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Code-Switching

Have you ever noticed that you talk differently with different groups of people? Maybe you talk in a specific way with your family, a different way with your friends, and still another way with your teachers at school or your employers at work. This process of changing how you communicate is called code-switching. Specifically, this term describes people varying the way they speak when they function in different cultures that use different languages. Learn more about code-switching by watching the video on the next screen. The reading selection—"Mother Tongue" by Amy Tan, presented later in this lesson—corresponds to the information in this video.

Writing a Research Paper

In this lesson, you'll practice skills for writing a research paper. A research paper is an essay that presents an argument or analyzes a point of view. The argument or the analysis is supported by research sources. The structure of the paper is similar to other essays. It includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. While writing, you'll use a common writing process. This process follows these steps: brainstorm outline draft review revise edit (proofread) publish In the next activity, you'll learn about the writing prompt for your paper. Then you'll find research sources and prepare an outline for your paper.

Analysis

N. Scott Momaday's writing in his introduction to The Way to Rainy Mountain is similar to the earlier quotation from Rebecca Harding Davis's work. Long sentences that often contain multiple phrases and clauses help illustrate the slow, expansive history and landscapes that the narrative portrays. Momaday's writing style changes, however, when he transcribes the Kiowa story that his grandmother told. The sentences are much more straightforward and parallel in structure, perhaps to imitate Momaday's grandmother's speech, or even to emphasize the difference between his own factual descriptions and the fictional story he relates.

Revising a Research Paper

Once your paper is written, you need to revise it. Revising is a way for you to improve the quality of your writing. It also helps you improve your paper's organization and the flow of your ideas. The revision step can focus on a section or the entire paper. You may need to revise your paper more than once. The goal is to end up with a polished final paper. During revision, look closely at your thesis statement, ideas, and supporting details. You may find that you need to rethink and rewrite parts of the paper to improve it.

Exploring Tradition and Culture in Literature

Some authors use literature to explore traditions and cultures that are different from their own. Others use details from their personal background to express different aspects of their own culture. Through the works of these authors, readers can build an emotional connection with a different culture. Authors illuminate traditions and cultures in various ways. They may write about food, language, holidays, or religion. They also address tradition by writing about the impact their family has on their adult identities. Immigrant parents often emphasize cultural traditions as a connection to their homeland, which influences the experiences and views of their children.

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The revision stage is the time to identify major problems and make the big changes needed to keep your paper on topic. It's also the time to ensure that your argument is logical and convincing to the reader. While revising, don't look for smaller issues such as spelling and grammatical errors. Instead, focus on big-picture problems such as flaws in your argument, insufficient evidence or information, or poor organization of ideas. Tackle spelling and grammar after you finish revising, when you edit and proofread your paper. There is no right or wrong way to go about revising a paper. Develop and practice a process that works best for you. Next, you'll review some how-to tips to help you fine-tune your own revision process

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Understanding Your Audience Before you start writing a persuasive essay, it's important to understand your audience. The same topic can be covered in different ways depending on who your audience is. Consider a persuasive essay arguing that more people should follow a vegetarian diet. It would be written differently for an audience of 9-year-olds than for a group of 20-year-olds. The essay for younger readers might feature very simple text with easy language. The essay for older readers would likely contain more complex text with bigger words and longer sentences. Sometimes your assignment will tell you who your audience is. If it doesn't, guess who your audience is likely to be. Ask yourself the following questions before writing: What is the age group of your audience? What are the general likes, dislikes, and priorities of your audience? Why should the audience care about what you have to say? What do you have to offer? What topics, examples, and images are most likely to attract the audience's interest?

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Revising: Why and How Writing is a process. It involves learning about and exploring a topic through writing. When you craft your first draft for an essay, you're trying to get all of your ideas down. If you take a break from your paper and return to it with a fresh mind, you might discover problems that you hadn't noticed before. You could find that your thesis is weak, that the evidence you've provided isn't convincing enough, or that your writing doesn't convey what you really intended to say. These situations call for revising your paper. The revision stage helps rid your paper of other inconsistencies, including a lack of connection between your ideas, poor organization, and unnecessary information. This stage is also a time to add details and ideas to fill in any gaps. Think of revision as a re-vision of your paper: it gives you the opportunity to examine your writing and your ideas critically, with fresh eyes. Ask yourself the following questions when you're revising a paper: Is this what I really wanted to say? Is this worth saying? Does it help prove my thesis? Will my readers understand my point?

Other Mistakes in Writing

Ambiguous This and That It's important not only to write correctly, but also forcefully. Try to eliminate weak words and phrases. Often, the words this and that are used to connect arguments or to draw conclusions in a vague way. Here's an example: Ray's Italian grandmother taught him how to cook. This is why his sauce tastes better than anything you could get out of a jar. The second sentence makes a weak connection between Ray's pasta sauce and jarred sauces. To strengthen this connection, replace this with a reiteration of the supporting point. Ray's Italian grandmother taught him how to cook. Her traditional recipe is why his sauce tastes better than anything you could get out of a jar. You can also fix an ambiguous that using a conjunction: Maya read that bad oral hygiene is linked to heart disease. That is why she has taken to flossing every day. Stronger: Maya has taken to flossing every day after she read that bad oral hygiene is linked to heart disease. When dealing with an ambiguous this or that, use specific information to make your sentence stronger and clearer.

Exploring Identity: Reflective Essays

Authors use their writing to explore different facets, or parts, of personal identity. Through reflective essays, writers can explore their experiences, thoughts, and identities. Consider this excerpt from the essay "For the Love of Books" by Rita Dove: What I remember most about long summer days is browsing the bookshelves in our solarium [glass-enclosed room] to see if there were any new additions. I grew up with those rows of books; I knew where each one was shelved and immediately spotted newcomers. What does this passage tell you about the author's identity? The excerpt shows how Dove felt about books as a child, but it also in part serves as an explanation for why Dove became a writer later in life. Her identity was formed at a young age—an experience that she can freely express through her writing in a reflective essay.

The Contemporary Period

Before beginning this section, you should be familiar with the following concepts: dystopia—a fictional setting in which the living conditions are extremely poor or people are severely deprived genre—a classification of literature characterized by particular content and form The beginnings of the contemporary literary period coincide with a major period of social activism in the civil rights arena, particularly the feminist movement. It was also a time of political unrest, represented by the Watergate scandal that led to President Richard Nixon's resignation. Protests and rallies were common across the country during the 1960s and 1970s. Like the two preceding movements, modernism and postmodernism, the contemporary period emerged in response to the changing sociopolitical atmosphere in the United States. However, the contemporary period was not a response to a world war. Instead, contemporary literature developed largely in response to the Cold War, the tumultuous US political landscape, and the steady adoption of technological advancements.

Understanding Contemporary Literature

Before beginning this section, you should be familiar with the following concepts: primary source—a work that contains original or firsthand information, such as a photograph, an eyewitness newspaper report, or an autobiography style—the combination of distinctive features of literary or artistic expression, execution, or performance characterizing a particular person, group, school, or era Historical and Cultural Context Historical and cultural context is key to an in-depth understanding of literature. Literary eras, styles, movements, and authors are shaped by their sociopolitical context. Readers should consider every literary era within its historical and cultural context. Without that context, the literature cannot be fully understood.

The Impact of Sentence Variety

Before learning why it's important to vary sentence structures, you should be familiar with the following concepts: clause: a group of words that contain a subject and a verb complex sentence: a sentence that includes both an independent clause and a dependent clause phrase: a group of words used as a single part of speech that lacks either a subject or a verb simple sentence: a sentence that is made up of one independent clause tone: a writer's or speaker's attitude towards a subject in a written or spoken work Sentence variety is a subtle but important aspect of any written text. A reader may find a text to be dull and repetitive when it has many sentences with the same structure and length. Varying sentence structure and length allows writers to develop different voices, tones, and pacing in their texts. For example, short, uncomplicated sentences often imply an unsophisticated speaker. Long sentences can be used to cover a lot of information, whereas short sentences are usually used to emphasize important points.

Contemporary Literature

A defining characteristic of contemporary literature is the broad influence of cultural diversity. Second- and third-generation immigrants—who struggled to blend traditional family backgrounds with modern US culture—infused contemporary literature with distinct, varied styles and themes. Another characteristic is the divergence from tradition seen in modernism and postmodernism. Blurring definitional lines even further than its predecessors, contemporary literature continues to reexamine and reinvent form, genre, and other aspects of writing. The E. L. Doctorow quotation in the introduction is reminiscent of one such experiment by the renowned contemporary author Truman Capote. His novel In Cold Blood, described as a "nonfiction novel," uses the techniques of fiction to explore a real-life crime. Although no motive had ever been publicly revealed, Capote surmises and invents the fictional thoughts of a real-life person committing a real murder, effectively blurring the line between fiction and nonfiction.

Understanding Ambiguity

Ambiguity is a technique in which a word, phrase, or event can be interpreted as having more than one meaning or explanation. Sometimes authors intentionally use ambiguity to engage readers and add depth and richness. If a story has you asking questions, you may be more engaged with the story and its outcome. One interpretation or explanation is not necessarily more correct than others. That allows readers to add their own spin on what appears to be static text. Poets who are known for using ambiguity include Robert Frost and T.S. Eliot. However, ambiguity is not limited to poetry. It is also found in prose and the visual arts. Sir William Empson, a British professor and literary critic, helped develop the idea of literary ambiguity. In his book Seven Types of Ambiguity, he identified different ways authors use ambiguity to add complexity. For example, an author may use a word that has multiple meanings or present contradictory ideas.

Development of Themes: Gender Roles

Consider how the relationship between men and women is characterized in "The Yellow Wallpaper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Published in 1899, the story portrays a female protagonist who is subjected to her husband's directives: I don't like our room a bit. I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazza [large porch] . . . but John would not hear of it. He is very careful and loving, and hardly lets me stir without special direction. The relationship between the characters in the story captures the real-world dynamics between men and women at the end of the nineteenth century. It was a male-dominated society where women were expected to follow their husbands' decisions.

Themes of Cultural and Socioeconomic Difference

Cultural diversity is a common theme in contemporary literature. Cultural diversity often includes diversity of socioeconomic status, which is a term describing social hierarchies based on a person's education, career, income, and place of residence. By examining diversity in socioeconomic status, authors highlight various lifestyles to show what opportunities people have (or don't have) in the United States. Similar to themes involving cultural diversity, themes that illustrate socioeconomic diversity acquaint readers with the lifestyles of people from cultures that they may not be familiar with, including different classes and levels of education. An author's description of unfamiliar socioeconomic conditions can help a reader empathize with the characters in the story.

Diversity in American Culture

Culture is a set of shared values, beliefs, and practices that distinguishes a group of people. Many contemporary American authors represent and highlight the diverse culture of the United States. Their writing also reveals the diverse lifestyles in different regions of the country. Through these works, readers can explore a culture that may be unfamiliar. The United States is becoming increasingly diverse as immigrants arrive from different nations. Authors who have a multicultural upbringing use literature to explore their complex backgrounds. Many use literature as a tool to help resolve the struggle between adapting to life in the United States while simultaneously honoring the traditions of their cultural heritage.

tradition and Culture

Culture is defined as a set of shared values, beliefs, and practices that distinguishes a group of people. A tradition is a custom practiced by a culture and often handed down orally from generation to generation. Many people can easily relate to stories told from a cultural perspective similar to their own. A young farmer who has never left his home might prefer stories about life on the farm, while someone who lives in a city might prefer a book about busy urban life.

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Expository Essays An expository essay provides the reader with information about a particular topic. The writer of an expository essay investigates the topic, evaluates evidence, develops the idea, and puts forward the thesis. An expository essay may draw comparisons, provide definitions, give examples, or analyze the cause and effect of a concept. Expository essays are focused on analyzing the topic and not putting forth an argument with the intent to persuade readers. An expository essay usually begins with a thesis statement in the first paragraph. The writer needs to explain this key idea further in the essay. The next few paragraphs contain evidence to support the thesis. The last paragraph typically repeats the thesis statement and ends with a conclusion derived from the evidence and the main ideas presented in each body paragraph. An expository essay topic asks you to explain a topic of interest. For example, you may be asked to describe the skills required to be a good leader. Read the expository essay "The Lowest Animal" by Mark Twain. As you read, note how Twain structures the essay.

Good Writing Versus Bad Writing

Good writers do not write a paper or an article all at once, from start to finish. A good writer will complete several rounds of revisions before an essay is ready for submission. Most good writers will tell you that the first draft of a paper is usually not good enough; a self or peer review can help during the revision process. Louis Brandeis, former associate justice of the US Supreme Court, said, "There is no great writing—only great rewriting." Some writers try to be perfectionists; they want to be absolutely sure their paper has no errors. Perfection is an elusive goal, however. Being a good writer means knowing when it's time to hand in your paper for review by a peer or your teacher. There's no point in writing a great paper if you're going to lose points turning it in late. Good writers also develop the ability to take constructive criticism and use it to better their future writing assignments. You should be able to look at your work objectively and also receive feedback that can help improve your writing and your paper.

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Narrative Essays A narrative essay describes an event as a story. Autobiographies, memoirs, and book reports are types of narrative essays. A narrative essay is usually written in the first person I. It has an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Like any story, a narrative essay also has a well-developed plot, characters, and setting. To make a narrative essay more interesting to read, writers usually use vivid imagery that engages the five senses. An assignment for a narrative essay might be to describe an event from your life. You might choose a topic such as "The best day of my life so far." Read the first five paragraphs of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass. As you read this essay, pay attention to how the writer describes the events of his life.

Connecting Themes and Topics

Nearly all literature conveys common aspects of the human experience through events, emotions, or characters. Because of these commonalities, similar topics and themes run through many authors' works. For example, Washington Irving's "The Devil and Tom Walker" and Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment" are short stories that cover the theme of greed and its consequences. When a theme transcends time periods, a literary discussion about the topic develops over multiple literary eras. Writers often use literature to express views and opinions about specific topics or themes. Looking at literature over time shows how thoughts and ideas related to the topic have changed over the course of decades or even centuries.

Personal Background and Literary Perspectives

People in different countries have different upbringings, lifestyles, and educations. Therefore, it's no surprise that people from diverse backgrounds have diverse thoughts, ideas, beliefs, and demeanors. For example, some people are raised to follow rules, while others are taught to question the way things are. These cultural differences are also found in literature. The works of different writers reflect their perspectives, styles, and thematic visions, which are influenced by their heritage. Writers sometimes allude to their heritage in their works. Readers get an idea about writers' childhoods as well as significant events that affected their lives. Reflecting the idea of the United States as a "salad bowl" of diverse cultures, authors from different backgrounds offer readers a view of the cultural influences that shaped their thoughts, perspectives, and visions. Watch the video on the next screen to learn more about how tradition and heritage influence writers' thematic vision and style.

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Persuasive Essays A persuasive essay is meant to persuade readers to accept a point of view or to drive them to take action. Persuasive essays are written for a number of reasons. For example, they might express disapproval of unethical behavior, such as an opinion piece against wearing animal fur. They might promote a specific goal, such as an argument for saving a town's movie theater. Or they might argue for a type of change, such as an essay urging people to recycle plastic rather than throw it away. Think of a persuasive essay as a written debate. Writers express an opinion and try to convince their readers to agree. A good persuasive essay will define the issue, show both sides of the argument, and take a clear stand on the topic. Note that if your main goal is to inform an audience about a topic or offer a critique, a persuasive essay probably won't suit your needs.

Sentence Fragments

Read this sentence and see if there's an error: Went to the store to buy milk and eggs. As you probably noticed, this sentence is incomplete. Although it exhibits characteristics of a sentence, such as initial capitalization, a finite verb, and a period at the end, it doesn't make complete sense because it doesn't have a subject. You might scribble this as a note and stick it on the fridge to let your parents know where you've gone, but you wouldn't use it in academic writing. You can correct this fragment by adding a subject: I went to the store to buy milk and eggs. As the name suggests, sentence fragments are sentence scraps that get separated from the main clause. This error happens when you write in a hurry or are in the habit of writing really long sentences with several clauses. Sentence fragments also occur when you start a thought, but you do not complete it. Consider how a fragment interrupts the flow here: Edgar Allan Poe was a nineteenth-century poet. His poem "The Raven" is among the most famous poems ever written. Wrote several mystery stories. Fragments can be corrected simply by checking that each sentence you have written has a subject and a predicate and adding whichever is missing. For instance, read this: Harvard, a member of the Ivy League, with 10 separate academic units. This is a fragment that does not have a finite verb. It can be corrected simply by adding is: Harvard is a member of the Ivy League with 10 separate academic units. Errors such as these can be easily caught and corrected when you make a habit of proofreading what you write.

Influences of Technology

The increase in US adoption of technology affected all aspects of life, as televisions and then computers became commonplace in the average household. Representing this shift was the 1980 election of former television and movie star Ronald Reagan to the US presidency. Under the influence of television and later the Internet, the country and the world became a conceptually smaller place. Long distances were traversed instantly via television and other connections, expanding the average person's access to information.

Good Writing Versus Bad Writing

What Makes a Good Writer? Writing is just work—there's no secret. If you dictate or use a pen or type or write with your toes—it's still just work. —Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951) Writing comes naturally to some people. For most, however, writing is an acquired skill that requires hard work. Good writers know that practice makes them better. They develop a writing strategy and manage their time so that they have enough time to research and write a high-quality paper. A good writer takes advantage of graphic organizers to get thoughts and ideas organized. Once, for example, the outline is completed, it provides a framework to fill in all the information and ideas that have been gathered on the topic. At this stage, a best practice is to focus on the flow of ideas and information presented rather than on writing style or choice of words. Polishing up the writing style and presentation will come at a later stage