quiz 3 fam diversity
adoption
creates a family form that differs from the traditional biologically related nuclear family. It "creates" a family that is connected to another family - the birth family - often to different cultures and ethnicities. Only about 4% of Americans are adopted. In the average year in the U.S., some 130,000 children are adopted - more than ¼ involve children with special needs
factors in mate selection
Legal - Legal regulations prohibit marriage between close relatives - states vary on what they consider "close." Homogamy means that people tend to marry others who are very similar to them in race, religion, ethnicity, and social class. Hypogamy involves moving upward in social class through marriage. Hypergamy involves marrying downward in social class.
the consequences of low fertility
Small family size is related to positive physical and intellectual outcomes for children and increased marital satisfaction. Smaller numbers of children allows more wealth to be available for education and health.
intimacy in social content
intimacy is shaped by society. major social changes have influenced intimate relationships people make decisions about intimate relationships in a social context the messages we get from the larger society are mixed Over the past several decades, a new emphasis on relationships and sexuality has emerged to create an "intimacy revolution" (Whyte, 1990). Not only are macro level forces implicated in the contemporary need for intimacy, they may also shape our mate selection decisions. Some connect the rise of interracial and same- sex relationships in recent decades to more social independence for young people. We have separated our private selves from the public self that we display for others, and this separation has created a need for intimacy. Intimate relationships permit people to be themselves without being judged. In this strive for intimacy, we expect our intimate partner to be all things for us.
extrafamilial factors
Work-related factors affect parents and their interactions with children, e.g. job satisfaction, promotions, demotions. Children are also affected by their time in school.
micro aspects of marriage
Marital Success- Types of Marriages: › Conflicted habituated marriages - centered on tensions, arguments, and fights. › Devitalized Marriages - involve couples who were once in love but have drifted apart over the years. They remain together in a relationship bound by duty. › Passive-Congenial Marriages - are those in which love was not expected, but the marriage provides stability for the couple to direct their energies elsewhere. Types of Marriages continued: › Vital Marriages - differ greatly from the other types of marriage in that spouses share true intimacy in all important life matters; husbands and wives find their central satisfaction in the life they live with and through each other. › Total Marriages - these are like the vital marriages with the important addition of being more multifaceted All these types of marriages are by no means happy, but intact.
infertility and new technologies
1 in 8 couples cannot conceive children by natural means. Several options for infertile women or couples: artificial insemination; egg freezing; in vitro fertilization; surrogate mothering; fertility drugs. In Vitro Fertilization is very expensive. Many poor families cannot take part in expensive forms of in vitro fertilization process and remain childless
multi generational families
4.3 million households in the U.S. have three or more generations within them. These households are most common in areas with high immigration, where recent immigrant family members live together for financial reasons and also because of language and other cultural factors
the sexual relationship in marriage
A good marriage and satisfying sexual relationship are expected to go hand in hand. Large scale national studies find a high level of sexual satisfaction among married heterosexual couples in the U.S. Sexual satisfaction is also associated with love and commitment. How satisfied individuals are with their sexual relationship is associated with both marital quality and marital stability. As the duration of the marriage and the age of the partners increases, the frequency of sex decreases. A couple's sexual relationship may be a powerful source of connection between partners. Commonly expressed conflict in marriages relates to frequency of sex. When couples disagree over frequency of sex it is generally the husband who wants sex more frequently, but that is not always the case.
older children still living at home
A type of multigenerational family that is on the rise, especially under the conditions of the Great Recession, is one in which adult children, single and married, who had lived on their own move back home to live with their parents. According to the Pew Research Center, slightly more than 21 percent of 25- to 34year olds live in multigenerational households.
single parents and their children
About ¼ of all children live with only one parent What are the effects on the children? Children have lower academic achievement They are more likely to have higher absentee rates at school They are more likely to drop out of school They have lower earnings in early adulthood They marry earlier and have children earlier They are more likely to divorce They are more likely to commit delinquent acts and to use drugs or alcohol Coping as a single parent Three factors affect a single parent's coping 1.) Responsibility overload 2.) Task overload 3.) Emotional overload There is a likelihood that women raising children alone will be financially troubled - what is missing may not be a male influence, but a male income. The most important factor is the differences in resources between two-parent and one-parent families.
teen sexuality
Adolescents today have more sexual freedom than did the preceding generations - they have become sexually active earlier than their parents. Approximately 54% of teenagers have had sexual intercourse by the time they finish high school - the average age tends to be around 17. U.S. has the highest rates of teenage pregnancy. Sex education in schools is a controversial topic. As a long-term strategy, abstinence education seems unrealistic in the current social context; premarital sex is the norm rather than the exception among all groups. The federal emphasis now centers on innovative approaches and evidence-based programs for preventing unintended pregnancies, HIV, and STDs
structural influences on mate selection
Availability of marriageable partners Variety of group affiliations - varied affiliations with different groups provide opportunities to meet and stay in contact with dissimilar others. People may marry outside their social group because of their multiple and interwoven group affiliations.
claiming control of intimacy
Because intimacy is socially constructed, it offers the possibility for agency, change, and growth. Sexuality has been separated from reproduction. Women have a wider range of options. People throughout society are struggling to transform intimate relationships and to enhance pleasure and love.
Aids
Between 1981 and 2010, more than 1,130,000 Americans were diagnosed with AIDS. Because the most common means of HIV transmission is male to male sexual contact, the majority of new AIDS cases involve men. Three-quarters of women who were diagnosed with AIDS were infected through heterosexual contact. HIV has increasingly become a disease of color with African American men being diagnosed at a rate 7 times that of White men.
same sex parents
Between 6 to 12 million children live with same-sex parents. There are an array of social, legal, and practical challenges for these families. A couple may use artificial insemination or they may adopt. Do children raised by gay or lesbian couples differ from those raised by heterosexual parents? Research shows that these children develop normally, including ideas of sexual identity. Children may become victims of homophobia and institutional heterosexism. Lesbian and gay parents challenge the primacy employed by "traditional" heterosexual marriage and parenthood
macro influences on marriage
Both members of the marriage have expectations based on cultural beliefs, religion, and norms of their community and their family background. There are patterns across marriages that vary with social class, race, gender and locality. These patterns involve gendered behavior, how decisions are made, appropriate sexual behavior, and the division of housework. The Law: › Marriage is a legal contract. States differ on what is allowed. Each state stipulates ages, distance between relatives, health requirements, waiting period, inheritance, and the division of property in case of divorce. › With same sex marriage now legal, there are many benefits that homosexual couples can experience that they were denied before (i.e. visiting a spouse at the hospital, filing taxes jointly, etc.) Religion: › If a couple shares same religious ideology, their moral authority will be shaped by the moral authority of their religion. › Conservative gender ideology is compatible with beliefs of conservative Protestant religions Societal Gender Expectations: › Societal gender expectations shape marriages in different ways: What society expects of men and of women determines what is acceptable, appropriate and advantageous for husbands and wives. There has been a shift in role expectations for men and women. This new model is less patriarchal and more egalitarian.
reconstructing gender roles: building an egalitarian marriage
Building an Egalitarian Marriage › There is a move toward less gendered interaction and decision making and more quality in marriages. › Not all couples share responsibilities equally still - wives have moved into the labor force to help support the family but husbands have not contributed equally at home with routine housework and child care
the future of marriage changing or dying
Changing or Dying? › The statistics show that behaviors are changing within marriage. › Because of young people delaying marriage, high divorce rate and the rate of people who never marry; some conclude that marriage is dying. › However, marriages are different than they were 50 years ago because social conditions have changed markedly. The place of marriage has changed in society. The barriers to equality have been removed. The institution of marriage does not occupy a less central place in society than it did in the past - it is being transformed as society changes
the costs of parenthood
Children can adversely affect marital happiness. Children can have negative personality traits. Children may not return their parent's love, and may be troublesome. Parents worry about the child's development, progress in school, etc... Financially, children are a significant burden
single life: gender, race, and class
Demographic and cultural factors combine to create a "marriage squeeze" that is an imbalance in the number of women and men available for marriage. Women no longer "have " to get married to survive - many women chose to remain single and pursue a career. The pool of eligible men shrinks as women age, especially for professional women . › Among people aged 65 and older, men are in the minority
same sex marriages
Due to same sex marriage becoming legal nationwide over a year ago, research on same sex couples who are married is lacking. Research that does exist has found that societal oppression has an impact on these couples when facing discrimination/homophobia. Research on same sex couples in general has found more egalitarian and shared roles in the relationship. Besides the layer of experiencing discrimination, same sex couples face a lot of similar issues and benefits in their relationship that heterosexual couples face.
the structure of the family embedded in a larger network of influences
Embedded in a larger network of influences: Family Structure One Child Families - the fastest growing family unit 18.4 % of women age 40-44 have one child One child families now outnumber two child families Family Size With the addition of each child, the resources that a family has for each child is diminished Influences Embedded in a larger network of influences continued: Birth Order This is a significant family structure variable affecting the child. Older children have an inherent advantage over their siblings. Firstborns have a strong tendency to adopt the values of the parents and to be less influenced by peers. Firstborns tend to be more achievement oriented. Female firstborns tend to be more religious, more sexually conservative and more accepting of traditional feminine roles. Embedded in a larger network of influences continued: Siblings Related to birth order and perhaps a more powerful influence on behavior. By the time children are 11, they spend about 1/3 of their free time with their siblings. Brothers and sisters are especially important in teaching how to resolve conflict. Research finds that the existence of an older sibling increases the chances that a younger sibling will drink, smoke, use drugs, or have sex. Embedded in a larger network of influences continued: Primary Parents The absence of a same-sex parent for daughters of solo fathers and sons of solo mothers tends to have a negative impact. The presence of two adults has been found to diminish adolescent behavior problems. Growing up in nontraditional gender role families does not have adverse effects on children. Children of lesbian and gay parents have normal relationships with peers, and their relationships with adults of both sexes is satisfactory. Embedded in a larger network of influences continued: Primary Parents continued Children do better in stable living arrangements than in transitory ones, even if the stability involves living with a single parent. Children in stepfamilies are more likely to experience a broad range of adjustment problems.
the correlates of marital quality
Factors that Influence Marriage Quality: › Shared social characteristics - socioeconomic status, age, race, and intelligence - spouses who share these characteristics are more likely to agree. › Economic and Personal Resources - The higher the income, education and occupational status of the couple the more likely they are to evaluate their marriage as good. Factors that Influence Marriage Quality continued: › Dual-earner couples - More likely to live a middle class lifestyle - the wife is more likely to have self esteem but may have extended hours and low satisfaction. › The Division of Household Labor - wives spend up to twice as much time on routine household tasks than men do. Satisfaction with the division of labor is an important predictor of marital quality. Factors that Influence Marriage Quality continued: › Role Fit - refers to the degree of consensus between the spouses on decision making, the division of labor, spending money, and issues involving children. › Social Class - The overall trend is toward a more egalitarian marriage; however, working class couples are more likely than middle class couples to accept traditional roles. Factors that Influence Marriage Quality continued: › Children - there is a consistent relationship between family stage and marital quality. Marriage satisfaction tends to be greater before and after children. › Life Cycle - Marital quality tends to decline over the life cycle.
the economy
Families are embedded in the economy. 16.4 million children are below the poverty line. 42 percent of children lived in low-income families in 2009, an increase of more than 2 million children since 2007. 43.5 million people received Food Stamps in 2010. Of the 47 states with newly enacted budgets, 38 percent or more of them deep reductions in K-12 education, higher education, health care, and other key areas in their budgets for fiscal year 2012. 11 percent of U.S. children had at least one unemployed parent in 2012. From 2007 to 2010, 4 percent of children were affected by home foreclosure
how to think about family diversification
Family adaptations emerge in response to changes and constraints in the external world. The family field has made the distinction between the " traditional family " and the " nontraditional alternatives " . Not only does this oversimplify the incredible array of contemporary family arrangements, it also miscasts the idealized family as the normal family or the standard. Rather than thinking of varied family arrangements as alternatives to an idealized traditional form, we should think of all family forms in their own right. No one family structure is better than another - it is a question of lifestyles. The Question of Lifestyles › " Although studies of non-marital relationships are not new phenomena, recent data facilitate a broader conceptualization of families than was possible before this decade " (Seltzer, 2001). The Question of Lifestyles continued › Many non-marital living arrangements that appear new to middle class Americans are actually family patterns that have been traditional within African American and other ethnic communities for generations. › Practical and legal considerations require that we modify the conventional definition of the family.
differential fertility
Fertility rates vary by social class, race/ethnicity, and religion. • The higher the income, the lower the fertility rate. The greater the level of attainment, the lower the fertility rate. Social class - More privileged segments of society are less likely to have children. Race/Ethnicity - Whites have the lowest fertility rate. The primary explanation for the relationship between race and fertility is socioeconomic. Religion - people who actively practice a religion tend to have higher fertility rate, while certain religions encourage high fertility. Voluntary Childlessness - The percentage of women remaining childless has been increasing for the past 25 years. Three choices: A couple decides before marriage to remain childless. A woman in her late 40s who is educated and working decides not to have children. A couple decides to postpone child bearing until later but then remains childless.
demographic patterns
Fertility: declining since 1800 Lower during the Great Depression A Boom after WWII Lower fertility rates may result as the Great Recession of 2007 is realized Reasons for low fertility Marriage is later High divorce rate The majority of women work Family demands two incomes
the global revolution in family life
Five Global Trends in Family Formation: › Women's age of first marriage and first birth has risen. › Families and households are smaller. › The burden on working age parents of supporting younger and older dependents has increased. › The proportion of female-headed households has increased. › Women's labor force participation has increased while men's has decreased; shifting the economic balance in families. In Europe and North America, many family forms do not have marriage at their core. Marriage is less central in organizing and controlling life course transitions, individual identities, intimate relations, living arrangements, childbearing and child rearing (Thornton and YoungDemark 2001).
the sexual revolution
From a family-centered reproductive system in colonial days to romantic sexuality in the 19th century. By the 1920s, sexuality became a major source of identity and self-discovery. In modern times, sexuality is highly commercialized and is supposed to provide individual identity and happiness apart from reproduction. Advertising and entertainment media have been important forces contributing to sexual permissiveness. Sex sells almost anything today! The media's fixation on sex has served to involve children and youth earlier and earlier in thinking about sex and sexual activity.
variations in dating practices
Gender - Traditional gender role expectations still structure interactions, however the sexual double standard has weakened. Class - Dating and courtship patterns vary by social class. Race - Interracial relationships are likely to form in integrated settings such as the military, colleges and universities, and metropolitan areas. Immigration Status - more traditional relationship behaviors exist among 1st-generation immigrants while 2nd-generation immigrants are more likely to have adopted the norms of American youth culture
heterosexual marriage
Gender is a crucial factor in evaluating the benefits of marriage. Men and women who are married do not always share the same perceptions or benefits of the marriage. The sex gender system structures women and men's family lives differently
differentiated forms of intimacy
Gendered Love and Sex—the more significant dimension of sexuality is gender. His and Her Sex Women and men want and expect different things from their intimate heterosexual relationships. The model for male sexuality stresses performance while the female model stresses the emotional relationship.
enlarging the sexuality frame
Homosexuality and Heterosexuality are social constructs, both at the macro level where society determines what same sex relationships means, and at the micro level where individuals obtain their sexual identity. The terms sexual identity and sexual orientation refers to how people classify themselves. Sexual identity and sexual behavior may differ. There is debate about whether homosexuality has genetic or social origins - is it inborn or shaped by experiences? Despite whether there is biological evidence for sexual orientation - it is always a social identity as well. Sexual orientations are not only a matter of genital activity, but also social creations with norms and values about sexuality.
rise in new family arrangements
Household: All people living in a housing unit. Family: a group of two or more people who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption and reside together. Family households: include families in which a family member is the householder. Nonfamily Household: a householder who lives alone or shares a residence with individuals unrelated to the householder There has been a decline in the percentage of married couple households with children. › Two parent households with children dropped from 40 to 20 percent of all households between 1970 and 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009).
communication in marriage
How a couple communicates predicts how well they will cope with the highs and lows of married life. › Both particular interaction patterns and specific characteristics of the communication between the partners are important. › A high level of positive and enjoyable interaction maintains and promotes marital satisfaction while negative interaction erodes satisfaction with the relationship Quality and quantity of communications are important in a marriage. › Spouses with time intensive careers, dual earners, and couples with small children may find themselves with too little time to communicate. › When asked, couples would like to spend more time together.
the tenants of social construction theory are
Human sexuality varies across time, space and the life of any individual. Although sexuality is the site of our most intimate experiences, it is socially controlled and bound up with the basic inequalities that configure the structure of society - namely class, race, and gender.
foster care
If the court determines that a child's family cannot provide a minimally safe environment because of physical or sexual abuse, severe neglect or in some cases, emotional problems, then the children may be placed in foster care. Foster children are disproportionately vulnerable for dropping out of school, teen pregnancy, drug abuse, and criminal behavior.
grandparents raising grandchildren
In 2010, about 6.5 percent of children in the US lived with their grandparents. Of these 7.5 million children, more than 1/5 did not have a parent present in the household. Some positives to this arrangement: Providing a sense of usefulness and productivity for the grandparents. Making the grandparents feel good that they can help. Providing a more stable environment for the grandchildren. Providing a safety net during difficult times.
unmarried parenting
In 2010, births to unwed women reached an all time high of about 40.8% of all births. Teens account for less than ¼ of unwed births (1957 was the nations highest teen birth rate). Fewer unwed births now are due to youthful indiscretions and more are due to conscious decisions by older women. Many of these infants are born to cohabitating couples, not "single" women.
macro aspects of marriage
In additions to the dynamics of gender, the partners in a marriage must deal with three issues on an ongoing basis: Communication and other correlates of marital success, sexual intimacy, and decision-making.
love and social class
Little information exists on love relationships in various parts of the class structure. The Great Recession, however, provided contemporary evidence for the relationship between intimacy and economic conditions.
marriage: private and public spheres
Marriage creates a unique relationship in profound and complex ways. Each couple creates its own unique social organization. The couple must work out mutually satisfactory solutions to such crucial areas of potential conflict as the division of labor, decision-making, the spending of money, etc.
chapter 9
Marriage: Private and Public Spheres Recent Trends in Marriage Are There Benefits to Marriage? Micro Aspects of Marriage Changing Gender Roles and Building the Egalitarian Marriage The Future of Marriage
parents and children in dual earner families
Maternal Employment and Time with Children Mother's time with children has remained stable even though more mothers work now than ever before. In two-parent families, maternal time has increased
the husbands marriage
Men receive greater health benefits than women from marriage. Husbands in general receive more social support in commitment and caring from their spouses than they may return. Men tend to work more outside the home, however, the workload does not equal women's work when housework and child care and emotional work are tallied in.
qualities women and men think are important in selecting a mate 1996
Mutual attraction; love Dependable character Emotional stability and maturity Perhaps now partners are looking for a partner who is successful in the labor market.
scientific research on sexuality
National surveys have found substantial changes in women's sexual behavior over the past decades, but smaller and significant changes in men's sexual behavior. The most valuable part of the new surveys on sexuality is that they look at sexuality in a social context. People's sexual choices are shaped by the social networks in which they operate. National Health and Social Life Survey found: Adultery is the exception more than the rule. People in the U.S. are divided into three groups according to how often they have sex: 1/3 have sex twice a week or more; 1/3 have sex a few times a month; and 1/3 a few times a year. The incidence of homosexuality is low. 2.8 percent of men and 1.4 percent of women report a homosexual identity. Married couples have sex the most. Of course, questions still remain about whether people tell the truth about their sexual behaviors. The Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors is the newest research on sexuality: Surveyed 27,500 middle and older adults in 29 countries on the subject of the physical and emotional qualities of their sex lives. The highest levels of sexual well being are found in western countries where gender equality is the highest.
experiencing single life
Single life in the U.S. is stigmatized. New research finds that single and married people are really more similar than different. Although there has been a sharp rise in the number of single people, marriage still remains a viable option for most. To know someone is single tells us little about their living arrangements or their relationship commitments. Today, what it means to be single is no longer clear.
single life
Single refers to the never married, the divorced, the separated, and the widowed. The rise of singlehood has its roots in urbanization and industrialization. Research shows that many married individuals express loneliness similar to singles. Today, a growing share of adults are unmarried
family composition
Size In 1970, the average family size was 3.14 and in 2010 it was 2.59 Form Now, only 7% are "traditional" family form - working father, a homemaker mother, and their children 69% of children live with two parents Children in single-parent households is on the rise Children living in step families is rising as well
recent trends
Only 7 percent of U.S. households fit the " traditional " model of father as breadwinner and mother as homemaker. Unmarried Adults - The number of singles and cohabiting heterosexuals is increasing. They may live alone, with roommates or with an unmarried partner. › Unmarried adults now make up more than ¼ of all households. › They may cohabitate for many reasons: they may be in a same-sex relationship, they may feel they lack financial stability for commitment - for some staying single is helpful for their finances. Age at First Marriage - The median age of first marriage is increasing for women and men. › Marriage is still the norm in the U.S. with about 90% eventually marrying. Family Size - The average household size has declined in the last 30 years. Interracial or Interethnic Marriages - Interracial and interethnic marriages are increasing › These marriages were illegal in a number of states until 1967. › The U.S. public increasingly accepts interracial and interethnic relationships. The extent of interracial marriages partly depends on the availability of marriage partners Life Span and Marriage: › Life expectancy for women increased by 26 years and men's life expectancy increased by 22 years. › People often change in personality over the years and with longer life spans there is more a chance of people growing apart. Divorce - as of 2010, the divorce rate has fallen to 3.6 couples per 1000 people in the population. › About half of all marriages are expected to end in divorce. Remarriage - About ½ of all marriages in the U.S. involve a second or higher-order marriage for one or both of the marriage partners. › The majority of divorced persons remarry. › Several variables affect the probability of remarriage
mixed race marriages and children
Over 93 percent of Whites and African Americans marry within their own racial groups, compared with about 70 percent of Asians and Latinos. The number of biracial children has increased more than 400 percent in the past 30 years, while the number of all births has increased by just over 18 percent.
teenage childbearing
Over the past several decades, teenage childbearing has been seen as a major social problem. Hispanics are now more likely to have a teen pregnancy than African American teens. Early motherhood makes young women vulnerable but not poor - most teen mothers were poor before they got pregnant
the impact of parents on children and of children on parents
Parents interact with their children more than anyone else. Parents have a crucial impact on the children's physical, social and emotional development. The child, however, is also a social being who influences their parents. Everything about children affects their parents, as parents also affect children.
transracial adoption
Placing a child who is of one ethnic or racial group with parents of another. This makes up about 40% of all adoptions More than 1 in 10 of the nations adoptees are foreign born. Research shows it is important for parents to be aware of racial-ethnic socialization when adopting transracially Racial-ethnic socialization (being friends with people of the child's race, engaging in activities of child's culture or race, practicing traditions of child's culture, and being aware of racial and cultural differences in the family, validating child's experiences with racial-ethnic oppression) is crucial to positive outcomes in transracially adopted children.
the impact of children on marriage
Research finds that children have a negative effect on marital happiness. Parenthood can be very stressful for new parents. Benefits of parenthood include symbolic immortality, enhanced status, and a sense of meaning for parents' lives. Parenthood has both emotional and economic costs. Children influence marriage in one of four ways: 1.) About 13% of new parents are "severe decliners." These new parents become so split by their differences that they lose faith in each other. 2.) 38% are "moderate decliners." These couples avoid a dramatic falling out but their love and communication is less than before the birth of the child. Children influence marriage in one of four ways continued: 3.) 30% of the couples experience "no change." Their marriage neither declines or is enhanced by their child. 4.) 19% of couples are "improvers." They find their new child brings them closer together (Belsky and Kelly 1994). The tendency of marital satisfaction to decline with the arrival of a baby is mitigated by two factors: If the pregnancy is not planned; and if the two do not share the household duties after the child is born.
are there benefits to marriage
Research shows that marriage benefits the partners involved in several ways: › 1.) Better physical and mental health › 2.) Better sex lives › 3.) More economic resources
schools
Schools can play a major part in finding a potential mate. High school and then college further narrows choices of mates. Since college attendance is strongly associated with parents' socioeconomic status, it is likely that college students will choose someone similar to marry because that is who is available. Despite our belief that who we marry is a personal choice, structural influences remain strong in our mate selection
the social construction of childhood
Social Forces That Have Changed Way Children Are Raised: Children are separated from work roles and have more leisure time - the family used to be a work unit, but in our post industrial age that is not the case. Children are being raised in large cities or suburbs currently as opposed to generations ago. Generations ago, children were under the almost total influence of their parents. Today's children are more likely than their predecessors to grow up under different circumstances, e.g. parents' divorce. Social Forces That Have Changed Way Children Are Raised, continued: There have been massive technological innovations that have dramatic effects on today's children. Family size is much smaller now compared to a century ago. Consumerism Over the past generation parenting styles has become less authoritarian, the social world revolves around children. Social Forces That Have Changed Way Children Are Raised Continued: Children are freer to express their opinions. The experience of childhood differs by social class. There are important differences between middle class children and those from working class and poor households. Children in poorer households are left to find their own recreation instead of organized sports or other recreation. ocial Forces That Have Changed Way Children Are Raised Continued: Each parenting style produces different traits in children with each having benefits and drawbacks. Parenting styles vary by social class, shaping children in different and crucial ways. They contribute to the reproduction of class inequality. There appears to be a gap between adolescence and adulthood today not present a generation ago, scholars are calling this stage "emerging adulthood"
the social construction of parenting
Society's expectations for parents vary depending on time, place, and social location hence it is socially constructed. People's lives and behavior are shaped by social forces. The isolated homemaker is no longer dominant - the White Middle Class experience is not the norm. Another false universal of motherhood is maternal instinct, mothers do not protect their children universally as they would if "maternal instinct" existed. Compulsory motherhood is weakening as more women choose not to marry. The relationship between marriage and childbearing is weakening thus more women are having children without having husbands. Since the 1960's, family life has changed in response to global and domestic economic restructuring.
power and decision making in marriage
Sources of Power in Marriage - Power in a marriage involves the ability of a wife and husband to influence each other. › Resources - Power tends to accrue to the partner with the highest income educational level. › Social class - working class families tend to be more traditional while middle class families tend to be more egalitarian Sources of Power in Marriage: › Race and Ethnicity - Minority families encounter a different set of opportunities and obstacles than White families and these structural differences affect family interactions. › Individual Factors - Several ascribed characteristics tend to favor husbands - they are usually older than their wives, and almost always stronger physically
delayed childbearing
The age of first time mothers has risen steadily since the 1970s, from an average of 25 in 2010. Two factors lead to this delay: 1.) The increased age of first marriage - couples getting married later. 2.) Having a career before children Consequences of delayed childbearing for parents and children: The age gap between parents and their children is significantly greater than it was a generation ago. While older parents will likely be more financially secure, it may deplete retirement funds. Children may push egalitarian couples back toward a more traditional division of labor. Children live in a home where both parents work in the labor force.
the benefits of marriage reconsidered
The benefits of marriage change when race, class, and gender are factored in: › The poor do not necessarily benefit economically from marriage Poor couples experience added stress because they have difficulties meeting basic needs. Children may not be better off when their mother remarries - difficult stepfamily relations and disruptions to a child's living environment that may negatively affect the child's well-being. Not all marriages are beneficial; some are abusive. Some partners are abandoned by their partners. The economic transformations of the past three decades are closely associated with what has been called the "retreat from marriage" (Lichter et al, 2002).
social class and life chances
The economic resources of families are a crucial factor affecting the outcomes of children; basically, social class position provides for the child's life chances. The greater the family's economic resources, the better the chance to live beyond infancy, to have good health, to receive a good education, to work at a satisfying job, to avoid being labeled a criminal, to avoid death in war, and to live the "good life."
same sex partners and families
The emergence of non-heterosexual families is a movement with large social, political and legal ramifications. Researchers estimate that four to ten percent of the adult population are homosexual. Demographic data reveal that homosexual couples are an overwhelmingly urban population. Many of the couples include children. Gay and lesbian couples tend to be more highly educated than their heterosexual counterparts. Average household income in 2011 was $121,000 for gay men and $94,000 for lesbians, compared to $96,000 for heterosexual married couples. LGBT people are more susceptible to employment discrimination, to lack health insurance, and less likely to receive family support in economic hard times. Same-sex couples are more likely to be White or interracial and less likely to be Hispanic or Asian than are heterosexual married couples. Research has long identified social networks as the distinguishing feature of same-sex families. › Networks are made up of "chosen " family connections. › "Chosen " families are formed from networks of lovers, friends, co parents, children conceived through artificial insemination, adopted children, children from previous relationships, and other blood kin. Gays and lesbians are broadening the definition of the family
sex and gender
The expectations and styles of love vary by gender: Men tend to be more casual about sex, they can easily compartmentalize their feelings about love and sex. Women view sex as a bonding experience. Some researches feel that sex is the main domain in which male dominance is reinforced and female subservience is reinforced. Most people experience love at least once in their lives. Men and women differ in their styles of being in love as well as what they expect from a loving relationship. Gendered love styles bolster men's dominance of women.
social class and intimacy
The experience of sexuality and love varies by social class. While most people uphold the ideology of love, there are class differences in resources to sustain that ideal. Differences of color, culture, and ancestry create clear sexual boundaries.
changing sexual behavior
The sociology of sexuality is an emerging area of research that examines how society shapes the expression of sexual desire through cultural images and social institutions. The Social Constructionist approach examines the underlying social motivations and mechanisms that shape human social relationships and society. Biology alone does not determine human sexuality. Activities condemned in one society may be encouraged in another, so sexuality is not all about biology. Social institutions channel and direct sexual behavior according to what is defined as socially acceptable or "normal".
heterosexual cohabitation
There are about 16 million people living with an unmarried partner in the United States. Between 50 and 70 percent of today's couples cohabit before marrying. Contemporary cohabiters are primarily young adults - more prevalent among people younger than 35. › 19% are age 50 and above, and 4% are 65 and older. › Nearly 1/3 ages 15-44 were previously married. › 2/3 of children who live with cohabiting couples live with one biological parent and another adult. › Cohabitation has become an experience common to all social classes Cohabitation is shaped by gender, class, and race. › Cohabiting women are younger than the men they live with. › Cohabitors have less traditional notions about gender roles Men view it more pragmatically, and women view it more as a step toward long-term commitment. Rates of cohabitation are somewhat higher among African Americans and Hispanics Another perspective holds that cohabitation is not a step toward marriage, but a family form in its own right for couples who don't see marriage as a defining characteristic of their lives. Minority cohabitating couples are more likely to have children than their white counterparts.
gendered parenting
There has been a shift in men's involvement in pregnancy and the birth of their children. However, it has not resulted in equal responsibility for child care - the mother still does most of the work. Mothers are the primary caregivers, while fathers are more passive. There are some exceptions to the rule, however: Fathers may become primary parents because of widowhood or divorce. Two-parent couples may deliberately share parenting duties.
social supports for working parents
There may be a lack of social supports for dual earner families and single parent families as far as children are concerned. Places of work have been slow to respond to parent's needs. U.S. society is unresponsive to parental stress. Other countries use "flex time" to allow more time with families. 80% of industrialized countries give paid maternity leave whereas the U.S. passed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 which gives unpaid leave.
peer marriage
This is described as a husband and wife who have successfully reconstructed gender role and are equitable in their interactions. Peer Marriages share 4 characteristics: › 1.) The partners do not have more than a 60/40 traditional split of household duties. › 2.) Both partners believe the other has equal influence over important decisions. Peer Marriages share 4 characteristics: › 3.) Both partners feel they have equal control of the family economy and reasonable access to discretionary funds. › 4.) Each person's work is given equal weight in the couple's life plans. The partners must agree on values such as who does what and the primacy of the relationship over work.
aging parents living with their adult children
This occurs when adults take care of their aging parents. This arrangement is become more and more prevalent. Sandwich generation
race and intimacy
Throughout U.S. history, powerful sexual stereotypes have been central in creating and sustaining the racial hierarchy. Despite the current trends in multiracial dating, the sexual marketplace is still a minefield for people of color. Their choice of intimate partners is defined by a racial hierarchy that places Anglo/White people at the top
the benefits of parenthood
Throughout U.S. history, the role of parent has been exalted, especially for women. Children can positively affect the marital bond. Symbolizes immortality - we live on through our children. Gives parents lives a sense of meaning and purpose. Enhanced status More likely to be integrated into the community.
parental time with children
Variables that affect time with children: The greater the economic resources, the better chance parents can purchase goods and services that free up time for childrearing. The greater the educational attainment of the mother the more time they spend with their children. Employed mothers spend less time with their children than mothers not in the labor force. Preschool age children in households increase mother's child care time.
same sex orientation and intimacy
Variance from the societal norm of heterosexuality was legally prohibited until 2003. Broad social support networks are missing for gay and lesbian couples. Gender plays an important part in intimate relationships, whether heterosexual or homosexual. The conditions under which sexuality and love are experienced also vary with social class, however differences are becoming less clear. The NHSLS discovered that the lower class inclined toward a no nonsense, silent approach to sex vs. a self-conscious, elaborate approach of higher classes.
contemporary differences in sexual behavior
We know less about intimacy issues among racial ethnics than we should, given that there are more people of color in society than ever before. There are two reasons: 1.) Stereotypes that portray racial-ethnic women and men as more sexual and less capable than Whites of controlling animal instincts. (Jagger and Rothenberg 1984:385). 2.) The prevailing ideology of love as a white, middle- class emotion.
heterosexual mate selection and intimate partnering
While mate selection used to involve family and community, it is today a more independent orientation. Parents have less control over young adults' decisions about mate selection. All of these things have changed in the past few decades to allow young people more choices: the importance of education, the decline of Rural America, the lure of cities, changing work patterns, and more freedom for women. By the 1920's, couples started to go out on "dates" far from their parent's supervision. The initiation of dates shifted from a girl allowing a boy to "come calling" at her parent's house, to a boy asking a girl out on a date. Girls did not ask boys because at the time girls were still considered second class citizens. By the middle of the 20th century, "going steady" was common in high school and college Fewer teens date now than in the past. Teen dating is associated with both positive and negative consequences. Adolescents typically engage in "group dating" in the 21st Century. Online dating is also a significant development in contemporary mate selection
the wifes marriage
Wives generally benefit from marriage but less than husbands. Wives' benefits appear to depend more on the quality of their unions. Women in troubled marriages are likely to experience health related problems such as depression and immune system breakdown. Wives are relatively disadvantaged in marriages; typically they have to deal with patriarchy and their secondary status at home.