) presented •Conditioning - blue slides followed by very loud noise (foghorn) •Extinction 1 and 2 - blue slides without noise. Skin conductor change which is marked during initial condition but during extinction (previous stimulus is presented without) the skin redactor changes and gradually goes away Conclusion here is that frontal cortex has an important role in decision making and the consequent emotional response, but not in simple 'fear' or aversive conditioning. Consistent with animal evidence.

Gene

DNA segment that encodes the synthesis of a particular protein

Hippocampus

Computations: -Associative learning, spa6al memory and representation

Basal Ganglia

Computations: -Coordinating movement (via dorsal striatum), and motivated behaviour (via ventral striatum)

Amygdala

Computations: -emotional learning, especially fear conditioning

Darwin (1872) The expression of emotion in man and animals

Darwin applied remarkably acute observation to study the facial and bodily expressions of cats, dogs and infants Human facial expressions •Darwin recognised that human facial expressions had a common evolutionary origin with non-human primates and were largely innate •Paul Ekman identified the basic emotions in human facial expressions using photographs to study understanding of emotion in different communities: Universality in human facial expressions first proposed by Darwin - and later demonstrated by Paul Ekman & colleagues. These are photos from Ekman's study in an isolated community in New Guinea; same associations made with different expressions except fear and surprise not well differentiated : •Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness, sadness

Darwin (1872) 'The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals'

Darwin emphasized the importance of emotional expression as communication. He also introduced ratings by naive observers as a method of identifying emotional expressions. •Show people pictures that they are naïve to Many of the expressions illustrated in Darwin's text were produced by 'galvanism' - direct electrical stimulation of muscles such as the platysma which runs from cheek down to neck. •Darwin interested in how contraction of different muscles make different expressions •Have participant with relevant electrodes to muscles

Adapted from Daly & Wilson

Data from Hamilton-Wentworth (Canada) •For pre-school children, risk of being on child abuse register (where abuse defined as care that is so poor or unreliable as to imperil the child) is x40 greater in homes with one natural & one step-parent than in homes with two natural parents •Various criticisms can be levelled at these results but the findings seem to be very consistent across studies •Also - importantly, this pattern seems to be cross-cultural eg, Ache of Paraguay 43% mortality in step-children

To explain WHY group living occurs need to explain how it enhances individual survival & reproduction

Direct benefits •Lower probability of individuals being killed by predators (primarily shared vigilance & dilution effects (only one in a group) and co-operative defence) •Better at finding & capturing food •Improved competitive ability -females in groups more successful •improved success at rearing own young (for dominant individuals - help from delayed breeders or non-reproductives)

Social behaviour in humans -Reciprocal altruism

Direct reciprocity appears rare in animals •Even examples in olive baboons and vampire bats now disputed Common in Humans •recognition of alliance partners •governed by well-defined rules •defection/punishment if alliance partner cheats •status affected by reputation •altruistic behaviours in general are obviously under conscious control

Other animals with interesting cognitive abilities:

Domestic dogs: Hare, Miklosi, Call and others •Dogs perform better than primates at using human social cues (gaze direction and pointing) to find hidden food (object choice paradigm)- this ability is present in puppies (originally thought not in wolves but recent evidence that hand reared wolves do respond to such cues) •Dogs are also highly sensitive to attentional states in humans •But whether or not these abilities are the result of associative learning or mental state understanding remains to be seen Horses have cognitively rich representations for social companions & humans containing information from multiple modalities - mental pictures?

Omission

Elimination of positive reinforcer decreases the likelihood of preceding behaviour

Emotion, motivation and learning

Emotion and motivation refer, in general, to behavioural states that are reversible, but influence ongoing behaviour. Learning is generally restricted to behavioural changes that are relatively permanent in nature. Once a response is conditioned then, even after long periods of time or some active 'extinction' procedure, it will still be possible to reveal traces of the original learning. Motivation usually refers to changes in behavioural states that are 'regulatory' in nature (e.g. hunger, thirst), whereas emotion typically refers to changes in behavioural states that are non-regulatory, often reflecting threats or opportunities presented by the local environment.

Key studies of chimpanzees

Essential to have long-term studies of the behaviour of INDIVIDUALS •Gombe •Mahale •Kibale •Bossou •Tai Forest

Relationship between number of vocalisation types (vocal repertoire) and social living across primate species:

Evolutionary increases in vocal repertoire size among non-human primates were associated with evolutionary increases in group size and extent of social bonding

Displays and intra-sexual competition

Evolutionary models •have shown that where fighting is costly, for example the risks of injury are high or fighting has high energetic costs, individuals should monitor the RHP of their opponent and withdraw without fighting if they would be likely to lose the fight. •if this is actually happening we should see animal contests often being settled by displays of strength during which individuals ASSESS the RHP of their opponents. •this sort of assessment can only be maintained by selection if the displays give a reliable indication of fighting ability; if weak individuals are able to, by bluffing, imitate the displays of strong individuals, there would be selection to detect bluffers and use of the bluffable cue for assessment would be abandoned.

Dual-process approach

Example: avoidance learning •Rat placed in chamber with 2 compartments •Speaker delivers auditory stimulus (would-be CS) •Grid floor delivers mild footshock (aversive stimuli) •Barrier for escape or avoidance -Escape following US -Avoidance following CS Classical conditioning - Tone leads to shock - stimulus/stimulus learning Operant conditioning - Escape/avoidance leads to safety Results •When tone comes on, the animals freeze •When experience foot shock it goes to the other side •If you do it repeatedly, at some point the minute the tone sounds, the animal jumps to other side negative reinforcement, animal's behaviour removes aversive consequence

Key function of emotional signalling:

Facilitates social cohesion and reduces uncertainty •Note that in tandem with this, established emotional expressions may be employed ritualistically to signal eg, differences in dominance •Emotion is crucial in decision making - adaptive functions of positive and negative emotions (negative emotions allow us to respond appropriately to aversive stimuli, positive emotions to make adaptive choices)

Two classical facial expressions

Fear and Surprise •One common feature of both expressions is the raining of upper eye brow and lowering of lower eye brow, leading to more of white of the eye suggested that this originally evolved to increase the field of vision •Fear is preceded by astonishment and is far akin to it that both lead to the sense of sight and hearing being instantly aroused. •In both cases the eyes and mouth are widely opened and the eyebrows raised.

Edwin B. Twitmeyer (1873-1943)

First experimental evidence of associative learning in humans - association between auditory stimulus and patellar reflex •Play a loud noise in prior to reflex •Noticed that at some pint when played tone, he saw little response •Some learning was going on •Response to a tone, which normally wouldn't lead to tone

First evidence for 'Hebbian learning & memory'

Habituation = learned suppression of a response to a repeated stimulus •When the snails siphon is stimulated, the snail withdraws the gill for protection. •This occurs because the stimulus activates receptors in the siphon, which activates, directly or indirectly through an interneuron, the motor neuron that withdraws the gill. •With repeated stimulation, the stimulus leads to a decrease in neurotransmitter release into the synapse and onto the motor neuron.

Subcortical areas involved in learning and memory

Hippocampus Amygdala

Discrimination

If you put lower tone for no food animal learn certain cues

Basic emotions

In addition to the 6 basic emotions, also social or moral emotions such as jealousy, guilt, embarassment Jaak Panksepp proposes a more neurobiologically inspired classification - 4 basic emotional systems, each associated with a particular set of neural structures and neurotransmitters •Fear •Seeking •Panic •Rage Could be quite useful for applying to animals

Some background on chimps

In chimps females disperse as adolescents while males stay in natal communities throughout life (this is unusual among non-human primates where males tend to be the dispersing sex) - so female friendships between non-relatives •Long-lived (c. 50years) •Large brains (large relative brain size and neocortex ratio) •Very fluid social organisation •Hunt for meat

Sexual selection is generated by two processes

Inter-sexual choice Intra-sexual competition

Evolutionary origins of the smile

John Ohala •acoustic origin of the smile •threatening vocalisations in dominance displays typically involve bringing the corners of the mouth forward to lengthen the vocal tract and lower the vocal tract resonances (or formants) •with the effect of making an animal sound larger •whereas non-threatening vocalisations used in displays of submission involve drawing the lips back - smile face - makes animal sound smaller

Kin selection

Kin selection has the potential to explain altruism if donor and recipient of altruism are related. But sometimes unrelated individuals engage in altruism RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM defined by Trivers (1971): •Provided the benefit of an altruistic act to the recipient is greater than the cost to the donor, then as long as the help is reciprocated at a later date, both participants gain •One of first reported cases: in olive baboons, UNRELATED males appeared to assist each other in getting matings (Packer, 1977) - debate now about whether this is RA •Reciprocal altruism seems rare in animals - most of reported cases can be explained by other mechanisms (e.g. mutualism, exploitation by dominants) - lack of conclusive examples. •Baboon males- two would cooperate to mate-if I help you on one occasion u help me on another one/ A helps B today, B helps A tomorrow

Non-associative learning

Learning that stimuli exist in the world

Principles of associative learning

Learning through reinforcement Association by contiguity •Co-occurrence in space and time •Things must occur in same place and time Arbitrariness •Any stimulus, any response Empty organism •Organism is black box - collection of associations Passive organism •Learning happens TO the organism

Klüver-Bucy syndrome:

Lesions in experimental animals that produce damage deep into the temporal lobes, including the amygdala, lead to a syndrome including: •marked taming •inappropriate oral behaviour (eating indigestible objects) •Hypersexuality, inappropriately directed These changes had been noted in human patients some years earlier. Electrical stimulation in hypothalamic sites could elicit attack, defense or flight depending on the exact site All of these early studies were consistent with involvement of limbic structures and the Papez circuit in emotion, though the definition of 'limbic' remained quite imprecise.

Homeostasis and drive reduction

Maintaining a stable internal state 1.Set-point - physiological parameter (e.g., Thermostat) 2.Error detector - compares actual versus set-point state 3.Error correction mechanism - negative feedback mechanism Motivational (feeding) drive emerges from need to avoid deviations from the narrow set-point

Diencephalon

Major structures: -Thalamus -Hypothalamus -lots of nuclei

Polygyny: within multimalemulti female groups

Males form consorts: eg, Olive & yellow baboons -Yellow baboons- individual males having concorts with particular females Mating highly promiscuous: eg, Barbary macaques -When it comes to females she can mate with every male in 30 min

Saltatory conduction and myelin sheath

Myelination: •Myelin reduces charge loss across the axon membrane by decreasing its capacitance/resistance ("insulation"). •Action potentials travelling from one node of Ranvier to the next is known as saltatory conduction. •It's not only faster, but more efficient, as less ion influx is needed to generate the action potential, so less pumps are needed to restore the membrane potential (by pumping sodium out of the cell, and potassium back in), after an action potential has passed. •For a given conduction speed, a myelinated axon occupies less space than an unmyelinated one.

Punishment

Negative stimulus/event that decreases the likelihood of the preceding behavior to occur

Patterns of mate choice

Original work by Buss providing evidence of consistency in mating preferences across different cultures (37 samples from 33 countries) •Females found to value cues to Resource Acquisition in potential mates more highly than males •Males found to value characteristics signalling Reproductive potential in potential mates more than females

Anatomy of emotion: Papez circuit

Originates in cortex ..."built up in the hippocampal formation and . . .transferred to the mammillary body and thence through the anterior thalamic nuclei to the cortex of the gyrus cinguli" (Papez, 1937, p. 728) •Prefrontal cortex and sensory association cortex --> cingulate cortex feeding into hippocampus back to anterior thalamus

Very basic parallels in emotional expression in animals & humans

Palatable •Similar among animals- tongue out and happy looking Unpalatable: origins of Disgust? •Similar among animals- Open mouth

Panksepp's emotional arousal systems

Panksepp's conception of the relationship between four primary emotions. His full list includes seven.

Seeking, 'wanting' and 'liking'

Panksepp's seeking system is broadly similar to the 'wanting' or incentive motivation processes discussed by Robinson & Berridge. Anatomically based on the median forebrain bundle where Jim Olds, working with Peter Milner, originally identified self stimulation in the early 1950's. •Rats in open field, stimulating within bundle of nerve fibres •Noticed can alert situation with shock •Animal comes back where it happened originally •Find that you can condition the animal to a particular place to get stimulation •--> seeking, wanting , system

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA)

Pleistocene (c. 2 million years ago to 10,000 years ago) taken to represent our ancestral environment - early humans living as hunter-gatherers in a savannah habitat Likely features of EEA: •Hunter-gather/scavenging subsistence •Low population density •Small kin-based groups •Nomadic or semi-nomadic •High infant mortality and low life expectancy •Vulnerability (e.g. predators, disease)

Most common mating system

Polygyny (multiple females per male): Can occur in a number of different forms: •in one-male units eg, Hamadryas baboons where males control tight-knit harem of females

Somatic marker hypothesis

Posits that marker signals arising from emotions and feelings act to guide behaviour and decision making, usually in an unconscious process

Insulin

Produced in Pancreas. Actions: Help transport glucose into tissues, stimulates uptake glucose and conversion to glycogen in liver, decrease glucose release from liver, decrease food intake and increase

polypetptide YY (PYY)

Produced in the intestine in response to the presence of food. Conveys information to the hypothalamus. Actions: Suppresses appetite

Ghrelin

Produced in the stomach. Conveys information to the hypothalamus. Actions: Stimulates appetite, enhances use of carbs and reduces fat utilization.

Leptin

Produced in white adipose tissue. Conveys information to the hypothalamus on the amount of energy stored in fat. Actions: Suppress appetite

Principles of Respondent conditioning: recovery

Spontaneous recovery •Passage of time after extinction •Retest CS Let dog sit for 2 weeks, then let it do something again - see recovery Mere passage of time increases likelihood of response 'spontaneously' returning after extinction

Environmental experiences alters brain morphology

Raising rats in enriched enclosures increases: •Brain weight •Dendritic length and complexity (Sholl analysis) •Vascular volume (more blood vessels) •Number of synapses per neuron (synaptic spine counting) •Mitochondrial volume (Marker of greater metabolic activity) Some evidence of new stuff growing

What is not learning: Innate responses

Reflexes •Simple innate response - single set of muscles •Patellar, eye-blink reflex Taxes •Involves entire body (positive or negative) •Positive phototaxis in moths, sea turtles Instincts ('Fixed action patterns') •More complex •e.g. Food begging in herring gulls (Niko Tinbergen)

Principles of Respondent conditioning: acquisition

Reinforcement of CS by US •Pairing in time = 'Contiguity' •salivatory response prior the food see condition response after a lot of trial that response becomes much greater

Social behaviour in humans Kin selection

Resource sharing •Genetic relatedness is major factor determining patterns of alliances, resource sharing and inheritance •eg, Analysis of Canadian wills shows that (with exception of bequests to spouses) c.95% estate goes to relatives (most to offspring and siblings) compared to c.5% to non-relatives

Genetic relatedness predicts patterns of adoption in traditional societies (Kin selection)

Reviewed by Joan Silk •Oceania (pacific islands around Australia) -coefficient of relatedness between adopter and adopted child is 0.25 (which would be uncle/aunt) and second is less than 0.006 •North American Arctic •Nama of Namibia Adoption in modern industrial nations by non-relatives •deep desire to raise children •altruistic endeavour (although a relatively small fraction of adoptive parents have children of their own)

Polyandry (very rare):

Several males bonded to one female eg, Saddle-backed tamarins: male parental care 2 or more adult males with the female, extra male helps carry the young (they have twins)

Anecdotal accounts of Tactical Deception in primates suggested Machiavellian Intelligence

Tactical deception: short term tactics where elements from an honest counterpart in the individual's repertoire are used in a functionally deceptive act

Sexual selection in humans

Sexual dimorphism: important factor likely to be selection on males for success in contests against other males (intrasexual competition) - but also remember mate choice •larger body size and greater upper body strength in males than females •More bodily and facial hair in males (note beards confer no obvious survival advantage) •Enlarged breasts and buttocks in females Human mating systems are indeed predominantly polygynous: Marriage patterns in 849 societies (from Ethnographic atlas - primarily pre-industrial societies)

Negative reinforcer

Stimulus (usually negative) eliminated by the behaviour that increases the likelihood of the preceding behaviour to occur eliminate negative consequence

Positive reinforcer

Stimulus (usually positive) produced by the behaviour that increases the likelihood of the preceding behaviour to occur

Reinforcer

Stimulus/event that increases to likelihood of the preceding behaviour to occur

Damasio's 'somatic marker hypothesis'

Suggests that 'feelings', not necessarily at conscious level, are able to guide or influence decision making. Empirical evidence from the Iowa Gambling ask. There is evidence that feelings about situation can begin to occur and guide overt behaviour (decision making) well ahead at the point where u become conscious and can verbalize the information that is changing your behaviour Initial experiments is a card game •runs of good cards or bad cards (when you win or lose) •knowledge level of participants changes, they start of knowing very little and late they begin to have a hint of what is happening but can't verbalise it and only to the end they can verbalise it •but when you look which deck they choose and skin conductor, that change even when they say they don't know what is going on •suggests preconscious knowledge is influencing the choice behaviour at an early stage

Possible assessment cues in human mate choice

Symmetry in morphological characteristics •College women sniffed and rated the attractiveness of the scent of 41 T-shirts worn overnight by different men •Women near the peak of fertility prefer the scent of symmetrical men - this preference is not found during low fertility parts of cycle (Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998) Male symmetry calculated on basis of measures of characteristics such as ear length, ankle widths and finger lengths on the two sides of the body

Food for energy

The body uses energy in 3 primary ways: 1.Basal Metabolism (BMR): 55% of energy usage is to maintain body heat and other resting function -varies as a function of body size. 2.Digestion of food: 33% of energy is used to process food and break it down into molecules to be used by the body. 3.Active Behavioural processes: 12-13% of energy usage is for behaviours other than rest -varies greatly depending on activity level Remaining energy is typically stored as energy reserves

Anatomy of fear

The central nucleus projects to the central gray (CG) in the midbrain and to the lateral and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. •Tone is processed via auditory thalamus, then inputs lead to auditory cortex to Lateral nucleus of the amygdala •Foot shock sent through the feet, comes via thalamic relay, projects to somatosensory thalamus and somatosensory cortex to the lateral nucleus of amygdala •It sits within the lateral nucleus where processes must be operating •Which then drive the responsiveness to another nucleus (central nucleus) , connections from CN to central brain (freezing response ) , LH (blood pressure) and PVN (hormones) Predictions following from the Le Doux model: •The CS and US should converge on the same synapses within the lateral nucleus of the amygdala •It should be possible to demonstrate a process such as long term potentiation within this structure. •Conditioning with a strong emotional component is modified by monoamine hormones - such effects should be demonstrable in the lateral nucleus These have mostly been fulfilled. However there is also more recent evidence to suggest that a pathway from the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus, activated by stress and pain, projects directly to the central nucleus of the amygdala and that conditioning may also be supported by changes in the supposedly 'output' nucleus.

axon collateral

branch of an axon

Anatomy of emotion: the 'limbic system'

The limbic system is referred to in most textbooks of biological psychology. It consists of cingulate cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, mammillo-thalamic tract (runs form two small structures to the thalamus) and anterior thalamus and includes other structures, such as the hypothalamus, in some 'definitions'.

Stimuli which are not consciously processed affect emotional processing

The original experiment in this area was performed by Murphy and Zajonc (published 1993). Here is a more recent version using very brief dynamic visual stimuli. Presentations of Korean ideographs are preceded by negative or positive primes (happy or fear face). The dynamic stimuli led to marked changes in pleasantness rating (Likert scale 1-5), whereas static stimuli did not. Participants had no conscious awareness of the primes. •Participants fixate a point •Priming stimuli (either static (angry, sad) or dynamic (happening and then disappearing) •Followed by mask (not consciously aware) •Neutral stimuli (ideographs) •Emotional evaluation at later stage •Dynamic stimuli effective

Approaches to studying social behaviour

Tinbergen's 4 questions: •Mechanistic - understanding mechanism by which trait achieved •Ontogenetic - factors influencing development of trait •Functional - understanding fitness consequences of trait •Evolutionary - unravelling evolutionary history of trait Previously looked largely at physiological mechanisms eg, w.r.t. social behaviour in voles how hormone oxytocin regulates pair bonding •Now going to take a functional approach to studying social behaviour, examining it in relation to its evolutionary fitness consequences in animals and subsequently humans

Feeding to maintain homeostasis

Traditional ideas (the "glucostat" theory: Mayer, 1954) saw absolute blood glucose as likely signal for hunger: •Glucose is the main source of energy •Lack of glucose would represent nutrient deficit (drive) Two basic types of set-points arethought to regulate food intake: •Glucostatic Set-Point Theory: -Eating is controlled by deviations from a hypothetical blood glucose set-point (Glucostat receptors) -Increased in glucose propr to meal initiation - which is taken from reserves •Lipostatic Theory: -Eating is controlled by a hypothetical body-fat set-point (long-term homeostatic maintenance).

Hemorrhagic stroke

burst vessel bleeding into the brain

Schacter and Singer's 1962 experiment

Two groups of subjects given injections of adrenaline, though they were told it was a vitamin solution. •Group 1 told that they might expect increased heart rate, sweating and agitation •Group 2 given no information on the effects of the injection •Subsequently taken to another room where a collaborator, masquerading as another subject pretended to be either euphoric or angry. •All subject asked to report on their feelings. Those in Group 2 tended to have feelings that matched those of the collaborator, not seen in Group 1. This experiment still appears in psychology textbooks but was actually vary badly designed, with a lack of double blind procedures, controls and poor statistics

Terminology of respondent conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US): •stimulus that has biological relevance •example: food Unconditioned Response (UCR or UR): •Innate response triggered by UCS •Example: salivation Conditioned stimulus (CS): •Neutral stimulus that elicits response through learning •Example: the bell Conditioned response (CR) •Response produced by CS •Salivation when the bell goes

Work on chimps in the Tai Forest (Ivory Coast) by Christophe Boesch & Hedwige Boesch-Achermann

Unusually complex social system Fission-Fusion society: requires great flexibility •Live in communities (around 60 individuals in Tai Forest communities) •Group members gather in unstable temporary groups (parties) that usually include only a small subset of the whole community; mixed sex •Adult males form coalitions •High association rates between particular adult females ('friendships')

How do neurons transmit information?

Within a neuron - electrical transmission down neuron along axon (action potentials and synaptic potentials) Between neurons - chemical transmission (at synapses)

Lateralisation in processing of emotions:

Workman's Theory (Workman et al., 2000) •When presented with different chimeras of emotional expressions - overall right hemisphere advantage, but shift back to left when processing pro- as opposed to anti-social expressions •They suggest a Pro-social/approach/left hemisphere versus Anti-social/withdraw/right hemisphere dichotomy

theory of mind:

ability to attribute mental states (eg, desires, intentions, knowledge) to others •Until recently limited evidence that animals might have Theory of Mind - but some exciting new developments.

Ischemic stroke

blood vessel blocked

Folk Psychology

bear --> eye --> run -->heart race -Our intuitions tell us that when we see something that frightens us, it evokes fear in us, which may be expressed in our facial expression. -Then we experience a stress response - our heart begins to race, palms to sweat, and we run or freeze, as appropriate.

The James-Lange Theory

bear --> heart rate --> run -The stimulus lead to a direct manner through processes that are not consciously mediated to physiological response and this begins to generate emotional response. -Causal links in different order than folk psychology. -The theory seems counter-intuitive in that it suggests that an emotional response is generated as a response to the physiological adaptations resulting from response to, for example, threatening stimulus.

Additional evidence of empathic behaviour?

•Consolation - where uninvolved bystander provides contact comfort to recent victim of aggression •Chimps, ravens, horses

Inter-sexual choice:

choice by members of one sex for particular mating partners of the opposite sex

Vervet monkey alarm calls

denote predators in a referential way - but note that simpler alarm calling systems are also common •Response urgency signalling in Californian ground squirrels demonstrated by Owings & Hennessy •Whistle for high urgency predation threat, chitter-chat call for low urgency Some animals have alarm calling systems that contain both referential and response urgency information eg, meerkats

Solitary:

eg,Orangutans •sexes live apart •come together for mating

Calls can also refer to the social environment

e.g. specific grunts in vervet monkeys (Cheney & Seyfarth) & rhesus macaque screams (Gouzoules & Gouzoules) different grunts to address •to a subordinste- turn toward loudspeaker •to a dominant- turn toward loudspeaker •to a monkey moving to an open area - look out and scan the horizon •to another group- look out and scan the horizon when play in loud speak without predator- different reactions- call is associated with a particular event- something cognitive reach is happening in them

Monogamous family units

eg, gibbons: •long term pair bond •male and female (with offspring) jointly defend territory using elaborate song

axon hillock

juncture of soma and axon where the action potential begins

terminal button

knob at the tip of an axon that conveys information to other neurons

Habituation

learned suppression of a response to a repeated stimulus Rat experiment •Loud noise played, rat reacted •After a time, rat no longer reacted to it With repeated stimulation, the stimulus leads to a decrease in neurotransmitter release into the synapses and onto the motor neuron

Definitions evolution of emotion

many proposed, but few are comprehensive / can usefully be applied to both humans and animals Example of Basic definition: •An intense but short-lived affective response to an event which is associated with specific body changes (eg, Boissy et al., 2007) Example of Evolutionary Psychology definition: •The emotions are specialized modes of operation shaped by natural selection to adjust the physiological, psychological and behavioural parameters of the organism in ways that increase its capacity and tendency to respond adaptively to the threats and opportunities characteristic of specific kinds of situations (Nesse, 1990)

Java monkey

offspring-mother

Cholecystokinin

produced in the intestines in response to the presence of food. Conveys information to the hypothalamus. Actions: Suppresses appetite

dendritic spine

protrusion that increases dendrites surface are and usual point of dendritic contact with axon of other cells

Meercats

referential + response urgency signalling

Red deer

roaring indicates size (vocal tract)

A disease-centered model

suggests that a drug restores (the brain to) normal function. Analogy: treatment with insulin restores relative physiological normality to a person with Type 1 diabetes who cannot synthesise insulin.

Cognition:

•The mental processes concerned with the acquisition and manipulation of knowledge including perception and thinking •How animals represent and process things about the world around them

Labelling social relationships: Mother-offspring bond Dasser, 1988

two adult female java monkeys Macaca fascicularis shown slides of other members of their social group •first trained to distinguish between a limited number of mother-offspring and non-mother-offspring pairs by rewarding them if they picked out mother-offspring pairs correctly •then shown slides of additional mother-offspring and non-mother-offspring pairs that hadn't been involved in the training sessions (ie, novel exemplars of these categories) --> Subjects had very high success rate despite exemplars including diverse combination of age and sex classes of offspring

Walter B. Cannon

•Traumatic shock •Soldiers went into shock due to injuries in WW1 •This is where homeostasis came up, it may be involved in shock

Roaring in red deer

• Clutton-Brock and Albon (1979) found that fights were more frequently preceded by roaring contests where the approacher roared more frequently than approachee than other way round. •Also played back recorded roars to simulate the presence of a rival stag. • Stags would increase their roaring rate to match that of playback - unless the challenger simulated by the playback was roaring so fast that they couldn't match him. •Roaring rate is an honest indicator of fitness, probably because it is energetically costly •Second stage of assessment in red deer: parallel walking •As a result of these two processes of assessment only about 50% of challenges end in fights •Here honesty is generated by a physical constraint •NB signal reliability generated by two routes: energetic cost and physical constraint

How does it taste

• The brain contains a 'reward' or 'reinforcement' system that "brings us back for more". • Key structures include the ventral tegmentum and nucleus accumbens. • It is likely that the taste, texture and smell of the chocolate contribute to its rewarding properties and stimulate this brain system.

Origin of the term 'limbic lobe'

•"In the mantle of the hemisphere, there is a part that is common to all the mammalian brain models, the great limbic lobe ... •We can thereby confirm that all of the types of brains, up to and including primate brains, differ from one another only in evolutionary features, i.e., in shape and relative size, and not in the nature of their component parts." •These quotes from Broca (1878) mark him out as an early comparative neurologist. He was a strong supporter of Darwin's evolutionary theory, published a few years earlier. He described the brains of more than 30 species of mammal in this paper. •Maclean introduced the anglicised term 'limbic system' in the 1950's as a replacement for his own phrase 'visceral brain'.

Stress definition:

•"physical, mental, or emotional strain or tension" •"a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize" •"the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change" •Operationally - sometimes defined as something that leads to a measurable stress response •This operational definition will pick up both 'positive' and 'negative' stress

Moving the eyes - making a 'saccade'

•(primary) motor cortex - strip at back of frontal lobe •supplementary area (and also premotor area) are rostral to motor cortex •other motor areas involved in elaborating small pattern of movements •frontal eye fields have a role in voluntary control of gaze direction.

Recognition through communication

•A key function of communication is to transmit information on the identity of the signaller to a range of different receivers •Social recognition important for staying in contact with companions (including offspring) and advertising ownership of resources to rivals •Northern fur seals- Mother-offspring recognition •Lions- Female roar to recruit companions and defend territories from neighbours

Unconsciously perceived stimuli evoke stronger responses

•A participant with unilateral blind sight (damage to occipital lobe) sees facial expression on their 'sighted' or 'unsighted' side •There were detectors on the face •The response is stronger when the stimulus is presented to the unsighted side

What is learning

•A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. •So, not drugs, injury/illness, maturation (development) •Nature vs nurture debate

Fluid composition, loss & gain

•About 2/3 of body water is inside cells, the remaining 1/3 is extracellular •Direct water loss occurs primarily from this extracellular compartment •Saline (salt) -0.9 % •Intracellular and intravascular (plasma) fluid volume and composition must be kept in precise limits •Intracellular - relative concentration solutes between intracellular and interstitial compartments (isotonic) •Equilibrium between compartments but you get hypertonicity in all these compartments •In the body, if blood levels are hypertonic (loosing water, salt increase), it draws water out of interstitial state, which causes loss of water and this causes you to draw water out of intracellular dehydrating your cell

If body temperature is too hot

•Accelerate our breathing •Dilating of cutaneous vessel loose more heat •perspiration

Muscle contraction (Reaching for the box)

•Acetylcholine is released at the muscle end plate, binds to nicotinic receptors, opening sodium channels. •The muscle membrane becomes depolarised close to the end plate and the depolarisation is transmitted along the membrane. •Depolarisation and sodium influx releases stored calcium ions within the muscle and directly triggers contraction of the muscle fibre

Principles of Respondent conditioning

•Acquisition when CS-US reinforcement •Extinction of the CR when reinforcement is removed

Principles of Respondent conditioning (part II)

•Acquisition when CS-US reinforcement •Extinction when reinforcement absent •Spontaneous Recovery •Reacquisition •Generalization •Discrimination -CS+ (reinforced) -CS- (non-reinforced)

Looking at the box- analysing a visual scene

•Acting together, the cornea and lens focus an (inverted) image of the world on the retina. •Image of visual world is focused on to the back of the eye, that is a result of the combined action of the lens and cornea acting together •Muscles that pull and push the len, altering extent to which it focuses on near or far objects •Surrounding the eye there a muscles •Lots of axillary tissue, ex. eyelid protective responses

What is an emotion

•An emotion is an affective state triggered by perceived or recalled external stimuli. •Emotions can serve to arouse or motivate behaviours. Examples include sadness, joy, fear, anger and disgust. •Emotions consist of sets of cognitive, subjective, physiological and motor changes that arise from an individual's conscious or non‐ conscious determination that a stimulus has a positive or negative value in a particular context and with respect to that individual's currently active goals

Cholecystokinin and Polypeptide YY: Peripheral satiety cues?

•Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone released in the intestines in response to fat intake -CCK injections inhibit subsequent feeding •Polypeptide YY (PYY) is also released in the gut in response to food intake -Injections of PYY inhibit eating. -PYY may be abnormally low in obese individuals.

Cognitive bias in animals reviewed in Mendl et al., 2009

•Animals trained that one cue predicts a positive event and another a negative event •Subjects then presented with ambiguous (intermediate) cues •Initial evidence that animals in a more negative affective state are more likely to judge these ambiguous cues as if they predict the negative event (pessimistic response) Positive emotions & animal welfare: •Well-being is not simply the absence of negative emotions, but also (and even predominantly) the presence of positive ones (Boissy et al., 2007)

Anxiety- clinical aspects

•Anxiety - a feeling of fear or dread •in situations where there is no 'reasonable' external cause for anxiety, and fear otherwise. •refers to anxiety which is 'pathological', interfering with other activities and priorities. Symptoms: 1. Fear •Panic •Phobia 2. Worry •Anxious misery •Apprehensive •Expectation •Obsessions

Key points (Anxiety: neuroscience and drug treatment)

•Anxiety and fear are quite closely related, but the former is a clinically significant condition whereas the latter is frequently functional in relation to biological fitness. •Anxiety may be treated using behavioural therapies, sometimes in conjunction with pharmacotherapy. •Benzodiazepines used to treat anxiety enhance the synaptic action of GABA at GABA-A receptors. •Benzodiazepines act at multiple brain sites, but the amygdala may be especially significant for their anxiolytic action. •This selectivity of action may arise through an action at specific subtypes of the GABA-A receptor that are preferentially expressed in the amygdala and related areas.

Benzodiazepines may modulate GABA-ergic inputs to the CSTC 'worry' loop

•As with the amygdala, note that there are many other potential neurochemical modulators.

Motivation summary

•Basic physiology of motivation involves homeostatic (negative feedback) mechanisms that maintain temperature, hydration, nutrient levels around set-point •Hypothalamic areas critical in homeostatic regulation •Non-homeostatic influences through learning, emotion etc. dependent on limbic systems.

Generalization

•Beep- food •You get acquisition •You get a gradient response •They will respond to similar stimuli flexible

Eating & drinking as a function of time

•Behaviour of feeding and drinking in rats •Rats are active during the night •Animals will feed/drink during the night (dark-phase) •If you put animal all full dark cycle- you maintain the basic rhythm despite no light cue •We can see homeostatic feeding (feeding after a period of non-feeding) •At end of day before lights go on, we see same feeding/drinking behaviour - anticipating the 12 hours of sleep

Brain circuits and benzodiazepine action

•Benzodiazepine-sensitive GABA receptors are selectively expressed in particular brain areas. •distribution of a benzodiazepine-sensitive subtype is the highest densities are in the hippocampus, amygdala and related structures

Theory of Mind in Corvids ?

•Birds preferentially stored food (wax worms) in distant sites when watched by another jay, but used near and distant equally when observer's view blocked by screen •Items that were stored in view of the observer were moved multiple times •When offered equidistant sites that were either in view or out of view to store food, chose out of view sites when observed, but stored equally in both sites when not observed

Blood vessels

•Blood brain barrier •Supply energy to brain and protect brain •Neuron on average only 20um away from a capillary - so blood vessels are mixed in with brain tissue. •Lots of drugs don't get in because they are stopped by the barrier

Cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loops

•Both loops have additional cortical output to brainstem motor control areas which, for the oculomotor loop, include the superior colliculus. •Three further loops connect cortical areas involved in cognition and emotion with the basal ganglia. •Oculomotor loop -Got cells within prefrontal and parietal cortex which are projecting down to the cordate nucleus, the projecting with on the basal ganglia then onto thalamus and the projecting back up to the cortex -That kind of loop appears to be a powerful way how voluntary action are set up and then initiated •Motor cortex -Basal ganglia and thalamus, important in skeletal movements •There are other loops not involved in motor output but elaborating cognition

Components of the physiological/hormonal response to stress

•CRH, corticotrophin releasing hormone - a small peptide hormone (small set of amino acid, made in pituarity gland and released in blood supply) •ACTH , another, larger peptide hormone •Adrenalin and Noradrenalin, both monoamines (simple chemicals) •Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol (primates), a steroid (other examples of steroids include testosterone and oestrogen) •It is the effects of monoamines and glucocorticoids that lead to many of the adaptive physiological responses to the stress •All of these molecules act via protein receptors in the target tissue - the relevant monoamine receptors are the adrenergic α ('alpha') and β ('beta') receptors

Principle of respondent conditioning: Reacquisition

•CS (again) reinforced by CS •"Savings in relearning" •Reintroduce bell- food •What you expect is to see learning again •The animal learns much more faster- some of the previous emory you extinction remains --> This tells us, forgetting is not wiping of hardware- it is a temporary masking --> Memory are partly permanent

Phospholipid bilayer

•Cells are surrounded by a lipid membrane •Water soluble things can't pass through. •Phospholipid bilayer -Hydrophilic head- likes water -Hydrophobic tail - likes sticking to other not charged things -Stuff that is soluble in water cant get through bc hydrophobic layer -Water is slightly polarized - it has negative bits (the Oxygen) and positive bits (the hydrogens) which means that charged stuff can bind to it and therefore things like ions are soluble in water - also the heads of these phospholipid molecules -Tails aren't charged so they don't bind to water and stick together forming this layer inside the membrane

Also evidence that wild chimpanzees may be aware of knowledge and ignorance in others (Crockford et al. 2012)

•Chimpanzees more likely to alarm call in response to presentation of a snake (viper model) in the presence of unaware group members (than aware group members)

Understanding of emotion in animals may be quite sophisticated: Parr et al.'s (2001) work on chimps

•Chimps have ability to match emotional meaning •Waller et al. 2016: Demonstrated a crested macaque can predict social outcome from facial expression

Effects of chronic stress

•Chronic exposure to stressors (days/weeks), especially early in life, may be associated with loss of the usual feedback control by cortisol on the production and release of CRH and ACTH, hence cortisol levels remain chronically high. •When cortisol produces, it circulates in blood streams and inhibits the production of CRH and ACTH- which is an example of negative feedback- this seems to be lost in chronic stress -So get higher levels of CRH and ACTH •Long term effects may include changed hippocampal function and structure - associated with depression and ameliorated by anti-depressant drugs in experimental models. •However in other circumstances there may be enhanced feedback, leading to lowered cortisol levels - this is associated with chronic fatigue syndrome.

Whole-cell electrophysiology

•Clamp on neuron and look what happens in that neuron

Increased activation of prefrontal and temporal cortex during cocaine craving

•Cocaine abusers were asked to rate craving for cocaine while observing images of either neutral (left) or cocaine-associated (right) objects. •Craving was greatly increased while the participants observed the cocaine-associated cues, and blood flow to the prefrontal cortex (top) and medial temporal cortex (bottom) was also greatly increased •Not shown here is increased activation in ventral striatum and other basal ganglia structures.

Cocaine

•Cocaine was once a component of Coca-Cola - it is obtained from leaves of the coca shrub. •Cocaine blocks the dopamine transporter, increasing the levels of dopamine at the synapse. •It is also a local anaesthetic, resembling lidocaine. -Doesn't pass he blood brain barrier -Block sodium channels which pass the information of pain

How do action potential code information

•Coding for stimulus intensity: -Frequency of firing -Timing of firing •There are more when the stimulus is there, higher frequency •When vertical stimulus caused neuron to fire more

Equilibrium potential

•Combination of concentration and electrical gradients: electrochemical gradient •Potential across membrane at which there is no net flow of an ion (no change on concentration): equilibrium potential •Equilibrium potential (E) dictated by concentration difference and ion charge: Nernst equation (don't need to know it) -Nernst equation is really telling you is that the ion depends on the concentration gradient, and the charge on the ion •EK+ = -80 mV (potassium) •ENa+ = + 62 mV •ECl- = -65 mV •A ions and potassium have higher concentration inside the axon relative to the outside •Whereas chloride and calcium ions are more concentrated outside the axon •Lots of K inside cell so will tend to leave, and membrane potential has to get pretty negative to stop the K+ from leaving the cell - so negative equilibrium potential •Lots of sodium outside cell, so tends to go into cell, and will do that very readily when the inside is negative relative to outside - but if membrane becomes really positive, ions will stop entering •Lots of chloride outside so concentration gradient is driving chloride entry to the cell but negative potential inside the cell repels chloride entry

Have looked at WHY social behaviour occurs, but in behavioural terms HOW is it achieved in practice?

•Communication is at the basis of social behaviour: animals exchange specially adapted signals (e.g. vocal, visual, olfactory) to mediate their relationships with others - this sort of interaction facilitates and underpins social behaviour -enable social behaviours to exist •For cooperative defence to occur- individuals need to know they belong to one group, need to show they can defend each other •Communication is therefore a MECHANISM that allows social behaviour to occur

Sperm competition in humans

•Competition between sperm from different ejaculates/ males for fertilization of eggs produced by a single female •Human testes size suggests adaptation for multi-male mating system - although indicates not as much sperm competition as in eg, chimps •Penis is longer, thicker and more flexible in human males than in non-human primate males

Care of genetic offspring versus step-children (Kin selection)

•Completely indiscriminate allocation of resources between kin and non-kin would be something of an anomaly in evolutionary terms (Trivers & Willard) •Daly and Wilson present evidence that children living with a step-parent are more at risk of physical abuse (controlling for other potentially confounding variables such as socioeconomic status) than those living with natural parents •Many families with step-children function extremely well - but these results suggest simply that underlying psychological mechanisms may make investment in non-kin more difficult •Again, awareness allows us to consciously counteract this

Chimps and humans are similar in some ways

•Complex fission-fusion social system •Elaborate strategies in territorial behaviour and co-operative hunting (suggesting anticipation and planning); evidence of lethal aggression, mainly by males in inter-community attacks •Ability to fashion and use tools in unusually diverse and flexible ways. Intriguing evidence that chimps make and use spears also of a zoo chimp fashioning missiles to fire at visitors •Intriguing: Recent evidence of using tool (firm stem of grass) to clean between teeth in body of chimp corpse •Cultural variation in a range of behaviours •High level mental abilities - fieldworkers studying chimps in the wild claim to observe deception, teaching and empathy; the extent to which their observations reflect a theory of mind (rather than a theory of behaviour) is hotly debated and these claims must be treated cautiously - but controlled tests are now producing evidence of abilities connected with Theory of Mind (see last lecture) - including evidence that captive great apes can understand false belief and that wild chimps may recognise knowledge and ignorance in others

Neural circuits for 'worry'

•Complex neural loops run between cortex, striatum and thalamus (CSTC loops) and are responsible for modulation of motor output and cognition. •One of these loops, from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLFPC), may be of especial importance in worry and anxiety.

Characteristics of primate social groups

•Complex social organisation •Variety of long-term social relationship

Minimally conscous state

•Condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviour such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious

Persistent vegetative state

•Condition in which a person is alive but unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level

Cannabis: components, mechanism and mimics

•Contains a large number of psychoactive compounds including: -∆9-Tetrahydrocannabidol (∆9-THC) - major psychoactive component -Cannabidiol - quite different pharmacological properties -Canabigerol - a precursor but with it's own activity as well -+ perhaps 100 other •Acting at cannabinoid receptors (CB1, CB2 and TRPV1) that are widely expressed in brain and periphery: -CB1 - mostly CNS -CB2 - mostly peripheral -TRPV1 - capsaicin (chilli) also acts here •Endogenous neurotransmitters include: -Anandamide -2-arachidonoglycerol (2-AG)

Darwin's theory: Evolutionary change through natural selection

•Continual competition between individuals in a population for resources and some individuals contribute more offspring to the next generation than others •Provided that offspring resemble parents (ie, that physical and behavioural traits are heritable), the traits of individuals that leave more offspring than average will increase in frequency over time (the contribution of an individual to the gene pool in the next generation is its evolutionary FITNESS) --> genetic contribution to the next generation •This produces evolutionary change Key elements --> individual survival and reproduction, benefits come to the individual living in that group

Schedules of reinforcement

•Continuous reinforcement = each behavioural response is reinforced •Partial Reinforcement = behaviour is reinforced only part of the time Ratio schedules = reinforcement given after every nth response •Fixed= response requirement always constant (e.g., FR1, FR10) •Variable= response requirement varies around average (e.g. VR5) Interval schedules = reinforcement given after certain amount of time •Fixed = reward intervals constant (FI10) -scalloped behaviour Variable= reward interval varies around mean time (e.g., VI10)

Stress and feeding

•Cottone and colleagues (2009) recently reported that not receiving an expected reward (a palatable food) is stressful and reduces consumption of a usual food. •They went on to demonstrate that this effect can be reversed by treatment with a CRH receptor antagonist (left) and that it is associated with increased levels in the amygdala (right), a brain region strongly associated with anxiety and stress. •Compares two different animals, one given chow, second group palate food and on test day given chow •So they don't eat much compared to control group •But if you give drug that blocks CRH receptors, then it reverses that event partially

Early evidence linking Papez circuit to emotion

•Decorticate animals may produce sham rage - intense aggression usually poorly directed. •Implication was that some cortical areas inhibit sub-cortically generated rage response.

The mathematics of altruism Hamilton's rule:

•Defines the conditions under which we would expect genes causing an increase in altruistic behaviour to spread as: -B/C > 1/r (ratio of benefits of helping to recipient over the cost to the donor who gives the help, has to be greater than the reciprocal of the coefficient of relativeness between the two -B = Benefit to the recipient -C = Cost to the donor -r = coefficient of relatedness (probability that gene in one individual is an identical copy, by descent, of a gene in another individual) •if the coefficient of relativeness is high, this side is near to 1, so benefits don't have to out way the costs by much •if the coefficient of relativeness is low, less than one, more difficult for benefits to be bigger than the larger number •Values of r in diploid organisms (0.5)no. meioses -mother-offspring: 0.5 -full siblings: 0.5 -nieces/nephews: 0.25 •Note: recent evidence in eg, meerkats suggests that helpers may have little chance of establishing own breeding groups - so maximise fitness by helping related dominants to breed •Going to be influenced by ecology, genetic aspects- both can influence exactly what behavioural strategy is selected

Learned fear: "Little Albert"

•Didn't show fear response to rats •Put boy with rat into room and played noise •Boy showed response to unconditioned stimuli •Every time there was rat, which initially didn't cause response •Now produced fear response •Shows how classical conditions determined whether albert is fearful or not fearful to rats --> We aren't born with that fear- we learn it

How do animals experience emotions?

•Difficult question to answer - requires innovative methods •Facial expressions, behaviour and physiological responses suggest strong parallels with humans As well as understanding adaptive significance of emotional expression - need to understand animal emotions in order to properly protect their welfare

Key forms of intra-sexual competition (usually male-male competition)

•Direct combat: males with large body size and weaponry selected •Sperm competition: males whose sperm successful in fertilising eggs selected

Key forms of intra-sexual competition (usually male-male competition) in animals

•Direct combat: males with large body size/ weaponry & impressive displays selected •Sperm competition: males whose sperm successful in fertilising eggs selected

Displays and Inter-sexual choice

•Displays also function to attract mating partners of the opposite sex - and specifically to provide a means by which individuals can choose a mate of the right species and also the best mate out of those available at the time

Some features of primate groups

•Dominance hierarchies •Barbary macaques •Fights are costly

Psychostimulants and the dopamine synapse

•Dopamine is released following presynaptic depolarisation (1), and then acts post-synatically and is taken back up by the dopamine transporter (DAT) and reincorporated into vesicles by the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT). •Cocaine blocks the DAT, but amphetamine is actually transported into the presynaptic terminal where it displaces dopamine from vesicles leading to its synaptic release.

Place preference task

•During training one compartment is associated with drug administration (or a non-active control administration), the other not - during the test the mouse can choose between the two compartments. •A transgenic mouse without µ opioid receptors fails to learn the task. •Animals transgeneic (non functional opiods) show no preference of sides •Normal animals show strong preference •Spend time in rewarding drug area Issues •The animals may have shown an adaptive response to the loss of this receptor mechanism (not dissimilar to the adaptions seen after chronic drug treatment) •The receptors hay have been important during earl development and have little importance to behaviour in the adult mouse

Direct combat avoided using visual & vocal signals

•E.g. of visual signals: threat faces

Inter-sexual mate choice in animals

•Eg, Female choice for low levels of Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA) in length of outermost tail-feathers in barn swallows: Moller, 1992 •Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA) = Absolute deviation from perfect symmetry on characteristics that are (on average) symmetrical on the two sides of the body •Evidence that FA reflects individual's propensity to withstand stress during development and predicts fitness •Idea is that level of FA is honest because only high quality males can experience significant stress during development (temperature perturbations etc) and still end up looking symmetrical Degree of symmetry in male ornaments indicates fitness and low asymmetry preferred by females

Electricity

•Electrical currents are flows of charged particles •Like charges repel, opposite charges attract. •Currents only flow through materials that conduct electricity. •Voltage is a measure of how much potential there is for charge to move - how much stored electrical energy •Ohms Law

Ions

•Electrically charged particle E.g. sodium chloride = Na+ and Cl- -Different sizes

Psychology: systematic study of behaviour and the mind in man and animals

•Evolutionary theory is an important tool for Psychologists and can enhance our understanding of human behaviour - we have already seen how relevant it is to consider human and animal behaviour in the same evolutionary framework

Habituation of stress response

•Experiment - the way different kinds of stress response habituate •Us service men, were training for first parachute jumps •green - hormonal •red - sympathetic •blue - parasympathetic •In graphs, yellow is baseline, •orange, during the jump and purple after. •Note the inverse relationship between cortisol and testosterone secretion and that habituation of response is considerable after 2 -5 jumps have been made. •Looking at response immediately during and before jump •First cortisol response very pronounced after 1st jump, then coming back to baseline •Blood testosterone, suppression of testosterone on first jump, then goes back to baseline •Adrenalin and noradrenalin, adrenal habituates much more slowly, noradrenalin habitates more rapidly -Shows independent mechanisms

Relevance of Respondent or Classical conditioning

•Extends mechanisms of behavioral adaptation beyond "simple" reflexes - associations between stimuli. •Ontogenetic 'adaptation' •Ubiquitous (definition: found everywhere/present) and preserved •All learning is classical conditioning (Pavlov) •Laws of classical conditioning shape our emotional life.

Osmometric thirst/Cellular dehydration

•Extracellular fluid consists mainly of water and salts (particularly sodium chloride) •Water loss causes the concentration of salts to increase •This increase in salt causes an osmotic imbalance between the extra- and intra-cellular compartments, & water leaves cells to restore balance (by osmosis) •Artificial increasing extracellular salt (NaCl) content stimulates drinking (Gilman, 1937) •Drinking is directly proportional to additional salt load •Microinjection of small amounts of NaCl into certain brain areas induces drinking. •Changes in osmolarity are monitored by cells (osmoreceptors) in the Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT).

Evidence that females use assessment signals that are honest indicators of fitness

•Eyespots in peacocks: Petrie, 1994 •Why honest?: likely that only high quality males can afford the cost of growing and displaying a large train (Simple index vs. Handicap Principle) •Interestingly males are more likely to give tail rattling display when females on their "sunny side" - take female perspective into account-when sun is shinning on dots •The ones with the fathers more eye spots, survived better •Males tail is handicap, a simple index of males quality

Recently: Krupenye et al. 2016 Great apes pass false-belief tests

•False belief understanding is hallmark of human Theory of Mind (ToM) •False-belief (FB) understanding is of particular interest because it requires recognizing that others' actions are driven not by reality but by beliefs about reality, even when those beliefs are false •Great apes (chimps, bonobos, orangutans) show understanding of FB through anticipatory looking E.g. Man in gorilla suit hides - ape subjects had to predict from a video where the other man would go to search on basis of whether he had seen or not seen a switch in location of gorillaman. Ape responses judged by anticipatory looking Apes accurately anticipated the behavior of the man even when he held a false belief

Degree of symmetry in male ornaments may also indicate fitness

•Female choice for low levels of Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA) in length of outermost tail-feathers in barn swallows: Moller, 1992 & 3 •Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA) = Absolute deviation from perfect symmetry on characteristics that are (on average) symmetrical on the two sides of the body •Evidence that FA reflects individual's propensity to withstand stress during development and predicts fitness •Female Japanese scorpionflies prefer pheromones of more symmetrical males: Thornhill 1992 •Honest because only high quality males can experience significant stress during development (temperature perturbations etc) & still look symmetrical

Female choice for masculine faces:

•Female preferences for masculinised faces are stronger during fertile phase of cycle •Similar effects on preferences for male body shapes, tallness and testosterone related vocal characteristics

Female choice and male voices: evidence for female choice on the basis of acoustic cues

•Females prefer low voice pitch in males - associating it with dominance, masculinity and health •Testosterone levels affect voice pitch •In Hadza hunter-gatherers (Tanzania) - men with low pitched voices produce more children (probably through access to more fertile women). •women view men with low pitched voices as better at acquiring resources (Apicella et al) •evidence that both fundamental frequency and formants (vocal tract resonances) affect the dominance ratings that listeners give to voices: •Men and women spontaneously alter fundamental frequency & formants in predicted directions when asked to sound large or small (holds across cultures)

Genetic mutation that increases dopamine activity makes mice want more sucrose, without changing their liking of sucrose.

•Genetically altered mice with high dopamine levels 'want' food more (run faster for food) but 'like' it just as much (or even less) •How fun it will run to get food •In high dopamine, they run faster, they want it more •If you ask if they like it more, high dopamine they like it less •It wants it more but doesn't like it more

Appear to be high level strategies in territorial behaviour and co-operative hunting

•In aggressive interactions between different communities elaborate strategies are evident - numerical assessment (experiments by Wilson & Hauser), silent patrols (males appear to actively search for signs or presence of neighbours by patrolling alongside or within their territories - infiltrations characterised by silent progression). •Sophisticated 'collaborative' hunts with hunters performing complementary roles all directed towards the same prey - chasers who pursue prey pressing them forward and ambushers who go ahead, apparently anticipating escape direction, and force prey back; Alot of individual variation in strategy and success rate.

Furthermore, signals allow individuals and groups to assess rivals

•In individual contests: assessment of fighting ability/resource holding potential of opponent: next lecture on sexual selection •Can show body size and strength •Individuals can work out from signals how many there are In these Group Contests: Probability of approach closely predicted by ratio of number defenders to number of intruders (odds of success): numerical assessment in lions McComb et al. 2004 and some non-human primates

Fear conditioning in rodents

•In this task the rat, or mouse, learns about the relationship between a specific CS (tone) and US (shock) as a result of repeated pairings while in a particular context. •Later the animal can be tested with both the cue in its home cage, and in the conditioning context without the cue. In both cases a freezing response provides a measure of recall of the association. •Take a rodent (rat, mouse) •Rat taken out of cone cage and placed into conditioning cage •Specific cage (distinctively different to home cage) •Conditioning task- pairing of tone with mild electric shot

Solution: consider INDIRECT (genetic) benefits as well as direct benefits -Kin selection theory

•Inclusive fitness: the total fitness that an individual gains, by breeding itself and by helping close relatives to breed -If individuals share their genes, they help relative in order to pass on their genes •Key point - individuals can increase THEIR OWN FITNESS by helping relatives to breed because relatives share copies of their genes Kin selection: the process by which characteristics are favoured due to their beneficial effects on the survival of close relatives (including offspring and non-descendant kin).

Benefits have to be weighed against COSTS

•Increased chances of being detected by predators •Higher risk of parasitism •Resources have to be shared with other group members •Increased risk of reproductive suppression (for subordinates) Where benefits outweigh costs there can be direct selection on individuals to live in groups

Action potential summary

•Information is represented and transmitted in the brain using electrical signals •Membrane potentials are generated by electrochemical forces and can be used to transmit signals over distances. •Each ion has its own equilibrium potential •The resting membrane potential is generated by four main factors -Selective permeability of the membrane to potassium -The K+ equilibrium potential and leak K+ current -The small Na+ conductance -The Na/K pumps that maintain ion gradients. •Action potentials are All or Nothing and only occur once the threshold is met! •Frequency and timing of action potentials code neuronal information •Myelin speeds action potentials by reducing axon capacitance and charge loss across the axon membrane •Myelin supports axons by providing lactate

Drug administration

•Injecting a drug directly into the brain allows it to act quickly in low doses because there id no barrier •Drugs injected into the bloodstream encounter the fewest barrier to the brain but must be hydrophilic •Taking drugs orally is the safest, easiest way •Drugs that are weak acids pass from the stomach into the bloodstream •Drugs that are weak bases pass from the intestines to the bloodstream •Drugs injected into muscle encounter more barriers than do drugs inhaled •Females are twice as sensitive to drugs as males due to body size but also hormonal differences

Davies & Halliday Lab experiment (Sexual selection and communication)

•Introduced male much more likely to attack when played the high pitched croak than when played the low pitched croak •Visual cues and tactile cues were also important •Honest because of relationship between larynx (voice box) and body size - larger males, more massive vocal folds

Other evidence that animals can attach acoustic or visual labels to external objects and events

•Kanzi: pygmy chimpanzee (bonobo) uses lexigram keyboard to communicate (Savage-Rumbaugh) •Captive dolphins taught to attach labels to objects (Herman) •And Rico the border collie... (Kaminski) -knew the names of 200 toys that his owner got him to fetch •Also Alex: African grey parrot trained by Irene Pepperberg

Knowledge of third party relationships

•Knowledge of the dominance relationships between other individuals could confer fitness benefits, enabling individuals to assess which potential allies are likely to be effective in coalitions against opponents - and playback studies suggest baboons know what vocal interactions to expect between dominants and subordinates •There is evidence that male bonnet macaques use information about third party relationships when they recruit support from other males, consistently choosing allies that outrank them AND their opponents: Silk, 1999 •They know these relationships exist between others and they recruit others to help them •Recent work on knowledge of 3rd party human relationships in dogs: Anderson et al. 2017: capuchin monkeys and pet dogs differential reactions to people who are helpful or unhelpful in third-party contexts

The dual-centre hypothesis: feeding dedicated brain areas?

•LH VH active in states of hunger and driving our eating behaviour •Two opposing systems

Problems with dual centre hypothesis

•LH brain self-stimulation (i.e., activation of the LH) is rewarding in rats. •Brain sites where stimulation causes eating (i.e., induces state of hunger) are the same sites where self-stimulation is rewarding •LH stimulation sometimes produces feeding, but just as often other behaviors (e.g. drinking, aggressions) - effects of LH stimulation depends on the situation Not dedicated to feeding, but important for feeding

Thorndike's Laws of Learning

•Law of Effect - behaviour that leads to a positive outcome (coming out of the chamber) is more likely to occur in the future •Law of Exercise - connections between responses and outcomes are strengthened by repetition •Law of Readiness - learning is motivated by an internal state -Ex. Food - will make it learn

Leptin: yet another satiety cue?

•Leptin discovered in obese mice. •Genetic leptin deficiency (lack/shortage) associated with obesity •Leptin produced by adipose tissue and interacts with six types of receptors (Leptin receptor) •Leptin receptor is present in a number of hypothalamic nuclei, where it exerts its effects. •Leptin binds to receptors in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus •Leptin deficiency- no receptors or patients don't produce enough leptin and these are subjects that tend to be obese •If you replace leptin who suffer under produciton of leptin, see dramatic change in body mass •Leptin act on brain system and that regulate feeding behaviour/satiety feeling

VMH lesions increase feeding and weight: Satiety center

•Lesion to Ventromedial hypothalamus •Almost instantly after surgery there was an increase in feeding behaviour and weight •Animals became fat when you lesioned the VH •So it must be fasting part of the brain

LH lesions decrease feeding and weight:Hunger center

•Lesioned LH •Saw dramatic drop in weight and feeding behaviour •So if you lesioned part of the brain you see decrease in feeding so if you activate that art of the bran it makes you eat/hungry

Limbic system

•Limbic brain areas such as frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and nucleus accumbens alter hypothalamic processes to influence motivation, pleasure and emotion. •Connections between the limbic system and hypothalamus integrate homeostatic and non-homeostatic mechanisms in feeding, drinking (and temperature regulation) •Hypothalamus interacts with nucleus accumbance •Amygdala and nucleus accumbance influence the hypothalamus to allow homeostatic regulatory feeding but also non-homeostatic feeding mechanism

Optogenetically interrogating motivational (SFA) circuits

•Making neurons react to light •Technique allows us to express light engated channels •If your present light, virus effects tissue •Over expressed channels when you shine light, they active and let in positive currents •Three conditions -Access to water spouse -Now dish water -Control: reinforce but its not water, its food •Rapidly activate that part of the brain •Mouse runs to the spout/dish --> doesn't matter how the water is presented but the water is relevant, animals walks to food but doesn't eat it •-->brain area is important in drinking /water •mouse is when channel are turned on a lot of drinking behaviour •when light is on, even when mouse is not thirsting but when you turn on the light --> they overdrink

Dopamine and reward

•Many abused drugs lead to activation of brain dopamine systems. •e.g. cocaine, amphetamine, opiates, nicotine, alcohol. •Natural rewards, such as palatable food, may also lead to activation of the same brain dopamine systems. •Do the properties of brain dopamine systems help us understand the behavioural features of addiction? •Might we be able to develop drug treatments for drug craving?

Weight scaled for height (body mass index BMI)

•Men prefer women with intermediate Body Mass Index BMI •BMI is strongly linked to health and reproductive potential •Males also prefer neotonous features (resembling newborn infants) in female faces; faces of models may be supernormal stimuli •Selection for reproduction potential of females in the past

Maternal rank and dominance

•Most common for female pirates to inherit the dominance rank immediately below their mother, in reverse age order eg, Rhesus macaques - the youngest offspring goes right below her mother in the domainance rank •Female form social group and males disperse champanzees- reverse, the males stay in latel group and females leave, so it the sons that inherit the mothers rank •In Chimpanzees (where males stay in natal group) dominant mothers have dominant sons •Rank may be dependent on forming alliances with other individuals

Synaptic basis of memory

•New synapses could be generated to store specific new memories. •Existing synapses could be modified to store the memories •A pool of new synapses could be continuously generated in the brain, learning and memory incorporates them into a functional storage network.

Machiavellian intelligence: what is it?

•Niccolo Machiavelli (born in Florence in the 15th century) - Chancellor to the Florentine Republic •E.g. "...so it follows that a prudent ruler cannot, and must not, honour his word when it places him at a disadvantage..." •He provided cunning advice for social interactions based on Mind-reading and deception in his book (The Prince)

Principles of Respondent conditioning: Extinction

•No reinforcement/loss of contiguity •Response loses strength •When extinction there is no more response •When you go along that response decreases/disappears •Inverted acquisition curve

Benzodiazepines may modulate GABA-ergic inputs to amygdala

•Note that there are many other potential modulators of amygdala function, including serotonin (5-HT). •Amygdala contains sensitive benzodiazepine receptors

Resource Defense Polygyny

•Number of wives related to Resources in Kipsigis Borgerhoff-Mulder •Bridewealth in Maasai: Groom and his family donate resources

Example of tool-use: Nut-cracking in Tai chimps

•Nuts (eg, Coala nuts and harder Panda nuts) provide a rich source of protein and energy that, without means of cracking, would be inaccessible •To nut-crack need an anvil (hard substrate such as base of tree or rocky outcrop), nut and hard tool for hammering - crucially, these rarely occur together naturally and chimps often select tools and transport them (and/or nuts) to a specific place •If feeding on abundant nuts will select a hammer and carry it around as they feed (good quality hammers are monopolised first); if going to crack nuts in trees will select a hammer and take it up with them; if cracking hard nuts will select a suitably heavy hammer and often carry it quite long distances •Nut-cracking skills (and other tool use) is learnt -social learning/cultural transmission

Absolute and refractory period

•Once a patch of membrane is generating an action potential and its sodium channels have inactivated, a neuron is incapable of responding to another stimulus, no matter how strong. This is the absolute refractory period. This enforces one-way transmission. •The relative refractory period is when some sodium gates are inactivated, potassium open and the neuron is repolarising. A normally supra-threshold stimulus does not generate an action potential, but a very strong stimulus can re-open the sodium channels and generate an action potential. Therefore strong stimuli can generate high frequency action potentials by intruding into the relative refractory period.

Stress and emotion key points

•Responses to stress involve a mix of effects occurring with different time courses. •Short responses are neurally mediated, with the sympathetic nervous system, and noradrenalin as a critical neurotransmitter, playing an important role. •Longer term responses are hormonally mediated and involve activation of the HPA axis. •Although the short term effects of stress may often be beneficial, in terms of enhancing biological fitness, long term stress often has deleterious consequences.

Saccades require disinhibition of superior colliculus by pause of firing of cells within substantia nigra

•Saccade- rapid eye movement •The way in which it is controlled, it involved geoups of cells within the basal ganglia •The outcome of some experiments it was possible to record in the nucleus at the same time record within superior niculus, animal make eye movement to get reward •Find: superior colliculus is in the out put side of producing the saccade, when you stimulate within the superior colliculus will stimulate eye movement •Also see burst of firing within the nucleus •Within substantia nigra you find a high level of background firing which drops off before they movement is made •Groups of cells in substantial nigra which are inhibiting other cells from becoming active, which you initiate the action is taking of the inhibition

Non-benzodiazepine anxiolytics

•Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) will enhance serotonergic inhibition in both amygala- and CSTC related circuits. Buspirone is another serotonergic drug, with a different mechanism of action, that may achieve a broadly similar effect. •Modulators of voltage sensitive calcium channels (VSCCs), such as gabapentin and pregabalin, which may reduce excitatory glutamate transmission in amygala- and CSTC related circuits. •Noradrenergic antagonists may reduce noradrenergic inputs that normally enhance vigilance, partly via effects on hippocampus and amygdala, and can also reduce autonomic components of anxiety.

Thirst as a homeostatic motivation

•Set-point: optimal fluid balance •Sensors: osmoreceptors in OVLT of brain, baroceptors in heart and kidneys •Effector: Drinking, salt appetite & water conservation measures

Parallels in lateralisation in animals

•Sheep, like humans and chimps, use left-visual field cues more than right visual - field ones for detecting negative emotion cues on faces •Horses are better at matching owner's voice to sight of owner when owner is in right visual field (left hemisphere) - pro-social task •Many species preferentially view predators with the left eye (right hemisphere) - anti-social/threatening stimulus

A motor unit

•Sherrington, writing in the 1920's, was responsible for the initial concept of a "motor unit". •It consists of the motor neuron and the set of muscle fibres which it innervates. •Muscle contraction involves a mix of recruitment (of additional motor units) and rate coding (increasing the degree of contraction of a motor unit by increasing the firing frequency of the motor neuron). •Individual motor neuron will innovate a whole number of individual muscle fibres •That group of muscle fibres are call a motor unit

If body temperature is too cold

•Shiver produces energy, energy produces heat •Metabolism of brown fat increase metabolism (breakdown of nutrients) produced heat •Increased thyroid activity --> thyroid hormone increases metabolism

Myelin support of axons

•Shows that neuronal activity stimulus for oligodendrogytce to transform glucose from myelin into axon •Removing MCT1 from oligodendrocytes leads to axonal damage and loss of neurones (Lee,...Rothstein et al., Nature 2015). •A decrease in MCT1 is implicated in the pathology of Amytropic Lateral Sclerosis and Multiple sclerosis.

Key points (Experience-dependent plasticity)

•Simultaneous pre- and post synaptic activity •Some sort of change in the connection between the neurons •Increase in the influence that pre synaptic neuron has over postsynaptic activity

Interesting study providing evidence for a form of reciprocity:

•Situation where two individuals groom one another, one received grooming from other individual •Then had a play back where individual was in a fight •If grooming had first occurred, if one individual called for help, more likely to help •contingent co-operation in baboons Previously receiving grooming renders them more likely to respond. Interesting to also note evidence for food-sharing with non-relatives in chimpanzees and rats - benefits unclear •benefits of that sharing is beneficial

Resting membrane potential

•So water soluble things can't get through. •If membrane only permeable to potassium, •Em = EK+ = -80 mV •But Em ≈ -70 mV • Membrane slightly permeable to sodium too. •Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation -RT/F constance -Lots of concentration gradient, concentration gradient for ion affects resting potential -Permeability of how many holes there are in the membrane •explained before that K+ channels that are open at rest allow k+ to escape and generate the negative membrane potential in resting neurons. •So because PK+ >> PNa+ , the equilibrium potential for potassium (EK+) contributes more to the resting membrane potential than sodium's equilibrium potential (ENa+) •So Em = -70mV (near EK+ = -80mV) •Also chloride channels open too but as membrane potential is near Ecl they don't really have much effect on the membrane potential • K+ leak channels fix Em near EK+ •Last thing: Generally leakage of K+ out of and Na+ into cell. Gradually this would deplete concentration gradients. The ions need to pumped back to where they came from with the Na+/K+ pump, •Sodium potassium pump uses ATP and plotes them back, pumps 3 calcium out of cell and 2 potassium into the cell

Picking up the detail

•Specialized cells in the retina (cones and rods) transduce the physical energy of the light into a depolarization of retinal ganglion cells that results in trains of action potentials in the optic nerve •light falls onto the retina, it contains specialized cells at back of retina •rods give you black and white images •photoreceptors, normally these cells are depolarized in resting state and when light falls on top them they become hyperpolarized •when light falls onto receptor , initiates closure of sodium channels •if u close sodium channels, the membrane will hyperpolarize •retinal ganglia cell are the output of the cell and project into the brain •the kind of receptors in the retina, may depend on the environment you live -ex. Some birds have more receptor types and concentrated around brown, green visual spectrum

Learning effects in eating Cue-potentiated feeding in sated rats (Peter Hollands)

•Step 1: Pavlovian conditioning - cue (CS+) (light/tone) is paired with food delivery when hungry (CS- is unpaired control cue) •Step 2: Satiate with free feeding (i.e., take away the 'drive'). •Before he tested ability of bell and tone, he gave animals free access to food •Step 3: Play back to Conditioned Stimulus (CS+) and it produces (over)eating •When he played the conditioned stimulus (tone), but if shows cue paired with food, increase in feeding •Cue CS potentiated feeding in the absence of nutrients •Those cues makes you eat This effect is due to influence of the amygdala on the hypothalamus

Electricity and biology

•Stimulating nerve- see muscle switch •We are taking a stimulus electron, got a power supply, apply voltage across two wires and so if the nerve can conduct electricity there will be a current flow and stimulus the nerve •We can get two more electron and measure volt between them •We can measure the voltage in a neuron and stimulate it to do something with a two set of electron

Effect of localised electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus

•Stimulation of anterior hypothalamus produces 'sham-rage' (top right) in a normally placid animal (top left), but stimulation of lateral •Hypothalamus produced directed rage (bottom left and right). •Delgado later became 'well known' for implanting a bull with electrodes and stopping it charging at him. •He later stated that he would have liked to have been able to control the Spanish dictator General Franco in the same way

Limitations of innate responses

•Stimulus (trigger or 'releaser') must be physically present in environment •What about novel stimuli? •Little opportunity to modify response ('trial-and-error learning') Modification on an evolutionary (phylogenetic) time scale, not on an individuals (ontogenetic) time scale Example •Jewel beetle showing copulatory response to beer bottle •Found that the bottle colour and structural wise looked same as beetle •These beetle tried to mate the bottles drop of populations

Fear and the amygdala: a PET imaging study

•Subjects are presented with lists of either neutral fear-relevant words printed in different colours. They are asked to name the colours, as quickly as possible. •moderate list reside •persecute threat destroy •Fear-relevant words produce greater activation of amygdala, suggesting that this structure plays a role in processing linguistically coded threat stimuli.

Preference test of conditioned aversion

•Subjects that were made ill, avoided the sweet water •those that received shock, avoided bright/noisy water but they were also happy drinking sweet flavour water --> Tells us how we form our aversion

Test drug addiction

•Substitute the drug with one that has less rewarding properties (e.g. substitute heroin with methadone which has a slower onset of action) •Block the effects of a rewarding drug by treating with an 'antagonist' (e.g. block the effects of heroin with the opioid receptor antagonists naloxone or naltrexone) or a 'partial agonist' (buprenorphine) •Naltrexone may also be helpful in reducing heavy drinking •Use one of a variety of behavioral strategies (e.g. CBT)

Benzodiazepines and GABAA receptor subtypes

•The GABAA receptor is made up of 5 separate subunits - each is a protein and coded by a different gene. •The subunits are slightly variable in their structure, altering the sensitivity of the receptor to benzodiazepines. •There are differences through the brain in the expression of these subunits.

Fear and the amygdala

•The amygdala is involved in simple fear conditioning in rats: •rat hears a tone - small increase in blood pressure and brief startle response. •tone precedes a mild footshock on several occasions - larger increase in blood pressure and rat freezes. •tone alone now elicits increase in blood pressure and freezing (Pavlovian or classical conditioning). •The conditioning process is greatly reduced in rats with damage to the amygdala.

Basal ganglia and movement control

•The basal ganglia include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus and also the substantia nigra •Subcortical structures that are crucial to movement control •These structures show degeneration in Parkinson disease (find it difficult to initate action and voluntarily stop it) •Basal ganglia innovated by neuron in the back of the brain and project forward and these neuron use dopamine as their neurotransmitter •Dopamine crucial to functioning of basal ganglia •Drugs replace the dopamine- enables more normal motor function

Individual differences in response to stress

•The enzyme catechol-O-methyl-transferase (COMT) is important in degrading dopamine. •There are two common gene variants in human populations ('Met' or 'Val') which influence enzyme activity (homozygous for Met → lower COMT activity → higher dopamine levels). •Dopamine levels play an important role in regulating activity in CSTC loops. •Individuals with the Met genotype may deal more easily with demanding cognitive tasks, but may also be prone to greater stress responses and a tendency to worry. •Individuals with the Val genotype, with lower dopamine levels, may be less disabled by stress, but require greater activation in CSTC loops during demanding cognitive tasks, potentially leading to a greater vulnerability to psychosis. •This is a speculative hypothesis ('worriers vs warriors - Stein et al 2006) but does illustrate that gene variants may predispose to individual variation that is adaptive under different circumstances.

Baker and Bellis: Ejaculates collected in condoms form subjects

•The less time the couple has spent together (i.e. the greater the risk that the female has copulated with another male) the more sperm the male ejaculates (controlling for time since last ejaculation). •But the amount of sperm in masturbatory ejaculates does NOT depend on proportion of time together

Key points (Biological basis of emotion)

•The limbic system, as originally characterized through the work of Broca, Papez, Maclean and others, has a critical role in the representation of affect and reward in the brain. •Emotion is distinguished from other psychological processes by the dimension of affect (pleasure and displeasure or aversion). •Fear is especially well understood at the neural level, involving interactions between cortical sites, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and brain stem. •Other emotions are likely to depend on neural systems partially independent from that for fear, and are the subject matter of affective neuroscience. •Consciously perceived human emotions involve a complex interaction of these basic mechanisms with developmental and social influences.

Stress- the slower, hormonally mediated response

•The release of cortisol is triggered by ACTH from the pituitary. Some of the effects overlap those of the monoamines adrenalin and noradrenalin. They also enhance the ability to use fats and proteins in metabolism and a variety of other effects. •Inability to produce glucocorticoids (e.g. Addision's disease) greatly increases vulnerability to stress. •Release of CRH, produces release of ACTH from anterior gland into blood stream then reaches among among places among adrenal gland were picked up by receptors within the cells of adrenal cortex and this releases Glucocorticoids

Key points (theories of emotion)

•The scientific study of emotion rests on key contributions from Darwin and James onwards. •The relationship of appraisal, cognition, and autonomic responses to emotionally arousing stimuli remains an area of active discussion. •There is convincing evidence from a variety of sources that pre-conscious processes make a significant contribution to the generation of emotional responses.

Results in Sexual Dimorphism

•The sex with the higher potential reproductive rate (usually males because sperm are cheap to produce and male investment often ends at conception) competes for the sex with the lower potential reproductive rate •Males are usually larger, with more highly developed weaponry and extravagant displays - but not always: Eg, spotted sandpiper where males incubate the eggs of several females and females compete for them

Stress- the faster, neutrally mediated response

•The stressor activates brain circuits, including amygdala, hypothalamus and brain stem, then via sympathetic neurons that directly innervate the adrenal medulla. •These monoamines lead to mobilisation of metabolic resources together with shifts in blood circulation to facilitate vigorous activity. •sympathetic nervous system active, adrenalin and noradrenaline released - 'fight or flight' •sympathetic nerves are activating cells within the medulla- the interior part, where the cells are synthesizing adrenalin •parasympathetic nervous system active, acetylcholine released - 'rest and digest'

Stress and immune function

•There are important interactions between stress responses and immune function. Glucocorticoid release leads to suppression of inflammation and immune responses. •Tissue damage leads to increased release of cytokines. Cytokines act at CNS receptors (hypothalamus and elsewhere) to produce behavioral effects (feelings of illness and lethargy). •These responses may promote withdrawal from a dangerous environment, rest and recovery, and enhance biological fitness.

Identifying it as a ..........., remembering where it came from ...

•These processes will involve projections from dorsal and ventral streams to parietal and temporal lobe structures. The projections from brainstem to cortex are important in maintaining attention and arousal-like processes. •These processes are crucial in being able to retrieve objects •Right hand shows the way you go the projections, sensory, running through to whole range of cortical structures to temporal lobe structure (identifying process) and then you can begin in decision making processing, involving prefrontal cortex •You have whole series of connections that cme back on them selves •Important that you got some processes which modulate your interest (highly alert, browsing), those kind of proceses are run by systems that project by the brain stem up to cortical areas, simply setting level of processing •Neurotransmitters associated with this is acetylcholine, serotonin, noradrenaline -They can work over long fraction of seconds -Noradrenaline- project widely with in cortex, tune up individual nerve cells and make them more responsive to the signals they are receiving -Acetylchline- loss of cholinerig cell when you have alyheimer and result of that is loss in memory •Ion trophin receptor- neurotransmitter lands on it and immediately opens channel, respond rapidly

Signals also provide crucial information on intentions

•This bowing posture unambiguously predicts play in carnivores •There are also ritualised ways of signalling submission •Another crucial function of communication is to allow individuals of different ranks to interact without getting into fights -Grunts in vervet monkeys: different grunts used to address dominants versus subordinates, if they use wrong grunt, you get strong reactions -Allows animals to interact without actual getting into a fight •Appease opponents after agonistic disputes -Olive baboons: grunting by a dominant to a subordinate after an aggressive interaction allows the subordinate to relax.

New synapses are continuously generated in the brain

•This was Donald Hebb's original idea •New synapses are anatomically and physiologically connected, but not part of a memory network. •Upon appropriate activation - synapses are "strengthened" and incorporated into a memory network.

Drive reduction theory

•Thorndike's Law of Readiness - learning is motivated by an internal state. •Hull proposed that a reinforcer supports learning because it alleviates an internal state of deprivation -e.g., food is reinforcing to an organism if and because it alleviates hunger state •Emphasis on Homeostasis = physiological systems at equilibrium by constantly adjusting to change. •Imbalance in homeostasis creates 'arousal' that initiates action. •The goal is to decrease the 'arousal' •Minimise difference between the optimum 'set-point' and 'actual point'

Culture in chimpanzees

•Tool use occurs in all studied populations of chimps but crucially the size and nature of the tool repertoire varies between populations, as does the toolkit - this is cultural variation •In cultural evolution inter-generation transmission of behaviour occurs through social learning (rather than genetically) - in the biological sciences cultural transmission is recognised as one of the two processes that can generate evolutionary change •Chimps are unusual in that they show cultural variation in a range of behaviour patterns (not just a single one as is case in many animals) - cultural variation evident in contexts of tool-use, grooming, courtship •Patterns observed resemble those in human societies in which differences between cultures constituted by multiplicity of variations in technology and social customs

Tool making and tool use

•Tool use was, for a long time, thought to be uniquely human - and when first described in captive chimps at the beginning of 20th century it was dismissed as an artifact •Now known to be common in all studied populations of wild chimps: in Tai forest chimps, more than 2 tools used per day •Tool use is very varied and flexible: tools used mainly in feeding contexts, but also in social interactions and to improve personal comfort •Tool making is very common: moreover, in Tai forest chimps 46% of all tools are manufactured by chimps before use (ie, anticipatory, not just trial and error); common modifications include changing length and shape

The Origins of Emotional Responses Zajoncs affective primacy theory

•Unconscious evaluation of stimulus which is important to leading to regeneration of an emotional response •Expose partiicpants to stimuli they are not conscoisly aware of, and look for changes in the liking of those previously neutral stimuli •This theory is partly based on empirical studies of the "mere exposure" effect in which pre-exposure to novel patterns or stimuli produces an increase in liking for those stimulus. This can happen even where there has been no conscious registration of the stimuli. •The idea that preconscious processing can be an important determinant of emotional responses, occurring independently of conscious appraisal, fits well with recent neuroscientific approaches to emotion.

Female orgasm & mate choice

•Up-suck hypothesis: Female orgasm functions to suck up sperm during copulation - leads the cervix to gape and dip into the seminal pool •Women with partners that had low fluctuating asymmetry (and their partners) reported significantly more copulatory female orgasms than were reported by women with partners that had high fluctuating asymmetry (and their partners): Thornhill et al., 1995 This sort of study should be treated very cautiously - Need to question how reliable such data (based on self report) would be - highlighting that you have to be critical about the evidence you accept, particularly in this field which is still at a relatively early stage

Eating/drinking circuitry

•VTA, acucmbance and hippomcapus --> limbic system

Novel vocal production in koalas : Charlton et al., 2013:

•Velum (soft palate) is more massive than vocal folds and acts as an alternative source for the vocalisation - enables very low fundamental frequency (27Hz) •Male-male assessment based on croak pitch in common toads •Larger males have larger vocal folds and therefore lower pitched croaks

Reward (wanting/liking)

•Wanting is controlled by dopaminergic activating systems •Liking controlled by opiate and GABA-benzodiazephine systems

Thirst and homeostasis

•Water comprises 70% of our lean body mass •As water is lost, cellular processes become inefficient, & eventually excessive water loss is fatal -Cell membrane becomes less permeable •Fluid loss through evaporation, respiration (H2O), urine and sweating (H2O + salt). Drinking behaviour is the primary means of replenishing water

Advertisements From lonely hearts sections of newspapers Waynforth & Dunbar

•What adverstisers want -Men tend to say in the text that they want good looks, don't say much about resources -Women in contrast emphasise both good looks and resources •When offering traits -men want both but more resources than good looks -women good looks than resources

Search for the memory 'Engram'

•What part in the brain is important for encoding (maze) •Took rats and did surgery on them and put damage to cortex --> Discrete lesions of cortical areas did not interfere with maze learning, but large areas of damage did. It didn't matter where he did this damage, but the amount of damage determined whether memory is deficient or not

Sheep discern emotions in other sheep and humans (Tate et al., 2006)

•When given free choice of 2 pictures, sheep show more than 80% preference for the calm sheep face or the smiling human one •Horses also discriminate key emotions: (Wathan et al., 2016)

Also monkeys appeared to know what others can /cannot hear (Santos et al. 2006) on Rhesus monkeys

•When human competitor looking at them - stole grapes equally from both "noisy" & "silent" containers •When competitor looking away - preferentially stole from "silent" container

Displays and Intra-sexual Competition

•When individuals compete for mates opponents are rarely equally matched •in particular differ in ability to acquire or defend the resource RESOURCE HOLDING POTENTIAL (RHP)

Heritable variation

•Where heritable variation in the factors that cause differences in success in intra-sexual competition and inter-sexual choice •Generates selection on the competing/chosen sex for increased body size, weaponry and sexual displays

Multiple sclerosis

•Where myelin is damaged •MS is an autoimmune disease. •Immune cells enter the brain and attack myelin. •Loss of myelin stops neurons from firing action potentials properly. •Because any part of the brain can be affected, the symptoms that result are very varied. •At first the axons get remyelinated by the pool of oligodendrocyte progenitors that reside in the brain, but after some time, remyelination fails and the neurons die. Symptoms include: fatigue, vision problems, numbness and tingling, muscle spasms, weakness, pain, mobility problems, cognitive problems, depression and anxiety.

But different in others

•While many of the apparent divisions between non-human primates and humans in behaviour and mind have been re-evaluated in the light of recent scientific evidence, some remain •Perhaps the most fundamental of these (which may underpin many of the other differences eg, limited culture and technology in animals) is human language •"Human language is one of the most distinctive behavioural adaptations on the planet. Languages evolved in only one species, in only one way, without precedent, and without parallel. Hundreds of millions of years of evolution have produced hundreds of thousands of species with brains, and tens of thousands with complex learning abilities. Only one of these has ever wondered about its place in the whole scheme, because only one - through its language - evolved with the ability to do so

Mental states themselves are inaccessible, but can look at responses animals give to external objects and events

•Work by Cheney & Seyfarth •Use of playback experiments to address questions about animal communication and animal minds

Summary: the stress cascade

•You might like to think of stressors as initiating a cascade of physiological events over time. These are initially beneficial but potentially become more harmful with long term or chronic stressors. •Fast things on blue side •Loss of feedback control leads o structural changes, leading to developmental changes

A definition of recreational drug

•addiction - "loss of control over a form of behaviour pleasurable to most people". •suggests a separation of liking and wanting which is also the basis of some psychobiological theories of addiction.

Vervet monkey

•alarm calling

Choice for mate of right species

•choosing the right species to mate with is crucial (hybrids often infertile) and female preferences have clearly also been shaped with respect to this: eg, work by Gerhardt on gray teefrogs C •In general H. chrysoscelis have calls with higher pulse rates BUT pulse rate varies with temperature. Gerhardt found that female H. versicolor avoid males with higher pulse rates, particularly at low temperatures, female H. chrysoscelis avoid males with low pulse rates, particularly at high temperatures

Mating System

•describes the way that individuals obtain and bond with mates (the number of mating partners that individual males and females obtain is a key issue).

Thorndike's Puzzle Box

•did experiment with cat •a box where there was a little peddle in middle box, if stepped on medal, the door would open up •took a cat, put it in the box --> cat tried to get out •if he looked at time taken for cat to get out and number of trials --> more trials, faster at getting out

Pavlovian (a.k.a. Classical or Respondent) conditioning

•different stimuli, not the salvation response •the minute the person (who gave dog food) walked into the room the dog started salivating •reflexed •simple experiment •dog salivated in response to food/other stimuli •he now has conditioned stimuli •neutral stimuli (tuning fork) •bell- food (pair) •once then presented the bell, get food response (salivation)

Barbary macaque

•dominance hirachies

Adaptive problems faced by our hunter-gatherer ancestors:

•eating the right food •avoiding predators •obtaining mates •caring for offspring •forming alliances •reading other people's minds How well an individual solved these problems would have affected their success in passing on genes - We would therefore expect mental mechanisms for solving these problems to have been selected for

In humans emotional intelligence affects social success

•eg, emotional intelligence of group leader affects performance of team (Koman & Wolff, 2008) What about animals? Interesting topic for future studies •Although there is an expanding new field of "Affective Neuroscience" relatively few studies have systematically investigated behavioural phenomena related to emotions in non-human animals or tried to directly relate emotional sensitivity to social behaviour •Other important questions: Humans have the capacity to resonate with the emotions of others and engage in emotional perspective-taking (empathy) What about animals?

Rhesus macaque

•event associated with call (loudspeaker)

Evolutionary psychology

•focuses on the adaptiveness of psychological mechanisms that underlie human behaviour; human behaviour is the product of the interaction of a myriad of psychological mechanisms and these mechanisms came about through natural and sexual selection eg, Barkow, Cosmides, Tooby •potentially more useful & widely applicable

Human behavioural ecology

•focuses on the reproductive consequences of human behaviour eg, Borgerhoff-Mulder •often involves study of tribal (non-westernised) people with assumption that they are close to our ancestors

Key parameters in inter-sexual choice (usually female choice)

•good genes: females choose males with characteristics that indicate high genetic quality and as a result obtain genes for their offspring that confer high viability (offspring grow and survive better); for this to be evolutionarily stable, chosen characteristics must be honest indicators of male genetic quality •attractive sons (through a process of Fisherian selection): females choose males who are highly attractive (rather than more viable) and as a result have more attractive sons who are chosen by females in the next generation •Also note: possibility of sensory exploitation: females choosing males that exploit their innate sensory biases

Social organisation

•how animals interact with and space themselves in relation to other individuals of the same species (quality as well as the quantity of social bonds are important in describing social organisation).

Neurochemical basis of 'Long-term potentiation' (LTP)

•increases in receptors in the membrane •the AMPA receptor think what happens in behaviour

What is the function of the basal ganglia in relation to motor control?

•initiation and termination of actions •selection of actions •relating actions to reward or reinforcement value •basal ganglia is a dam and leading into the dam are series of alternative responses and job of basal ganglia is the most active response/salient response is disinhibited and goes to completion •salient action is at a particular point that is crucial in producing organized sequences of behaviour

Referential signalling:

•involves using signals to functionally denote external objects and events •eg, vervet monkey alarm calls denote predator type - different calls depending on predator •Leopard Alarm (bark) •Eagle Alarm (cough) •Snake alarm (chutter) Both when they are given naturally and when they are played back to the monkeys in the absence of the predator, these different calls elicit categorically different responses relevant to the predator's hunting style •Played the call in the absence of the predator- they didn't just give one alarming reaction but when playing leopard- rushed up in the tree, eagle- when heard cough they looked up in the sky, snake- monkeys stood up in the grass

The GABAA synapse and benzodiazepines

•neurotransmitter is GABA- most common neurotransmitter at synapses -inhibitiory effect on post synaptic •synthesis of neurotransmitter (blue triangles) •neurotransmitter is encapsulated into vesicles- able to be released •stimulus of their release if an action potential is propagated down cell- then within this area there are voltage gated calcium channels flowing from inside to outside- trigger movement and release of vesicles •fuse with presynaptic membrane •allow neurotransmitter to be released in cleft •once neurotransmitter active, either neurotransmitter broken down or back into presynaptic cell •with GABA uptaken by reuptake pump -Reuptake mechanism responsible for inactivating the neurotransmitter after it has been released •This diagrammatic version of the GABA-A synapse shows GABA within vesicles in the presynaptic terminal. •Depolarisation will lead to GABA release, which will act at the postsynaptic GABA receptors •then be transported back into the presynaptic terminal by the reuptake pump

Drugs and neurotransmitter receptors

•nicotine - subtype of acetylcholine receptor -important with attention, memory (nicotinic receptor) •alcohol - modulates GABA-A and GABA-B receptor, also NA and opioid receptors •opiates - opioid µ receptor •MDMA (ecstacy) - serotonin 2A receptor and serotonin transporter •cocaine - dopamine transporter •amphetamine - releases dopamine •barbiturates - modulates GABA-A receptor •cannabis - cannabinoid CB1 receptor Any recreationally used drug is likely to interact with specific brain neurotransmission systems, often by mimicking a natural neurotransmitter

Dorsal stream - where Ventral stream - what

•once information gets to occipital cortex, deal of processing happens, ex edges, local movements •cells in occipital cortex which are sensitive to these features •there is a smaller pathway from retina to SC and then to pulvinar, this pathway Is important to eye movement •visual information moves forward in the brain, two streams : dorsal, ventral •these are projecting to secondary and tertiary and other areas of auditory stimulus •it looks like the dorsal stream is important in analysing information where object is in space. That projecting comes through to parietal cortex •identifying the object is more important done by ventral stem and there the projectors run by series of areas deep into the temporal lobe •two broad stings of processing

Membrane capacitance

•oppositely charged particles are electrostatically attracted to each other across membranes. •This charging of the membrane is measured as capacitance. •The thicker the membrane, the less capacitance (the less the ions are attracted to the other side) there is. •Therefore the current (ion movement) that should be travelling down the axons is slower as the charge is initially neutralised when it is attracted to the membrane. •A larger capacitance also means a greater concentration change is needed to create the same potential difference across the membrane.

The optic nerves project to the contralateral lateral geniculate nucleus and then to the primary visual cortex

•optic nerv fibres form the nasal half of the retina cross the midline, projecting contralateral, whereas those from the temporal half of the retina project ipsilaterally and don't cross at the optic chiasm •information that is in the left visual world will project in the right side of brain •image of the box is the represented in the occipital cortex when I look at it and bring it to the midline and represented on both lines •this arrangement is typical of mammals with a binocular field of view

Bringing it all together

•overall sense of the integrated action of different brain areas in the planning and execution of any voluntary motor action. •You got reward related and sensory input which feeds into striatum •Premotor and motor cortex action plan segments, gated within striatum •Eventually leads to action plan being produced out via spinal cord action

Overlap between depression (MDD) and anxiety (GAD)

•overlaps suggests that there may also be come overlap in the drugs that are effective in treating anxiety and depression

Penfields motor homunculus

•parts of the brain are associated with various parts of the body •amount of cortical tissue represented by the size of the body part

Brain circuits for drug reward

•rat brain and location of major components of dompamine •arisen in deep midbrain and these dompainie neurons project forwards to structures like neucleus accumbance where thez actuallz release dompamine (crucuial for motivation) •most recreational drugs either interact indirect or directly with brain dopamine system •dopamine cells projecting forward, releasing dopamine in the accumbance •shows interaction that cannabanois can have in this place

Olive baboon

•reciprocal altruism •contingent cooperation •grunts to appreciate opponent after fights

Niko Tinbergen's - Herring Gull experiments

•red spot on the beak, the question does tis have to do with begging behaviour?, mother has to feed the chicks •the chicks would peg on beak on mother- complex set of behahours what is about the trigger? •He changed colour and area •The colour didn't matter, always shad same effect, except when white there was reduction •When eliminated or when moved less response •Its contrast between the colour and beak and the location

Social organisation:

•refers to how animals interact with and space themselves in relation to other individuals of same species Variation •Solitary (tigers, only intefer when mating) to social (this could mean that they just migrate in a group but don't actually interact) •Loose aggregations to close-knit, highly organised groups •The quality of social relationships is important We will examine evolutionary explanations for sociality

Atrial baroreceptor

•sense changes in overall volume, located pressure in the heart •Atria of heart contain neurons that detect stretch (baroreceptors) •Volume of return blood through veins detected by baroreceptors •Information from baroreceptors to nucleus of the solitary tract •Information to median preoptic area

Schacter and Singer's Cognitive Arousal Theory:

•the cognition is evaluated which then generates the emotional response. •this arousal was the same for a wide variety of emotions, so physical arousal alone could not be responsible for emotional responses. •when an emotion is felt, a physiological arousal occurs and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal •emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive •focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal. •In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough; we also must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion. •This theory was supported by experiments in which arousal was manipulated by administration of adrenaline. •The data suggested that this physiological arousal enhanced whatever emotion happened to be induced at the time.

Key points about emotions

•the key emotions are largely universal across human cultures •there are parallels between emotional expressions in humans and animals •recent research indicates that emotions are central to decision making (emotions and cognition interact) •responses to emotional expressions are lateralised in the brain both in man and animals •emotional intelligence is likely to have important effects on social success i.e. considerable adaptive value