RACE&JUSTICE EXAM 1

THE COMPARATIVE METHOD: LECTURE

PART 1: -historical approach--final paper is comparison regarding certain aspects of race and class so need to understand it Comparison and Research: -to compare is to be human--one way to navigate lives is by comparing across options, features, characteristics (example: choosing classes for semester comparing courses) -virtually all empirical social research involves comparison of some sort: -comparing cases to each other (cases can be countries, cities, neighborhoods, geography, theoretical) -using statistics to construct quantitative comparisons (GDP or crime rates we compare across countries) -comparing cases to theoretically derived pure cases (democracy should have separation of powers and free speech, ideal type of democracy, then we can make comparison to country and see how they fare w our theoretically pure case) Comparative Research: -comparativists are interested in understanding, explaining, and interpreting diverse historical outcomes and processes -try to understand these differences in other countries -How else could it be? Cross-societal differences and similarites--by looking at other countries experiences we can trace how other countries evolved and learn lessons from them--what can be done and what consequences -They are also interested in the cases themselves, like their different historical experiences--what is unique abt a particular case Reasons for Comparison: 4 1)Contextual Description: most important--describing characteristics and events of countries (providing basic info on country so we wanna know main features of this case)--by looking at different countries escaping ethnocentrism (how we think we are the best), all systematic research begins w good description!!! (good data and want to have more) 2) Classification: grouping vast numbers of countries political system and events into distinct categories w identifialbe and shared characteristics--goal is to create clusters of countries w similar policies or things--cognitive simplification, necessary for systematic comparison--can follow inductive or deductive reasoning (can start empirical or theoretical which is outlining possible characteristics that could be shared and then grouping) 3) Hypothesis Testing: search for factors that may explain what has been described and classified (testing theories by looking at relationship between variables) 4) PRediction: generalizing from initial comparisons or making claims about future outcomes PART 2: -doing contextual description using healthcare -look at a bunch of countries and looking at aspects regarding healthcare, spending, and outcomes total health expenditure: -US spends the most--we are outlier more than 8000 per year per person -mostly talking about wealthy industrialized countries -South Korea is lowest -Most countries around 4000/year -we spend lot of money on healthcare: why? -we are one of the wealthiest countries so we can spend but that is only partially true--more than 60% of our economy is spent on healthcare -not due to size of economy Other Chart Historical Trend: Why differences: -in 60's and 70's and 80's different countreis were very similar in spending but then by 1980 US diverged and increased and everywhere increased too--this is bc people living longer, rising cost of technologies Why is this the case that we spend more? -a lot of what we spend on healthcare has nothing to do w actually providing healthcare--large amount of money spent on health insurance administration -600$ just to process paperwork--health insurance does NOT drive down cost really bc end up spending money on non-health related things (bureaucaracy) Access to Doc or Nurse when Sick: -other countries are better at this -60% americans can get same day appt but worse than norway, austria, netherlands, france NZ, UK, Switz -US better than canada but not huge diff Cost Related Barriers -cannot afford things or get care -US is an outlier--if you have health insurance you are fine but not the same for 40% of americans who do not have insurance--this is unique to americans--HUGE COST BARRIERS TO BASICS OUTCOMES: -we spend billions of dollars more than other countries but.. -infant mortality rates 2013: US rank was 36 and US black was 70--way below other western countries and worse than Cuba -shows our money does not go to actual healthcare things -AA have less access bc access to healthcare is very racialized -life expectancy: us is ranked 32 so we are below a lot of places--US is only place where in last 3 years life expectancy decreased bc of opiod pandemic

THE STORY WE TELL VIDEO: 32:55

-all men created equal--ideal at america's core but written at a time where some held in bondage and others dispossessed of their lands -america created a story of race--not abt how you look-about how people assign meaning to how you look -think there are fundamental differences between human beings--race is idea that has history and has evolved overtime -TJ VA slaveholder declared human equality and wrote doc called notes on virginia--wrote abt american colonies and sales pitch for america -notes were not abt race but among his descriptions of geography he expressed views on inhabitants of new land--americans euros and africans -said blacks inferior to whites in body and mind--first person to articulate a theory of race--said in Dec that all created equal--but how can he own 175 slaves to 225 slaves??? -he justified slavery--how can we promote liberty and system of slavery on other hand--and say yea but something is diff abt these people-unalienable rights only apply to some -accept all men created equal but some of those people are not quite men--keep ideas of nationality but write some out -suspisoins of black inferiority of Tj evolved overtimed shaped by intense labor needs--1619 first africans--religion and wealth defined status and black and white were not clear things of idenities (more christians and heathens--status more fundamental than color or background) -process to black and white as inferior and not was gradual -first 50 years laborers were euro indentured servants--w fewer euros braving it so transatalntic slave trade to replace them w african slaves -found endless labor supply--couldn't just melt into pop when they ran away--ideal labor source -slavery was made permanant and inheritable for black people--word white began appearing in colonial statutes -buttressed a social structure -as aa slavery increased lower class euros earned new rights and became overseeres. -ordinary white people will not be complicit unless they get something--they wanted prestige and ego that they could derive from racism -euro poor whites identified themselves w being white--emergence of white race and distingusied themselves of dark skin perpetual slavery -africans were diff kind of people--racial divide emerging and becoming natural -by time jefferson worte notes on VA in 1781 and slavery so widespread that many whites thought it was natural for white people--he turned to NA and it was natural for them to be free brave warriors protecting lands so thought they were not diff from euros -OG view of indians was they were naturally white bc of sun and skin treatment--prob w them was not race but culture--could be civilized -also influenced by enlightenment that education and environment could improve people -those in direct conflict w indians didn't think of them in enlightement view but thought of them as savages destorying peaceful settlers so should be driven out -indians were hunters and gatherers and they were free and equal in their minds--fought to maintain freedom and land--they threatened stability of nation -US decided easiest way to avoid indian war and aquire land was to civilize them--this included christian, englihs education and agriculture (farming)--then there would be surplus land open to white settlement -wanted to assimilate them and make them farmers--to live like colonists--civililztion policy was to make them brown white men -in notes on VA jefferson said indians could be assimilated but not blacks -wrote of deep rooted prejudcies and phsycial and moral diffs between blacks and whites--finds it difficult to conceive that slaves are fully as equal--suspicion only that blacks are inferior to whites in endowments of body and mind -not product of circumstance but it is deeper and innate--genetic!!! -says they will not know this before science gives them the answers--scientifically what makes whites superior to blacks--scienctists will answer this--this builds case geared to tell world that they are different -in next century ideas abt human difference will expand--science and slavery will look at nature of black people -land propels NA into land of racial spotlight WHO CAN BE CIVILIZED? -the hopes of jefferson in first inaugural address happened in purchase of LA territory doubling size of country -TJ believed US had great future bc could expand space and westward -big problems tho: land was not empty they overran indians--at time of purchase dozens of indian tribes populated territory west of mississippi and some indian nations owned land in SE -indians in south lived where wealth was firmly gournded in land to grow tobacco and other stable crops--indians owned that land and under constant pressure for land -in response some tribes embraced gov civilization policy in 1790s--try to be american -most people considered cherokees to be success of civilization policiy--they transformed superficially their culture-- -cherokees had lived in small villages and by 1819 they seded over 90% of their land to US -w civ policy they became farmers or ran plantations and owned slaves--kids learned christian and english--cheorkee alphabet and bilingual newspaper and made gov and constitution patterned after US -as became more prosperous along white lines--us gov changing and had to appeal to wider range of men--one main interest of less well off white american was to gain land to be better and main result was gruadula empowerment of pop which would like to take what they had -every year more white settlers came to stay on indian land -fed gov promised to remove from state in 1802 but 25 years later georgia's legislature took action "the lands in quesiton belong to georgia she must and she will have them"--held lottery giving whites title to cherokee property -killing stealing property forcing out of hourses--cherokees pressed from all sides -pressure increased in 1828 when andrew jackson became president and "common man" removing all indians east of mississippi -his citizen is increaingly white male--more democratic for white males and becomingmore race bsed--only whites can have land and preserved it and use independece for self gov to be proper citizens -nationalism begins to be equated to race--nations should be composed of oepople w inherent qualities in common--look same same lang--contradictory to enlightenment of united humanity -conflicgt of indian removal and american ideals happened in debates: -Lewis provided justification: indian removal act 1830--when some tribes resisted removal pres jackson response reflected gov shift in racial thinking of indians -dont have intelligence morality or desire of improvement essential to change in their condition--need to disappear -cherokees felt betrayed they were considered savages--told to become less indian but now told it is inherent in them and embrace it--do not become white preserve yourself -cherokees fought removal--but in 1838 the US army forced them to leave at gunpoint--1/4 of nation died in camps or on trail of tears west--by 1840 more than 70000 SE indians relocated west of mississippi -all about who could be white -8 years after trail of tears america went to war w mexico to acquire land--inferior mongrel race--mere indians--savages--intend to hold region against civilized world--war ended in 1848 annexed 1/3 of mexico's land -most white americans believed west was only for them--manifest destiny--west belonged to white americans -some used science to support belief in racial superiority RACE: -in 19th century public lectures on races of man--science was what people interested in -race is great issue of the age--in 1840's quesiton of slavery expanding to western lands was dividing nation and fueling attacks on slavery -momentum toward abolition of racial slavery--created tension of white society -as questioning slavery race becomes more apparent -in 1846 5000 people gathered in boston to hear "The plan of creation in the animal kingdom" the first american lecture by Louis Agassiz--valued ovservation over speculation--questioned are all people no matter physical features members of same or diff species -Agassiz came to america supporting all americans same--changed when met Samuel Morton--owned skulls and wrote 2 books documenting innate diffs among humans -one on NA--argued using scientific methods to quesiton method of skull size and capacity which was vital in how brains becme -white smartest then english french and other euros and blacks on bottom -blacks always on bottom--english say english smartest and french do the same -systematic errors in what was in favor of the understood hierarchies -Samuel Morton drew wild conclusions from the skulls--you cannot predict morality behavior achievents form brain but that was what was important about race at the time -southerners delighted at scientists--heard huge diffs between races -men of south argued that slaves are inferior -ultimate defense of slavery is racial defense that blacks inferior so slaves and god made them that way -john campell-- -josiah not--believed black people separate species and used science to defend slavery--good doc--when writes abt race throws off any scientific realism and writes from prejudices but accepted as scientific face -pro slave advoacates that enslavement of black people bc jefferson all men did not scientifically include black people -in 1850 louis agassiz told members of AAOAS--said races well marked and distinct--wrote to samuel mortin and said the battle is theirs -power of ideology of race can change people's minds--since science used racism to fuel his ideals -types of mankind book: pre sold--first time scientists pulled together all research justifiying that miniorities were diff species -no 2 races can dwell together on equal terms -among first to buy book US dpt of state navy treasury -politicians happy to have scientific views to lean on to say enslaving blacks not bc selfish but bc different -way of naturalizing social strucutre which everyone saw that miniorities were bottom of social/political hierarchy and if say they are bio different they should be at bottom -1857 dred scott--people of AA ancestory enslaved or free could never be citizens of US--no rights which white man should respect -conflict over slavery =war--emanciaption population--Agassiz delt w newly free black population--he said beware of black rights which could endanger whites -in late 19 century ideas of racial diff widely accepted at home and new role for america abraod WHITE MAN"S BURDEN: -at turn of century ppo culture promoted race as unifying force of national identiry -race was common topic in new monthly magazines--new middle class interested in reading abt race -race quesiton the indian quesiton negro quesiton -people read it but didn't understand science behind it -just thought it was correct--whos better whos worse -unifying principle was white supremacy and shared racial idenity--if you are white you are in--line of whiteness cuts across class lines and unifies americans on basis of race -may be poor but you are white -1898 possession of guam PR cuba and phillipines after defeating spain in war--poem white mans burden --america is world power--poem was racial justification to put down filipinos fighting for independence from US -tried to encourgae US to annex phillipines -pear's soap--not all americans supported phillipine war but race fuled it-- -white mans burden of having black people around before and now that they're emancipated -filipinos protrayed in different ways -at end of 19th century race embodied everyting adn put it into concept of self -no gap between regular person and scientist on thoughts of race -america crushed phillipines and gained strategic port in pacific--then wanted to civilize in 20th century as most prosperous nation/empire -1904 st louis missouri fair--celebrated 100th anniversary of TJ LA purchase--americas triumph of civilization and imperialism--hope and optimism--organizers wanted to show americas progress -fairgoers wandered through tech and cultural exhibits but on other side captivated by human exhibits of people in "natural hapbitis" little brown people to show savages -they'd have the evolutionary tree -see people they've only read about--organize categories of human beings on a continum from savagery to civilization -best way of bearing white man's burden -direct link between manifest destiny and expanding overseas -phillipine was largest and most popular--gave americans chance to see who they conquered--also abt showing where you were as a white citizen -object lession 20mill people -highway of human progress -race one of most important parts of national life--US would rise toward glory to history to destiny -after 6 months worls far closed on dec 1 1904 and exhibits demolished -race told to ratiaonlaize deep social differences and it was carried forward to 20th century and beyond -society based on principles to die for--but allow ourselves to ignore principles--

RACIAL FORMATIONS READING

-case of susie phipps who was trying to change race from black to white--1970 state law which said anyone w at least 1/32 black was black--she lost and court upheld law which quantified racial idenity and legalized assigning individuals to specific racial groupings what is race: -attempts to discern the scientific meaning of race continue to the present day -many say race lies in innate characteristics and superficial things like skin color and physical attributes RACE AS A SOCIAL CONCEPT: -in 19th century max weber highlighted soicial and political factors which engeneered racial conflict -in US white is seen as pure category and any mix makes non white -brings about marvin harris' hypo descent -brazil has many different varieties of racial categories but the problem is this puts mothers fathers bros and isters in different categories which is infathomale in the US -many "black" people in US try to pass for white meanwhile they wouldn't pass for "blac" in Brazil -diversity of racial meaning w the word black -racial formation is process by which social economic and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories and by which they are in turn shaped by racial meanings RACIAL IDEOLOGY AND RACIAL IDENITY: -our process for navigating race relations depends on preconceived notions of what each specific racial group looks like -racial etiquette exists here which is set of intertatie codes and racial meanings which operate in interactions of daily life -we think these stereotypes are to integral to US social order -media emphasizes race -we see race as fixed and immutable RACIALIZATION: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RACE: -with slavery a racially based understanding of society was set which resulted in shaping of specific racial identify not only for slaves but for european settlers too -racialization: signify extension of racial meaning to previously racially unclassified relationships social practice or group--it is ideological process -the automation of southern agricultture and augmented labor deman of postwar boom transformed blacks from rurla improverished labor force to urban working class by 1970--blacks then came to be seen as part of underclass and depedent -new racial myths always being created as time goes on, and our defintion of "black" is always chaning -race overflows skin color and social stratification and discmriination --once we recognize the racial dimension present to some degree in every identity it becomes possible to speak of racial formation and to see it not as fixed but as an illusion

INEQUALITY AND (IN)JUSTICE: LECTURE

-focusing on key concepts when thinking about inequality and injustice Inequality by Design: -counterintuitive: we do not think of it as this -"Americans have created the extent and type of inequality we have and maintain it" -we create it daily--not result of biological process -who wins the competition for success? social environment largely predicts one's success---class at birth is most important predictor of where you will end up in life -example: zip-code where you were born predicts more bc of amount of police presence and schools and things like that: why???? -The structure of rewards in society is politically defined--height and breadth of societal ladders are the result of policy choices--way society regulates marketplace, and gov programs (minimum wage is policy choice--we could have a higher one but as society decided the low minimum wage and determines amount of inequality--40hours a week on min wage you cannot afford things and this is bc of policy choices) -access to healthcare is the same thing--policy where some have access and some don't -US system distinctively unequal: our ladder is unusually extended and narrow -EXAMPLE IMAGE: 1970s smaller ladder between low income to high in comparison to 1990s--now people on bottom are poorer and people on top are becoming richer --wages for people in middle class have remained pretty much the same--ALL RESULT OF POLICY DECISION AND INEQUALITY BY DESIGN and it is goverment Inequality and Fairness: -Does inequalty violate princoples of justice? -Social injustice isn ot about bad luck: it requires unfair inequality = possibility of institutional remedy (that is not being taken) -2 Judgments: 1) moral judgement about fairness of inequality--is it fair or not (in richest countries going hungry is it fair) 2) sociological judgment that the unfairness could be remedied by social change (is there a way that children could get free healthcare or free food) -Change in the allocation of resources: power relations oppose such changes -oppression = inequalty + injustice + power Fair Play vs Fair Shares: -fair play: inequalities are fair, as long as the rules of the game are fair and rules by which people compete are fair (like sports game) -as long as equal opportunity, inequality of results is not a problem -Fair Shares: everyone is entitled to a share of society's resources suffiencient to live a dignified life -basic human righs to healthcare, housing, nutrition -Fundamental problem with fair play: fate of children--if you want equal opportunities for kids you must deal w the distribution of outcomes (fair share) -Fair play can only go so far as to make a judgment especially if you want to consider fate of chidlren so need to consider distrubution of resources

VIDEO: The Difference Between Us:

-human beings are different--skin color, body shape, hair, eye shape -use these to classify people into race -race is divisions among people that are biological or genetic and unchanging and clear cut and distinct--you identify people by just looking at them -the idea of race assumes that external diff in biology are linked to other internal differences like athletic ability, intelligence, and more -this belief is based on idea that race is biologically real--but they cannot found any genetic markers found in everyone of a particular race--no genetic markers define race -students in a class about to look at their DNA and explore biology of human variation--comparing skin colors and type blood and swab mouths --then compare genetic simlarities and differences -studetns start workshop w assumption that they'll be more simlar to people who look like them (white males will be like white others)-- -idea of race is a biological myth--need a shift in perspective (like understanding world is not flat) -race is not biology it is an adiea we ascribe to biology--idea of race as biology is hige in america -Gorgeous competing at Adidas nationals--people think that black people are faster at sprinting--racial differences not talked about openly but talked about for competitive edge--goes both ways between black people and white people -think that who is faster or slower is pointed at race--people say diff races have diff bodytypes that give them advantages in one sport over another that they say is genetics and they cannot change this -others argue no scientific reasoning for this -you can see differences among populations but can you compact it into races -no one can decide how many races there are--genetic variation in human population is very very small we aren't very different -genetically we are among most similar of all species--only 1/1000 that make up our genetic code is different (penguins have twice amount of genetic diff and fruit flies 10x like human and chimp) -of small amount of variation, what is mapped along racial lines???? bc we live in racialized society we have long history of searching for racial diff and attribluting performace and behavior to them -200 years scientists searched for biological basis for race (facial angle, callibrated skull size for intelligence, eye shape, hair form, brain color) -scientists ideas about race are not simply scientific, they're also informed by socieities in which they live -early face of american prosperity was white and AA lived under Jim Crow Laws--this showed natural order--people thought proper place for AA was at bottom and in places w native americans--biology becomes excuse for social differences -Frederick Hoffman--tendency of negro race downward so this leads to greater mortality and cause extinction of the race--1896 same year legalized segregation--said it was unimpeachable science bc found disparities between AA and whites but data analysis bad bc didn't look at poverty or health availability-concluded they were innately bad so no attempt to help them prosper bc encoded in their blood -by 1920 one single drop of blood as AA identified every individual as black and inferior--they would be contaminants--28 states passed laws forbidding interracial marriage to keep racial purity -EUGENICS: racial purification was one aim of eugenics movement--one gene each from father and mother was beleived gave rise to any trait physical behavioral and moral--like ability to play chess, rowdyness, mindfulness -mistake was assuming complex behaviors could be reduced to simple Mendelian genes -eugenecis used science to advance social agenda at white americans to breed best and brightest which was white and get rid of others which was colors -so much concern of races mixing bc it would bring down level of strong charactersitics -Blue Hills Virginia--Mongrel virginians, mixed race, unclassificable, able to pass as white and oculd breed into white WIN Tribe--combo of worst racial traits Charles Davenport -to keep them away eugenesis imposed restrictive measures and adopted in and outside of america--fueled the NAZI jew policies -Jesse Owens --racial superiority but he had won 4 medals--said they had better athletics but not civilized--say he excelled bc he was closer to the primitive -rise of great negroo athletes in 1930s and must be reason so people said biology--jesse owens picked apart for this --a doctor said they couldn't say this was true and -theyre was no physical feature including skin color which would identify them as negro but what marker would identify them as that in the first place -no way to measure race--we do it by skin color others by hair texture, dividing lines can be diff what is black in US is not black in Brazil -american racial classification is cultural--being black is just defined as looking dark enough to be -asian have just as white skin as white so are they all white? -mutations cause variations in our DNA--today some genes like for skin color come in diff forms--in the genens that control melanin mutations happen so many of us lost capacity to make dark melanin -light melanin found where sunlight is less intense--this may have happened bc sunlight is essential to vitamin D--northern areas w no light they needed to get as much as possible so they were lighter -best way to explain genetic differeances is distance from populations--skin color if we only looked at people in tropics in norway theres light and dark but if we walked from one to the other we'd see continuous change in skin tone -no point along trip we would be able to say this is the switch from dark race to light race -human biological variation is complex--so many aspects of human variation so many ways to explain them -variation in eye shape and hair texture and tongue curling involve very few genes and not all are identified -diff in how our brains work and make art and how we move are complex -genes for athletic ability--have to be careful saying these things bc there are genses influencing them but not genes for them -reasons jews so good at basketball bc one man made them good at this sport -cultural aspects that people choose to play certain sports--availabiltiy of training and opportunities--as opps change diff groups drawn into sporting arenas -cant come up w rule on how genetic ancestry is gonna influence an individual to be good at something or music is the same thing -if there were those genes would be inherited apart from eye shape and stuff -for race to be more than skin deep it has to reflect things under the skin but most of human variation is not reflected and stuff -STUDENTS: thought be most similar to those who share the same race--MtDNA does not code from any traits and only inherited from mother--tells us a lot about mothers mother mother mother--students MtDNA is almsot identical to each other and things not is highlighted 2 black people had more differences than black guy did w white guy -if human variation was among racial lines than people in one race would be more similar w those in the same races -genetic variation fell in groups we regard as races: gel electrophoresis--the findings in differences between human groups: 85% of all variation among human beings is between 2 individuals within same local population (so like 2 people in sweden)--of amall amount of variation there is as much diff between 2 blacks and a black and a white -not more genetically different -we do know some genes found in greater frequency in some populations and geography is better explanation than race--skin color and genetic diseases -sickle cell disease caused by gene altering shape of red blood cells--say its AA disease but the trait is not uncommon in people from mediterranean--where malaria was common the sickling gene was selected --result of having ancestors who lived in malarial regions -the way we have moved and mated throughout history causes genetic variaitons -human lineage originated in africa --small groups of early hominids began first migration out of africa to far regions breeding isolated lineages--long thought that those first lineages led to distinct races that are with us today -proof that all humans froduct of second group that spread out and other movements are much more subtle where genes move -human populations have not been separate long enough to make sub species or groups -the superficial traits we use to construct race are recent variations--now we use complex human traits like music athletic intelligence and stuff but they are old traits -we all carry recent variation and developed independently from ones we see as racial -STUDENTS: looked within groups Gorgeous sequence was most like someone in Nigeria but her match was dramatically diff from other Nigerians -greater genetic diversity in africa than elsewhere--most genetic varialbilty in world present in subsaharan africa -one boy matched iceland and balkan and africa shows you can be similar to all "racial groups" he's just a mut -we are all mongrels--always been mixing -most variation traced back to africa--bc of history moving mating a mixing most human variation can be found in any populatin most from common source of africa --seen how shallow differences are among people--visual differences striking but based on almost nothing in genetic variation -race is social and historical concept that we constructed--black white and brown are just skin colors but we attach meaning to them -we assume gorgeous would be athlete over valedictorian even though she is both but since days of jesse owens our society has acknowledged one of her talents over the other -if playing field were level the opportunities for her would nto be limited over what soiety thinks the nature of her genes inherited -money goes a long way in increasing someones capacity to do well in one area or another --off track playing field is not level--net worth of white fam is 8x AA family --race invented to categorized percieved diff of human groups -greatest social agony is race--justifies inequalities in society -we made it we can unmake it WORKSHEET: What is the relationship between genetics, biological differences and race? -genetic variation is basically not related to race at all 2) Historically, which biological aspects of the human body have been used as indicators of racial differences? Hair texture, skin color, eye shape, body shape 3) Until the early 1900s, what was the goal of so-called 'race science'? In particular, what was its ideological role? For 200 years scientists searched for biological basis for race but it is not completely biological--thought AA would go extinct but didn't look at social reasons only looked at biolgocial 4) What is eugenics? What were some of its consequences? How to get ideal traits-- 5) Can we 'measure' race? Why? Are racial classifications scientific? We cannot measure race and racial classifications are not scientific--almost no genetic variation between someone we refer to as "black" and someone we refer to as "white" 6) How can we explain differences in skin color among human groups? Does genetic variation occur mostly within or between racial groups? Why Genetic variation is a little more or around the same as between racial groups--its bc of how we spread we all started in the same place and it has a lot to do with geography Mutations cause variations in our DNA 7) Is there a connection between athletic ability and race? What does the history of sports tell us about it? There is not a connection even though we say there is--Jesse owens helped form this idea that AA were fast and same goes for Jews being good at bball 8) What are the social implications of race? How can we face them? Causes us to look at people and think they'll be good at one thing or not good at enough or won't progress through life bc their skin color but that is not true --causes us to stereotype people or assume one group is going to be better than another

INEQUALITY BY DESIGN: READING

-many people accept that some people are better off bc they have more talents -inequality is social construction -2 questions of inequality: who gets ahead and who gets behind, AND what determines how much people get for being ahead or behind? -who ends up where is largely bc peoples social environments influence the rung of the ladder they end up on--so advantages from parents -why societies vary is political--they choose the height and breadth of their ladders by regulating things, providing services, sbusidizing some groups more than others -inequalities americans have is the historical result of policy choices of americans -american ladder is expanded and narrow and getting worse -amount of school some americans recieve determines jobs and income--in turn educational policies affect how much schooling children recieve and local employment opportunties constrain how well people do economically -Kenneth Bock says we are quick to see explanations of inequality is what we are rahter than what we do--many believe nature shapes inequality -good looks and getting ahead in society only matter to the degree we make them matter -today more unequal than we have been in 70 years -we are more unequal than other affluent western country yet the natural inequality view is still popular -Bell Curve sorts people by how intelligent they are but it is inadequate-- -disparities in income and wealth encourage hard work and saving--this was the argument for the supply side in the 80s that rewarded the wealthy -if we enforced equal things than we would reduce living standards for all americans according to some -research suggests that inequality may retard economic growth--nations w more inequality of earnings had lower economic growth and grew less quickly -increasing resources for those of lower income like raising health educational attainment and hope may raise people's abilites to be productive and reducing could reduces unproductive things -americans also concerned that leveling stifles the drive to get ahead--many believe inequality is needed to encourage hard work but how much -western cocieteis very little in degrees to which kids economic successses are constrained by parents class positions -america has more fluid intergenerational mobility than other nations but so does sweden which is most equal--should not encourage inequality by this evidence either -need for inequality for economic growth is false

MIXED BLOOD READING

-race is social classfication -debates over race and IQ--problem is that people assume there is a biological entity of race -how can we understand variation in physical appearance among human beings? -how can we understand kinds of racial classsifications applied to differences in physical appeariance among human beings? -the fact that americans think asian and stuff have biolgoical entities or face is cultural not scientific -human physical variation: speicies evolved in africa from earlier forms and spread over planet--geographic separation to differ in characteristics--mutation natural selection and genetic drift -genetic drift--if two gorups divide then two groups will end up looking different -skin color is salient feature -asian fold of skin was there to protect from cold -why dont think of white skin as racial? only variablilty in what people look like NO RACE -skin color and body form do NOT vary together -variation in people in arfirca bc diff pops in africa have been separated longer than east asians or euros -classification -human beings biological entities (avocado fruit or veggie) -can ask if person is black or white--but does not give us biological info but show how cultural groups classify things -americans believe in blood which is carried by members of so called race -hypo descent: white, asian, black -blood is not like genes--blood is entity -hypo descent or blood not informative about physical appearnce of people -hypo descnet means that if someone is classified as something other than white at least one parent is too -stragne consequences of folk taxonomy: someone who doesn't have "black features' but has black parent still classified as black -cuases blacks to see greater variation among themselves than whites and vice versA -GREATER physical variation of blacks than whites -Brazilian tipos -girl and brazilian bf--she said shes black bc mom is black but dad is not--bf said he his white bc in brazil he is not even tho gf is darker than him--he is mulato and she is morena -america race taxonomy tells you what your parents look like and brazil tells you what you look like not parents -americans say fixed but changes when get on plane -race is a myth -when american researches study raical differences in behavior and search for biological factors over social they are wasting their time -american folk taxomonmy of race is changing bc of immigration blurring racial lines -other is most rapidly growing category

WHAT IS RACE LECTURE

CENSUS: -1790 is free white males and free white females -2020 is white -1790 is all other free persons -020 is black or african american -1790 slaves -2020 is nothing but then theres american indian or alaska native chinese jap fil korean asian indian viet other asian native haw samoan chamorro other pacific islander some other race mexican puerto rican cuban spanish 1960 and on people could choose race 2000 on american could be recorded in more than 1 category 1790-2020 blacks and white 1870-20 american indian/alaska and asian too 2000-2010 hawaii pacific islander 1910-1950 and 1970-2010 other 1930 and then 1970-2010 hispanic VIDEO on how race socially constructed: -even tho race isnt real -one first people to categorize was Johann Friedrich B lumenbach in 1776 german -caucasaion mongolian mayalyn ethipopian american -euros bought into it -diff races helps solove nat rught to freedom and slavery -as political priorities change def of race adjust -if mex birth in 1929 you were white and 1930 census changed that then later in 1942 changed back to white -states with one-drop rule people could change race by crossing state lines -2000 multiracial category --6.2% selects some other race -many feel racial identity is clear and permanant and then others can change it so shows how shakey race is bc no race chromosome it does not exist -medical community relating race to health outcomes it is bc of backgrounds -sickle cell enemia--related to areas of high malaria like europe asia and africa--not related to race at all WHAT IS RACE: -science and race: -genetic variation between racial groups however these are classified is minimal -concept of race does not have biological basis -social construction of race is attribution of meaning to biological diffreences that have no intrinsic significiane -we provide meaning and value to race but not based on bio what is race? -the invention of race is modern phenomenon -euro explorers of new world wondered if natives were human beings w souls bc unexpected to see them --did not know how to classify them -a religious worldview developed separating euros (children of god) from "others" --develped into race c lassficiation we know today--convenient way to separate people to justify exploitation racial classifications: -colonial statutes Franklin -white christain euros seen as superior -late 1600s these ideas developed and justified economic system -racial categories have often been created and used as ethnic intensifiers to justivy exploitation and genocides (jews in Nazi Germany) -still social construction and race turn ethnic groups to be exploited -In US the Census created unique set of artificial racial cetegories--mexican and mexican americans considered white and GD came and separate category so blamed for it and in 40's they are white again and needed them to work in field -these categories are arbitrary confused and meaningless and change all the time just part of political agenda/ploy -census is used as poltiical tool to reproduce the political agenda at the time racial formation and racial ideology: -racial formation: process by which social economic and political forc es determine the content and importance of racial cateogires and by which they are in turn shaped by racial meanings -trends and policies put in place shifting nature of racial category to fit political agenda -racial categories constantly changing overtime -racial formation is so effective that race is seen as having natural and common sense quality but NOT TRUE--racial formation naturalizes this -racial ideology: system of racial myths and stereotypes --racial stereoytpes about everyone -particular meanings may change but the system remains intact racialization in the US: -late 1600s slavery required a racially based understanding of society; all african slaves became black and euros were white -racilaization: extension of racial meaning to previously racially unclassificed relationship, social practice or group --gives certain rights to whites and denied to black and enslaved -late 1800s, the category of white was challenged by waves or euro immigrants---they were not considered white when first came to US--irish americans were just step above black--long process for them to be welcomed -new racial order emerged that drew the color racial line around, rather than within europe --concept of whiteness is not fixed conclusions: -ongoing temptation to think of race as an essence, something fixed concrete and objective but it is SOCIAL -to understand racial formation we need to recognize the racial dimension present to some degree in every identity, institution, and soical practice in the US -race is a social construcrt but it has SEriOUS CONSEQUENCES

RACE IN THE US LECTURE--color blind racism

COLOR BLIND RACISM: racism without racists: -contemporary forms of racism occur outside what race actually is and with absence of those racism -nobobdy claims to be racist anymore ijn the US -notwithstanding overwhelming evidence of ongoing racial discrimination, most whites claim that race is no longer relevant -say racial inequalities now not bc race -new racial ideology: raical inequality is result of nonracial dynamics, not discrimination--how racial ideologies tends to change overtime now nobody i9s explicityly racist (ex. market dynamics do not succeed in job market bc of their skills or bc cultural limitations so AA portrayed as lazy or uninterested in american values of individualism) -Jim crow style overt discrimination has disappeared; discrimiation now is subtle], institutional, and apparentlly 'non racial'--discrimination is not eliminated!!! white racial attitudes: -survey show that fewer whites than ever seem to subscribe to stereotypical views of blacks -how can we explain this????? -scholars exploring and provide diff hypothesis 1) racial optimists: change indicate a prodound transition in the US--changed since civil rights and say racial discrimination is post and we live in post racial society and we need color blind policies 2) racial pesoptimists: whites racial attitudes reflect both progress and resistance, mix of tolerance and intolerance--acceptance of equal opportunity principles in theory, but not in practice 3) symbolic racism: replaced biological racism in expressing racial resentment --replacing genetic diff to explain diff behavior and now portrayed symbolically --prejudic es are expressed in language of american individualism -moral character: blacks dont try hard enough they take what they have not earned--more cultural or symbolic of racism and not based on biology but characteristics to adobpt to individualism 4) sense of gorup \position: white prejudice is an ideology to defend white privilege--blacks poor economic positions are blamed on a perceived cultural inferiority --blacks not adopting to american society and they are inferiror --helps whites explain white privilege -all of these approaches interpret racial vews as individual psychological dispostions rather than systemic problems color blind racism -approach: actors viwes corresopoind to their systemic location -racism is not just prejudice, its systemic --all forms of discrimination that negatively affect minorities -racism cannot be reduced to individual prejudice but also systemic -racial structure: totality of social relations and practices that reinforce white privilege but why maintained? raical order assigns material benefits to the dominant race so they do not try to push to change this racial structure important: -the point is not to hunt for racisms separating good people from bad -goal is to recognize the collective practices that reinforce racial order -NEED TO CHANGE THE INSTITUTIONS NOT JUST INDIVIDuAL APPRAOCHES Systemic racism video: -jamal in poor and kevin in wealthy and black kids shcool prop taxws to bad school and everyone underpaid but kev school district is prop taxes and school very good --why growing up in such diff world -americas history of systemic racism: starts in history -cities divided into sections that were desirable or not--redlining--owning home and getting college education is best way to get wealth so but his GP wanted to buy house they refused bc redlining and bc colleges could prevent from attending bc legal segregation their options fo rjobs were scarce -banks more likely to give money to high income than low -implicit bias: prejudices that people not aware they have -jamal only student accepted into great university but jamal resume not as good as kevins --studies show resuemes w white sounding names get wtice as many interview requests as black sounding names and implicity bias is one of reasons for this -even among college grads -systemic racism in every area of stuff -biggest challenge is not single person or entitiy responsible -what can you do? -be more aware of own implicit bias -consequences of jim crow and slavery still affect access to opps -increasing school funding and make sep than prob tasxes so poor and wealthy areas get same stuff SUBTLe RACIAL DISCRIMINATION VIDEO: racial bias in st. louis -two young men whos lives are the same except for the one way we can see-skin color -filmed their lives -they feel they're equal -one of the first things is looking aruohnd city--when white man walks up to electronics counter he gets service immediately but black man does not bu tit happend again and again -same thing happened while checking out cars--knew black man was there and black salesmen looked at him and looked away but that salesmen was there instantly for john the white man -different treatment--record store--guy in record store tales black man to make sure he doesn't take anything but didn't do that to white man -it's not blaming the white person following it's explaining why he follows -locked them out of cars someone helps john but no one helps glen -go for a walk in downtown--police officer rolled right by john but stopped and inspected glen -in white neighborhood soeone tells glen he is in the wrong place -johns advantage is 1000 dollars for the car -9000 for white man and 9500 for black man but what's the difference?? man could not get answer -less sophisticated customers--black americans pay twice as much for cars at a cost of 150mil dollars a year -job discrimination: apply for jobs and stuff--from beginning treated differently -both have to pay a fee and john told it is against rules to share lising w friend but when glen is told it it's a lecture about laziness -black man told no positions but white man told there are -apartment: john told it's available immediately but not glen--tell him it has been rented and said woman paid deposit on last available apt.

CONSTRUCTING DIFFERENCES: Lecture

Categories of Difference: -categories we use everdya to describe ourselves and those around us are product of social not biological factors--categoreis are result of human activities -example: hypo-descent rule: first established in early 1900's--said if you have 1 drip of black blood you are black--legally discriminated against people--result of cultural factors and not biological and has serious consequences -categories of diff are how humans and scoiety create categories and favor some over others -differences are NOT cause of inequality; the meanings and values applied to those differences make them harmful--EXAMPLE 1600s women w red hair were witches and burned at stake bc of how they look--provide meaning to external differences which made it harmful and create inequality -social stratification--a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, leading to inequality (every society does this)--diff socieites have different markers to create the system (India has system based on religion so hindu caste system is main source, but Europe race and class is more important) -can be race, class, sex orientation, more Essentialism vs Social Construciton: -what are the origins? -essentialism--human behavior is natural predetermined by genetic, biological mechanisms and not subject to change--race or gender--source of inequality -mostly discredited--it still comes up (sports: in the olympics races have advantaage in one sport over others bc of biological reasoning but it is not the case) -THEY ARGUE AGAINST ESSENTIALISM: Berger and Luckmann--social order is NOT part of the nature of things, it exists only as product of human activity--nothing biological about inequalities we see today but result of how we create reality and categories w meaning -Social construction of reality according to B&L: 1) externalization (creating cultural products like ideas and beliefs like gender roles) 2) objectivation (products become independent of their creators--like no origin of concept of race bc it is modern and not here since beginning of time) 3) internalization (learning the objective facts through socialization--school, media, family--learn something from these places as if they were natural (even though not natural and product of human activity) How are categories created? -institutions--set of rules and relationships that govern social activities in which we participate to meet our basic need (family, education, economy, state, media--where reality is socially constructed) -we CAN deconstruct them though--changing social construction of same-sex marriage--bc they're not biological and instead social they can always be challenged -Interpersonal context: everyday interactions w family, peers, students, coworkers--this is where many ideas enforced and challenged Why are categories created? -huge debate -why differences turned into systems of inequality: 2 EXPLANATIONS 1) Davis-Moore Thesis: inequality has beneficial consequences for socieyt, it has important functions for social ogranization -1950's--say its good for society--provides incentive for people to better themselves and find better opportunities--helps society work effectively -HOWEVER: it neglects exploitation and who gains from inequality--it erases imbalances of those who have power and who do not 2)Frye: inequality as a result of oppression, in which a dominant group benefits from systematic abuse, exploitation and injustice directed at a subordinate group -can be based on race, gender, religion, and more but core is always attempt to oppress or exploit people for gain (slavery as monetary gain)--can also be symbolic reasoning -material and symoblic sides

THE RACIAL PROJECT IN THE US LECTURE

PART 1: RACIAL INEQUALITY The racial project in the USA: -we like to say we have more freedom gained from conolonial time to rev war and civil war and stuff -in reality, american colonies were founded on quest for freedom as well as brutal forms of domination -american colonies have been deeply intertwined in ideals of freedom and oppression (ex. Thomas Jefferson; all men created equal and enlightment abt freedom and equality and rights pursuit of happiness and he had more than 200 slaves and fathered children from Sally Hemmings--CONTRADICTION) -racial classifications are almost never neutral: they are linked to inequality, domination and belief systems assigning superior and inferior statuses--always stratify society and have inferior and superior classes -racism: intersection of racial classification and oppression racism and white america: -racism does not affect negatively only minoriities: -working class and poor whites are affected too: -1) racism has divided popular social movements challenging inequalities: elite strategies of divide and conquer to protect their interests (ex. after civil war white and black farmers had same economic interest) AND "populists" in the south in late 1880s; Nixon Southern Strategy in the 1970s and then 1980s -white people in this movement said why associating w them when they're rapists and then saying to blacks why associating w racists -race wedge between white and black workers -1960s big reallignment in south and civil rights movement passed a lot of white working class in south affected by democrats so shift to republican party -nixon used racializd politics--dog whistle politics--undertones of racism and appealed to white southern racists 2) racism undermined univeralistic aspects of welfare states (no universal healthcare system) --1948 Truman proposed to have national healthcare system like rest of world--republicans said no it is socialist but bigger resistance came from southern democras and they didn't wanna spend their money to provide free healthcare to AA who do not deserve it so racism instilled this hisotry of racial oppression in the US: 5 primary forms of racial oppression: 1) genocide and geographical displacement (NA and displacement of entire tribes and killing and everything) 2) slavery (humans used as object and race used as justification bc inherently inferiro) 3) second class citizenship--after civil war and reconstruction a whole section of american society do not enjoy same level of protection and rights as rest of population (sharecropping economic system where AA farmers after civil war and so only way to have job was to work on farms and only have labor and no tools and have to rent tools and work lands of white landowners and work all year long to pay back debt to white landowners for using tools--perpetuating slavery bc economics) -Jim crow is example too--segregation in everything--fiction that even if separate tehy are treated equally but not ture 4) Noncitizen Labor: goes back couple hundred years: chinese worker in cali to build red roads and treated poorly and bc noncitizen had no protection under law and faced exploitation--today agruclutrual sector in US is very much based on using immigrants undocumented who can be exploited easily 5) Diffuse Discrimination: all sorts of everyday life interaction that we see on an every day basis —not hiring someone on the basis of face PART 2: black median family income as % of white median fam income 1947-2010: -we see that 1947 the median AA family made 50% of white family and 2007 60% -1947 is jim crow and stuff mediannet worth by race 1983-2010: -i1983 black was 5$ and white was $100 and same fro 1992 and 2001 was 15$ to 130$ and 2010 is 5$ to 95$ -all about if you own house car stock market bonds and all these things -difference incredibly staggering -1983 balck is 7% of white family and 17% in 1992 and 10% in 2001 and 5% in 2010 -discimrniation in markets and segregation and stuff -especially detrimental for AA families--AA fams have 5% of average fam child poverty rates by race: -white kids poverty rate is MUCH LOWER -1979 12% white and 45% black and by 1995 it is worse and now it is around 1979 Perceptions of racial discrimination 1986 to 2010: -percentage of people agreeing black disadvantages are mainly due to discrimination -most blacks agree with this with slight decreasing overtime -40% in186 and gets lower overtime too --gap between what people percieve as inequlaity --something wrong w black individuals and black families perceptions of discimination against whites 2016: -total discrimination against whites has become as big a problem as discrimination against blacks and minoriites: -all americans 50/50 agree to disagree -black 29 agree -hispanic 38 agree -white 57 agree -white working class 66 agree--this tells a lot: race is used to divide AA and white working class--narrative of victims of discrimination--affirmative action is source of discrimination against whites and other job related advantages for AA and this is not the case it is opposite but important to know how public sees it -white college education 43 agree CONTEXTS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION: -micro-interactions: indicudual interactions -driving while black--more likely to be stopped than white drivers and leads to problems --way of targeting them -housing segregation: red lining--1940s segregating cities by race and providing/subsidising mortgages for white areas and giving oworst to AA -credit markets --illegal to discriminate based on race -employment--job discrimination is rampant in US and it is illegal but still happens a lot -education: based on public school system and property taxes and higher value area higher funding for schools and related to housing segregation -criminal justice system--war on crime and war on drugs and affecting african americans and way they are policed SHARECROPPING VIDEO: -little diff between atebellum south and new south -sharecropping: to look back in time and look at lives say they are very poor -sharecropping was means of livlihood--risk that end of planting season you grew just enough to give money to whites for everything you got -sharecropper mroe deeply embedded year by year -not a lot of diff between slavery and freedom--main diff is people had control of themselves and their children SOUTHERN STRATEGYVIDEO: -1964 Civil Rights act banning segregation -gave away south for rest of century -demo party aligned with civil rights but lost support of many whites in south and republican party continuing begins to capture the south -the south WAS the most demo part of the country from civil war to 1968--after there is a shift as white voters move from demo party to repbulcian party -technique to reach out to white south BEWNEFITING FROM ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION IN MEAT PRODUCTION: NON CITIZEN LABOR -immigrants from eastern europe were being abused in the meat industry -things slowly got better -Ted Roos tok on beef trust and labor unions organized meat packing workers and turned it into best job in US--meat packing was like auto--god wage good benefits--BUT they got bigger to serve fast food industy--then they cut wages made sure no unions and speeding up productions and repetitive tasks and now one of msot dangerous job in the enitre US--also recruited new set of immigrants--illegal immigrants from mexico -many illegal immigrants were corn farmers in mexico--NAFTA led to flooding in mexican market and put mexican farmers out of work bc cheap corn from america--so meat packers began recruitng in mexcio IBP and brought them to the United States -gov cracking down on workers--arresting them w immigration authorities but no massive raids so doesn't affect produciton line so take a few at a time -workers are arrested who work for these people and hired -these wrokers have been here for 10-15 years processing you rmeats and now getting picked up like theyre criminals and ocmpanies making billions of dolalrs REDLINING ORIGINS AND CONSEQUENCES: -thousands of GI's came home to start fams but had no place to live in 1930s--so created FHA to provide loans to average americans so they could buy home -fed progs and banks put millions in the industry--you can afford a new home -massed produced consumer item--suburbia -2 black people came and found model house and looked around --black GI's had fought for country in segregated ranks and came hope in hopes for equality -wanted homes too--ownsers of development have not decided to sell homes to "negroes" -FHA warned that presence of 1 or 2 nonwhite fams could undermine real estate values in suburbs -adopted by private industry -starting in 1930s gov officials institutionalized nat appraisal system whree race was as much a factor in rea estate assessment as the actual property -all white suburban communities had highest rating which was green -all minoritiy or in process of changing got lowest rating which was red "redlined" -as consequence most mortgages went to suburbanizing america racially -net worht of white fams grew and non white fams in urban neighborhoods the housing market in 50s and 60s was rent which you do not get equity from -majority americans hold most of wealth in home equity and help their offspring -whites move into suburb were being subsidized in the accumulation of wealth--these were political decisions -some given power and wealth and access to property and those without access to property did not get wealth or opporutnity for next generation

CONSTRUCTING DIFFERENCES: Reading

PRT 1: -until recently no one was allowed to select mixed racial heritage bc of hypo descent where one drop of black blood makes you all black -history if slavery shows more than just black and white -biologically mixed race has existed but it has to be socially accepted -not bad to be different -it's the meanings and values applied to things that make differences harmful -social stratification results in inequality CRITICAL THINKING -critical thinking if social constructs on which systems of inequality rely -how social structure has affected values -thinking critically is asking questions about what is real -STEPS 1) identify and challenge assumptions: identify assumptions we hold strong and challenge by testing accuracy (women being more nurturing...are they) 2) awareness of place and time in culture—need to be aware of where we are in history and how it is influenced by race social class and more and how these i fluence questions we ask and answers we've accepted -enculturation: immersion in own culture to point where we assume our way if life is natural —we think our societal practices are the only way —consequence is ethnocentrism where we judge those different -ethnocentrism is not problematic but it is when it is used to treat people unfairly -alternative is cultural relativism jus dfunc them by their own standards so we understand them better 3) search for alternative ways of thinking: instead of civil rights that won't protect everyone use human rights framework so everyone is protected and equal 4) develop a reflective analysis: questions the rigid system—shows it is possible to have human rights frankework -critical thinking helps us become active in and come up w ideas ESSENTIALSIM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION -essentialism that juman behavior is natural and predetermined by biological mechanisms not subject to change -but it is not this: social order is not nature and is product of human activity according to luckman and berger -social construction theory says what we see as real is result of human interaction and it encourages questions -what we learn is depends on culture we live in and how we are defined by culture determines how we experience social works -2 men say reality constructed in 3 stages 1) ezterbailizarion creste cultural products through social interaction (gender and dresses) 2) objectivist ion: products created in first stage take on reality if their own and become independent of those who created them—politics construct race categories 3) internalization: learning objective facts about cultural products we've created through socialization -using these stages does not imply that creation if reality i cues in neat way -to understand how categories if differences become systems of inequality need to examine processes that construct them WHAT CONSTRUCTS CATEGORIES OF SIFFERENXE: -categories i'd difference are a result of human activity guided by the values in our culture —we take these everyday actions for granted but okay a big role in how we view world -institutional context: set of rules that govern social activities to meet basic needs (family who protect young, education teaching, economy that controls human resources, state that has power to regulate behavior and media that supplies w info and all of these create categories of difference -interpersonal context: daily interactions w others where we rely on norms to define situations -internal context: internalizing values and beliefs established in other 2-girl stops playing rough so not called tom boy CONSTRUCTING RACE AND ETHNICITY: -race denotes group of people who perceive themselves and are perceived doy others as possessing reeditará traits and ethnicity denotes people as sharing cultural traits like language -what's important is recognition of social institutions of membership in category -after 9/11 muslims are looked at as terrorists -racial categories also constructed in interpersonal contexts—white people often ask what are you but don't ask white people so on efforts to define others we use face and use white as standard -internal contexts: reinforce within ourselves CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL CLASS: -constructed in institutional context and it is more than income and wealth -also institutions like state policies -poverty line example: problematic in way determined bc relies on material standards of the 1950s and not contemporary standards -and it misses significant aspect of what it meana to be poor--it is also a process of social exclusion (denial of opportunties most basic to human development for long life--when institutions determine defintions they determine persons access to resources -media also creates class divisions -interpersonal contexts: we define who is rich poor and more in our interactions and attach meanings to categories -rely on stereotypes so we treat individuals according to values we attribute to classes CONSTRUCTING SEX AND GENDER: -institutional contexts: categories of male and female not always sufficient to describe variety of sexes existing -those born intersexual may constitute 4% of live births but are always placed into surgery to be noraml--health institutions aid in ceating a reality where there are 2 sexes -significance of sex: expectations we have on them -gender constructs supported by institutions thus turned into a gender system w hierarchy of men at top w masculinity and women at bottom -women feminie corresponds w why they are not CEOs -men masculine not teachers -society based on patriarchy -interpersonal context: act out 2 polar sex categories and fulfilling expectations that we have created -define others w gender so ambiguities are frustrating -internal context: man insecure of manhood will act as bullies to prove manhood -alienation and self alienation play role in how we create categories CONSTRUCTING SEXUALITY: -institutional: 2 categories of sexuality gay and straight and see them as polar opposites -required to place all of our varying aspects of sexuality into one of 2 categories -categories of sexuality turned into systems of inequality: one valued as appropriate than the other--our gov recongnizes some forms of sexuality but not othrers -some states still deny same sex marriage -interpersonal context: constructs of sexuality culturally linked to construction of gender--construction of one category of difference is dependent on social construction of another -Internal WHY CATEGORIeS OF DIFFERENCE: -europeans to americas saw indigenous people and questions of race and everyone looking the same called into quesitons so separated themselves -some say social stratification has benefits for the operation of society -others say social stratification is a system where some gain advantages at the disadvantage of others -some say social construction of differences is initiatied w purpose of discrimination and oppression CATEGORIES OF DIFF WITHIN A MATRIX OF DOMINATION: -gender, race, and class and sexuality are different but they are comparable devises for creating social inequality-- -oppression based on race, class, gedner, sexuality is part of interlocking politics of domination which is a belif in domination and belief in notions of superior and inferior -this system is matrix of domination -shows how categories of difference transformed into systems of inequality and maintained systems of oppression -viewing oppressionand inequality in the form of matrix of domination enables us to see common altiies in sources of inequality and provides clearer perspective on how inequalites should be addressed -viewing them as interconnected also helps us to see how all gorups experience privilege and oppression in one system THE FINAL COMMENT -need to think critiacally and employ empathy -need to remain aware of own standpoint so your location in society, race, class, sex, sexuality, ability, age

The Strange Enigma of Race in Contemporary America READING

RACISM WITHOUT RACISTS: -few whites claim to be raicst--many say minorities are source of any race problem we have--playing race card and race based prgorams -whites say if minorities stop thinking abt past and work hard them everyone would get along -blacks and dark skinned racial minroties lag wel behind whites in virtually every area of social ife--poorer and earn less and less net work and inferior educaition and black owned homes less valuable on market and impolite treatment in places and pay more for goods like cars and houses and targets of racial profiling by police color blind racism -racial inequality is outcome of nonracial dynamics--whites rationalize minorities contemporary status as product of market dynamics and ltheir cultural limitaitons -now you see me now you dont -no segregation but still steer minorities into certain neighborhoods separate -color blindness says they are behind bc they do not work hard enough--interracial marrigae not wrong but problematic for kids WHITES RACIAL ATTITUTES IN POST CIVIL RIGHTS ERA -fewer whites subscribe to views of Jim Crow -explained in 4 ways: 1) racial optimists who agree w whites common sense on racial matters and believe the changes symbolize transition in US problem: telying on quesitons framed in jim crow era to assess white racial views today producwes artifical image of progress 2) racial pesoptimist: attempt to strike a valanced view and suggest that whites raical attitudes reflect progress and resistance--but they are closet optimists--whites have hard time translating those norms into personal preferences 3) suggest changes in whites attitutes represent emergence of symbolic racism: blend of anti black affect and the kind of traditional american moral values embodied in protestant ethic--replaces biological racism as primary way whites exptress resentment 4) sense of group position: white prejudice is an ideology to defentd white privilege --rearticulates elements of traditional liberalizm KEY TERMS: RACE< RACIAL STRUCTURE< RACIAL IDEOLOGY -whites and blacks cannot agree on racial matters bc see racism differently--whites prejudice and blacks institutionalized -raceL notions of racial difference are human creations and subject to change -also racial diff in academic acheivement and say truly racial but they're not -third approach race is constructed but insist it has social reality -racial structure: award white and unaward others--white supremacy became global and affected all lsocieities -although whties bc of privilege form a social gorup they are fractured along class and gender so they have multople contradictory interests that are not easy to disentagel -second most of dominant race defend racial status qu9i HOW TO STUDY COLOR BLIND RACISM: -

WHY COMPARE COUNTRIES: READING

REASONS FOR COMPARISON -4 main objectives: contextual description allows scientists to kmnow what other couuntries are life -classification makes politics less complelx -hypothesis testing -prediction CONTEXTUAL DESCRIPTION: -process of describing political events of ocuntry -goal is more knowledge about nation or more knowledge about ones own system =description is an important component -Sandino Affair is a book \that shows contextual description CLASSIFICATION: -classfications to group countreis into distinct identifialble categories -most famous example is Aristitle's Politics--6 types of rule -good classificalton simplifies descriptions of important objects being compared -Aristotle classified the rules--monarchy, aristocracy, polity, tyranny, oligarchy, democracy HYPOTHESIS-TESTING: -two others contribute to this--once things are described and classified the comparativist them searches for those factors that may help explain what has been described or classified PREDICTION: -predictions about outcomes in other coutnreis based on the generalizations from the intial comparison, or to make claims aobut future outcomes -less important today than in the past--example predicing expected level of democracy in specific countries based on their power resources THE SCIENCE IN POLITICAL SCIENCE: -object is creation of knowledge defined as iferences or generalizations about politics drawn from evidence -goal is to inferencea bout politics through comparing countries -parallels between political science and natural science?? -both share basic goals and require systematic colleciton of evidence and ordering of it and testing explanations -systemiatic evidence is records interviews histories surveys differences: 1) role of experimentation--advances in natural science gathered by experimentation but in poltical science it isnot experimentation -comparative politics cannot use experimentation--cant rerun the exact same election every year 2) law-like status that is fiven to certain scientific theorists-- -2 famous laws of political science: Iron Law of Oligarchy says taht natrual processes in dynamics of orgs are such that over time all groups develop hierarchiccal structure---the other is Diverger's Law--says electoral systems based on single member districts tend to produce 2 parties main conclusions: -comparative politics relaxes some of rigours of natural science but employs same logic as inference -comparative politics is non experimental social science seeking to make generalizations based on best avialable evidence -comparison allows for control in substitute of experimentation -comparative poltics seeks clarity, understanding, and explanation of political phenomena SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS: Theory and Method: -2 types of theory in political science: normative and empirical -normative specifies how things in socieity should be and empirical establishes causal relationships between 2 or more concepts in effort to explain occurrence of observed political phenomena -can be deductive or inductive: deductive arrive at conclusion by applying reason and inductive arrive through observation of known facts -method is the means why which a theory is derived and tested including collection of evidence, formulation of testing hypothesis, and arrival at conclusions -method makes decision rules and rejection of rival hypothesis explicit ONTOLOGY< EPISTEMOLOGY< MTHODOLOGY: -ontology is the stydy of being or the concern with the essence of things -epistemology is study of thenature of knowledge or how scholars come to know the world -methodology is study of diff meothos or systems of methos in field of inquiry -object of political science is to account for events in terms of why and how they happened and how likelhy they will happen again CASES< UNITS OF ANALYSIS< VARIABLES< OBSERVATIONS: -cases are those countries that feature in comparative analysis -units of analysis are objects which the scholar collected data (people, countries) -variables are those concepts whose values change over given set of units -pbservations are values of variables for each unit which can be numeric, verbal, or visual -independent and dependent variables: independenct explains dependent variable and dependent is the outcome LEVELS OF ANALYSIS: -micro and macro -micro examines political activity of individuaals and macro focuses on gorups of indiividuals, structures of pwer, social classes, interaciton of nation states, etc -structure agency problem of politics: some want macro and some want micro QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE: -quantitative show differences in number between objects of anayliss and qualitative show differences in kind -qualitiative understand attributes and characteristics -parallel demonstration of theory: tests furitfullness of theory across range of countries -macro-casual seeks to explain observed poltical phenomena thorugh identification and analysis of master varialbes -contrast of contaxts helps to identify features of countries to show their effect on social processes Summary: -predictions cannot be made without weell theory--theories cannot be made without proper classification--classification cannot be made withou good descritpion