Random questions and answers (online)

Are aphrodisiacs pseudoscience?

Yes. Placebo effect

What should I know about the brain and creativity?

Your Brain on Creativity Neuroscience research reveals creativity's "brainprint." Posted February 22, 2018 Reviewed by Abigail Fagan Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they didn't really do it, they just saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while. That's because they were able to connect experiences they've had and synthesize new things. —Steve Jobs Creativity is amazing. Play is amazing. Being original is amazing. Amazing, astounding, thrilling, asymptotic. Divergence opens up possibilities, creating the flexibility to be extraordinary, to stand out from the crowd and enliven others with a spellbinding display of wit and artistry. When attuned to the environment, when humor is working well and the timing is right, the ideas flow... with art which speaks to the zeitgeist, capturing the ineffable in an ineffable way... creativity leads to deep communion and empathy. When out of step, the creative process can spiral into loneliness, even despair, leaving you feeling excommunicated and muted inside. The wise recognize, however, that being creative does not always go along with being playful. For many, creativity is serious business, and not at all playful. Like the tango, it takes two to play. In fact, if one person is playing and the other person is not playing, it isn't play — it is something nonconsensual, a non-starter at best which can verge into teasing and intrusion. Systems in the Brain What is happening in the brain during periods of heightened creativity? In their recently published paper "Robust Prediction of Individual Creative Ability from Brain Functional Connectivity," Beaty and colleagues (2018) unearth the neurological signature of creativity, using sophisticated approaches to identify the neural network activity, the "brainprint" as it were, which is associated with divergent thinking, and then using that understanding to distinguish more creative from less creative brain activity. I like to call them the "Big Three" brain networks — the default mode network, the executive control network, and the salience network. Prior research suggests that they work together when it comes to being creative. The default mode network is what's happening in the brain in a resting (but not sleeping) state, the brain's "idle state." The executive control network monitors what is going on, manages emotional parts of the brain, directs resources like attention, and oversees decisions and choices. The salience network determines which sorts of things tend to be noticed, and which tend to fly under the radar. In PTSD, for example, the salience network is scanning for threats. For creativity, scientists hypothesize that the Big Three operate as a team: the default mode network generates ideas, the executive control network evaluates them, and the salience network helps to identify which ideas get passed along to the executive control network. On top of this basic schema, these networks can also influence one another via other feedback loops. For instance, the executive control network might "tune" the way the salience network scans internally, depending on the task at hand, in response to the environment. These brain networks form a somewhat flexible and responsive system, a "complex adaptive system." Not only is it a resilient learning system, but the brain has also evolved in relation to the environment. With human beings, it isn't just the physical environment, it is the world of language, culture, and ideas. Of social relations. The level of entropy is much higher as a result of these social and cultural factors, because the information reflected back has so many more possible states it can be in. That's entropy, a measure of the number of possible states a system can be in, and consciousness is very entropic. Especially with creativity. Creativity is closely linked to what folks have called "divergent thinking." Looking at divergent thinking tasks, compared to conventional tasks, and measuring brain activity is how the current research is set up. Beaty and colleagues look at basic brain activity with fMRI and use (similar to other work, such as using machine learning to predict suicidal intent, to understand the effect of cannabis on the brain, and to enhance psychiatric diagnosis) machine-learning approaches, and then leverage those computational models to predict which individuals from a group of people are more creative just by looking at their brain scan. Even at this very early stage, the predictive ability is pretty impressive. Not quite ready for primetime, but it makes it easier to imagine a human resources evaluation involving analyzing functional neuroimaging during different task types. We can call it NeuroHR, following with the "NeuroEverything" trend. Way better than any tool used by HR nowadays, probably. Still science fiction, but becoming more real. Your Brain on Creativity The researchers scanned 163 Australian participants, having them perform two different cognitive tasks. The one measuring divergent thinking is called an "Alternative Use Task" (AUT), and the comparison non-creative task is an "Object Characteristics Task" (OCT), basically just describing something without embellishing at all. Not creative. People were rated on their answers when asked to come up with unusual uses for random objects, looking at uncommonness, remoteness, and cleverness to come up with an overall score on divergent thinking. They also completed a battery of questionnaires about their actual creativity: the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, the Biographical Inventory of Creative Behavior, and the Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements. Their findings were complex, covering correlations in the creativity questionnaires and, from a neuroscientific view, relating to several specific brain regions core to the Big Three brain networks, and included correlations among brain networks between the divergent thinking creativity task and the basic object description task. First, they found that self-reported measures of creativity correlated well with measured creativity performance, confirming the validity of self-report. Using a branch of mathematics called "graph theory" which is used in modeling neural networks, they identified the "hubs" or "nodes" through which the most information flowed during creativity tasks, and defined the connections between hubs ("edges") to determine which were most important in distinguishing creative from baseline tasks. Briefly, during the creativity condition, they found dense functional connections in the areas of the brain related to the three networks of interest, scattered through the frontal and parietal cortices. The areas identified are core hubs for the different networks, including, for example, the left posterior cingulate for default mode, left anterior insula for salience, and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for executive networks. The 25 most highly connected nodes during the creativity task included 12 from the default mode network, four from the salience network, and three from the executive control network. For the low creativity task, there was some overlap with the default mode network, to be expected given that it is involved in standing brain activity, but the rest of the nodes were mainly located in subcortical, deeper areas of the brain in the brainstem, the thalamus and cerebellum, which are distinct from the cortical areas found in creative activity. The correlations within creativity networks were strong, showing internal consistency; the correlations in the non-creative networks were also strong, and they were not correlated with one another, and each pattern of activity was unique to the task of interest. These last confirmatory steps were critical to making sure these findings could then be used to predict creativity for a different group of participants unrelated to the people studied to obtain the data in the first place. These findings confirm earlier studies on brain networks in creativity, replicating and extending our understanding of how the brain generates divergent thinking. They showed that their findings could then be used to identify who is more and who is less creative, just by looking at brain scans of them doing nothing in particular. When they imaged this different group of 405 Chinese participants, they found that measured creativity scores (shown to be an accurate reflection of real-world creative performance in the first stage) were significant when correlated with resting-state MRI data. Note that the participants in the second phase of the study were not engaging in any tasks. Creativity was reflected in measuring their minds at rest. To make sure the predictive model was checking creativity and not overall intelligence, they checked and found that creativity network measures were not correlated with intelligence. Futurism and Neuroscience These results are of critical importance for anyone seeking to understand, and possibly enhance, creativity, for they point to the global nature of generative processes for engaging multiple brain networks, activating in sync, providing feedback to and mutually regulating one another. There isn't one "creativity" area in the brain; creativity emerges from the interplay of complex brain activity involving multiple more basic systems. The implications of this work, just in the early stages, are remarkable. Would an approach like this be useful in identifying creativity for hiring purposes ("NeuroHR") or in evaluating applicants for an education involving creativity? Could this approach be used to track outcomes in training up creativity, or therapeutic outcomes, or to enhance problem-solving by increasing divergent thinking? Could neuroscience be used to help people with writer's block or artists who have hit a dry spell? Change the Brain, and the Mind Must Follow Could neuromodulation approaches (including TMS, tDCS, neurofeedback, and others) be used to target key nodes in the creativity network? In the future, we may be literally able to put on a headpiece that allows us to enhance the performance of our minds for creativity — the proverbial "thinking cap" taken literally — or for other tasks and performance contexts requiring different kinds of brain activity. Or for entertainment, virtual reality, an immersive, neurally enhanced experience, is within reach. Enjoy playing video games? Even better with neural enhancement. And what are the implications for neurobioethics? For example, using neuromodulation to convert a non-creative person to a creative person has implications for identity. Many of us organize our sense of self around certain qualities, including "being a creative person." As changing the brain becomes an option, one which we might be able to switch on and off at will, what are the implications for free will and personal identity? Given possibly enhanced creative productions — art, music, literature, architecture, engineering, design, and perhaps new fields we cannot even imagine — culture will feedback as a container for the mind, further influencing the individual engaged in creation. This research also suggests that we are able to consciously influence ourselves to have greater creativity. Not just by practicing and doing exercises that require creativity or by being creative, but also by using our executive network to invoke our salience network to scan actively for more divergent thoughts, and by disinhibiting our suppression of divergent thoughts. It's easy to train oneself to suppress divergent thinking, and to have a one track mind... but we can unlearn that habit. (Source: Psychology Today)

When is Easter celebrated?

first Sunday after the first full moon of the spring equinox

Who invented the telephone?

Alexander Graham Bell

What does the "New World" refer to?

Americas

Are aphrodisiacs real?

Aphrodisiacs: Fact or Fiction? Food really can put you in the mood; find out how. Written by Elaine Magee, MPH, RD FROM THE WEBMD ARCHIVES Can certain foods truly stimulate sexual desire, or is it all in our heads? Research shows us that it's mostly the latter -- but when it comes to aphrodisiacs, we should never underestimate the power of sensual suggestion. Between 25% and 63% of American women (many of them postmenopausal) have some type of sexual dysfunction. And several major news articles have been published recently that paint a troubling picture of how many married couples today are lucky if they end up "getting lucky." (It seems that job demands, stress, and busy schedules are to blame.) Enter aphrodisiacs. Basically, foods considered aphrodisiacs are those that aim to stimulate the love senses (sight, smell, taste, and touch). But can food, or even the simple act of eating, put you in the mood for love? The answer is YES -- but not in the way you might think. No food has been scientifically proven to stimulate the human sex organs. But foods and the act of eating can suggest sex to the mind, which in turn can help stimulate desire in the body. And it certainly doesn't hurt to stack the sexual odds in your favor by enjoying foods you and your partner find sensual! The 5 Types of Aphrodisiacs Historically, most aphrodisiacs have fallen into five general types, all based on unproven theories: Are you "hot" yet? Foods that create warmth and moisture (like chili or curry) were thought to arouse "heated" passion, while cold foods (like lettuce and purslane leaves) were supposed to "chill" passion. If it looks like a sexual organ ... Foods that resemble male or female genitalia were believed to increase desire. The infamous oyster is one example, as are some fruits, and root vegetables like carrots. The remarkable reproduction hypothesis. Reproductive organs and eggs (fish roe and bird eggs, animal genitals) were thought to increase sexual desire and potency. If it's exotic, it must be erotic. Foods considered rare (and consequently expensive) were believed to be sexually exciting. When many of these foods, like potatoes and cocoa, became more widely available, their reputations as sexual stimulants waned. Stimulate the senses, stimulate desire. Foods that stimulate the senses (sight, smell, taste, and touch) in a pleasurable way were thought to stimulate passion. Erotic Edibles Through History Throughout history, vegetables like onions, turnips, leeks, squash, asparagus, artichokes, and watercress were thought to not only stimulate desire, but also increase sperm count. Shapely fruits like the apple and curvaceous pear were seen as erotic edibles. And heavily seeded fruits like pomegranates and figs were compared to the "seeds of fertility." And what about those notorious oysters? Alas, despite the sexual exploits attributed to their powers, oysters are made up of elements that cannot possibly chemically stimulate the genitals of either sex -- namely water, protein, carbohydrate, fat, some salts, glycogen, and tiny amounts of minerals like potassium and calcium. Apparently, the oyster can thank its shape and squishy texture for its aphrodisiac acclaim. Chocolate is one of America's favorite "comfort foods," but to the ancient Aztecs, it offered a lot more than comfort -- it was considered a powerful aphrodisiac. In the early 1980s, researchers thought they had solved the mystery of our love affair with chocolate. They detected the chemical phenyl ethylamine (PEA) in chocolate. PEA is a central nervous system stimulant, usually present in the human brain, that is thought to help arouse emotions. But the human body actually absorbs very little PEA from chocolate -- not enough to affect our emotions, anyway. So, it seems the sexiest thing about chocolate is its taste and melt-in-your-mouth texture -- which, in my estimation, is not too shabby! In 14th century Europe, the spice trade from Asia added herbs and spices into the aphrodisiac equation. Historical accounts suggest that many of these foods like cloves, anise seed, cinnamon, ginger, white pepper, cardamom, and thyme -- had sterling aphrodisiac reputations in their native regions. The fact that potatoes (both sweet and white) were new to Europe in the 16th century helped perpetuate the belief that they possessed sexual powers. Other vegetables joined their aphrodisiac ranks in the 16th through 18th centuries, namely carrots (the vegetable, juice, and seeds) and the juice of asparagus. By the 18th century, the influence of phallically oriented foods, such as eel, carrots, and asparagus, had taken shape (pun intended). Various bulb vegetables thought to resemble testicles, like the onion, were thought to affect a man's potency. Other than their appearance and shape, there are five other qualities of foods that are thought to elicit sensuality. Foods considered sexy are generally those that are: Smooth Rich Creamy Exotic Spicy So if you're planning a romantic dinner, take note. Why not try to serve a dish that fits into each of those categories? "You can also capitalize on foods from your sexual past -- perhaps foods that you ate before or during a particularly pleasurable sexual encounter." And speaking of food characteristics, remember that subtle is sexier than in-your-face. Phallic and shapely foods, as well as the exotic and rare, will probably always be in aphrodisiac fashion. But these days we appreciate foods that suggest sex with a whisper instead of a shout. So instead of serving your sweetie a dessert that makes him or her think, "Yup, that looks like a male body part," try something more discreet say, a brandy-baked banana half, drizzled with chocolate sauce. Let's Not Forget the Placebo Effect A placebo is an inactive substance -- like a sugar pill -- given to a research participant who is under the impression it is a drug. So the "placebo effect" is when the belief that something is helping has as much or more of a therapeutic effect than the substance itself. So if a person thinks eating raw oysters will give a jolt to her sex drive and sexual stamina, her anticipation of this powerful effect can help it come true. Memories of Foods Past You can also capitalize on foods from your sexual past -- perhaps foods that you ate before or during a particularly pleasurable sexual encounter. Or take this a step further and start making new history with your spouse or partner. Whether it's grapes hand-fed to your partner, or his or her favorite dish served on the good china during a romantic dinner prelude, the bedroom door is wide open for you to create your own repertoire of "aphrodisiacs." To understand the powerful connection between mind and body, just think about the shapely and phallic foods that were in favor in the 18th century. Because they suggested sex to those who used them as "aphrodisiacs," they may well have had the desired effect. So let the sight and smell of certain foods take you back to that sexy, provocative time you shared together. With Alcohol, Less Is MORE As far back as the late 16th century, scientists documented both the sexually inhibiting and enhancing properties of alcohol. One wrote that "excessive alcohol is a sexual depressant rather than a stimulant, and wine taken moderately does the opposite." They knew even 400 years ago that a small amount of alcohol may help our sexual desire, while too much can hinder it! How much is too much? The amount of alcohol that would impede us as a driver seems to also impede us as a lover. This might be anything more than two drinks a night for men, and one drink a night for women. The Nose Always Knows Finally, don't underestimate the suggestive power of scent. Certain smells -- like chocolate chip cookies, bread, or apple pie baking -- fill our minds with visions of favorite foods as they tantalize our taste buds with anticipation. Scents can also bring back memories or feelings from pleasurable past experiences associated with that smell. You may remember a study a few years back that found men responded more powerfully to the scent of baked cinnamon buns than any perfume. (A combination of the scent of pumpkin pie and lavender was also a hit). For women, the sexiest scents included licorice candy, cucumber, and banana nut bread. How to Stimulate the 5 Senses on Valentines Day Now, here's how to put it all together and set the stage for that romantic evening tonight: Sight. Light those candles or the fireplace for a relaxed, seductive atmosphere. And keep your scene for romance as clutter-free and clean as possible. In terms of food, select whatever dishes visually suggest sex and seduction to you and your partner. Consider color and shape as well as texture and taste. Sound. Set the mood instantly with music. This might mean piano concertos, steamy jazz -- even a CD of the sound of waves crashing on the shore. And don't forget the sound of your own voice. On this special night, express your feelings to your loved one. Don't just say "I love you" (though that's a great start). Share what you love -- your favorite things about your partner (physical and nonphysical). You get the picture! Smell. Stay away from smelly foods like cooked cauliflower or cabbage. If you go for garlic, keep it subtle or try roasting it (it will taste delicious and won't be overpowering). You can also fill the room with romantic scents from scented oils or candles. Touch. There are so many ways touch comes into play during a romantic evening. If you have finger foods, eating is all about touching. The texture of the rug or blanket in front of the fireplace, the feeling of sheets under your skin -- all send sensual signals to your brain. But perhaps the best way to stimulate this sense is by touching each other. Not only is it stimulating to get a massage, it can be truly tantalizing to give one. Try one of the wonderful scented massage oils and creams available at stores like Bath and Body Works. Or wash each other's hair and/or bodies -- a very special way to touch your loved one. Taste. Serve small portions of foods that stimulate your taste buds without overwhelming them. Very strong or spicy foods can backfire, so serve them with caution. And a dessert that's subtly sweet (try semi-sweet chocolate) beats an extra-sugary one. Remember, you want to leave the mouth wanting more. (Source: WebMD)

When is being selfish bad?

Being a selfish jerk doesn't get you ahead, research finds By Laura Counts| AUGUST 31, 2020 New research by two UC Berkeley experts tracked disagreeable people — those with selfish, combative, manipulative personalities — from college or graduate school to where they landed in their careers and found that being a "jerk" didn't get them ahead. The evidence is in: Nice guys and gals don't finish last, and being a selfish jerk doesn't get you ahead. That's the clear conclusion from research that tracked disagreeable people—those with selfish, combative, manipulative personalities—from college or graduate school to where they landed in their careers about 14 years later. "I was surprised by the consistency of the findings. No matter the individual or the context, disagreeableness did not give people an advantage in the competition for power — even in more cutthroat, 'dog-eat-dog' organizational cultures," said Berkeley Haas professor Cameron Anderson, who co-authored the study with UC Berkeley psychology professor Oliver P. John, Berkeley Haas doctoral student Daron L. Sharps and associate professor Christopher J. Soto of Colby College. The paper was published Aug. 31 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Two longitudinal studies The researchers conducted two studies of people who had completed personality assessments as undergraduates or MBA students at three universities. They surveyed the same people more than a decade later, asking about their power and rank in their workplace hierarchies, as well as the culture of their organizations. They also asked their co-workers about the study participants' workplace behavior and rank. Across the board, they found those with who scored high on disagreeable traits were not more likely to have attained power than those who were generous, trustworthy and generally nice. That's not to say that jerks don't reach positions of power. It's just that they don't get ahead faster than others, and being a jerk simply doesn't help, Anderson said. That's because any power boost they get from being intimidating is offset by their poor interpersonal relationships, the researchers found. In contrast, they found that extroverts were the most likely to have advanced in their organizations, based on their sociability, energy and assertiveness — findings backed up by prior research. "The bad news here is that organizations do place disagreeable individuals in charge just as often as agreeable people," Anderson said. "In other words, they allow jerks to gain power at the same rate as anyone else, even though jerks in power can do serious damage to the organization." Toxic role models The age-old question of whether being aggressively Machiavellian helps people get ahead has long interested Anderson, who studies social status. It's a critical question for managers, because ample research has shown that jerks in positions of power are abusive, prioritize their own self-interests, create corrupt cultures and, ultimately, cause their organizations to fail. They also serve as toxic role models for society at large. For example, people who read former-Apple CEO Steve Jobs' biography might think, "Maybe if I become an even bigger *******, I'll be successful like Steve," the authors note in their paper. "My advice to managers would be to pay attention to agreeableness as an important qualification for positions of power and leadership," Anderson said. "Prior research is clear: Agreeable people in power produce better outcomes." While there's clearly no shortage of jerks in power, there's been little empirical research to settle the question of whether being disagreeable actually helps them get there, or is simply incidental to their success. Anderson and his co-authors set out to create a research design that would clear up the debate. (They pre-registered their analysis for both studies on aspredicted.org.) Defending disagreeableness What defines a jerk? The participants had all completed the Big Five Inventory (BFI), an assessment based on general consensus among psychologists of the five fundamental personality dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness. It was developed by Anderson's co-author, John, who directs the Berkeley Personality Lab. In addition, some of the participants also completed a second personality assessment, the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R). "Disagreeableness is a relatively stable aspect of personality that involves the tendency to behave in quarrelsome, cold, callous and selfish ways," the researchers explained. "Disagreeable people tend to be hostile and abusive to others, deceive and manipulate others for their own gain and ignore others' concerns or welfare." In the first study, which involved 457 participants, the researchers found no relationship between power and disagreeableness, no matter whether the person had scored high or low on those traits. That was true regardless of gender, race or ethnicity, industry or the cultural norms in the organization. Four paths to power The second study went deeper, looking at the four main ways people attain power: through dominant-aggressive behavior, or using fear and intimidation; political behavior, or building alliances with influential people; communal behavior, or helping others; and competent behavior, or being good at one's job. They also asked the subjects' co-workers to rate the subjects' places in the hierarchy, as well as their workplace behavior. Interestingly, the co-workers' ratings largely matched the subjects' self-assessments. This analysis allowed the researchers to better understand why disagreeable people do not get ahead faster than others. Even though jerks tend to engage in dominant behavior, their lack of communal behavior cancels out any advantage their aggressiveness gives them, they concluded. Anderson noted that the findings don't directly speak to whether disagreeableness helps people attain power in the realm of electoral politics, where the power dynamics are different than in organizations. But there are some likely parallels. "Having a strong set of alliances is generally important to power in all areas of life," he said. "Disagreeable politicians might have more difficulty maintaining necessary alliances because of their toxic behavior." (Source: University of California, Berkeley)

What is biofreeze?

Biofreeze (Menthol) 4 % Topical Gel Dermatological Irritants-Counter-Irritant Formulations - Uses, Side Effects, and More Different brands of this product have different uses. Some brands are used to treat minor aches and pains of the muscles/joints (such as arthritis, backache, sprains). Some brands are used to help relieve itching and skin irritation (such as due to sunburn, insect bites, or minor scrapes). Menthol is known as a counterirritant. It works by causing the skin to feel cool and then warm. How to use Biofreeze (Menthol) 4 % Topical Gel Dermatological Irritants-Counter-Irritant Formulations If you are using the over-the-counter product to self-treat, read and follow all directions on the product package before using this medication. If you have any questions, consult your pharmacist. If your doctor has prescribed this medication, use it as directed. This medication is for use on the skin only. Apply to the affected area no more than 3 to 4 times a day. If you are using the cream, gel, or liquid, rub in gently and thoroughly. Some liquid forms of this medication should be shaken before use. Check the manufacturer's information for specific directions. Let the medicine dry completely before letting anyone else touch the area. Wash your hands well after applying unless you are using this medication to treat the hands. Avoid getting this medication in your eyes, nose, or mouth. If you do get the medication in those areas, flush with plenty of water. Do not apply to serious burns or deep wounds. Do not bandage or tightly wrap the affected area. Doing so may increase the risk of side effects. You may cover the area loosely to protect clothing. Heat can increase the risk of side effects. Do not apply this medication right before, during, or after activities that increase skin temperature (such as bathing, swimming, heavy exercise). Wait until your skin has cooled before applying the medication. Do not use a sunlamp/tanning bed, hot water bottle, or heating pad/device on the treated area. Check the ingredients on the label even if you have used the product before. The manufacturer may have changed the ingredients. Also, products with similar names may contain different ingredients meant for different purposes. Read the label carefully to make sure you have the right product for you. Ask your pharmacist if you have any questions. Tell your doctor if your condition lasts for more than 7 days, or if it gets worse, or if it keeps returning. If you think you may have a serious medical problem, get medical help right away. Side Effects Redness, warmth, or irritation at the application site may occur. If any of these effects last or get worse, tell your doctor or pharmacist promptly. If your doctor has directed you to use this medication, remember that your doctor has judged that the benefit to you is greater than the risk of side effects. Many people using this medication do not have serious side effects. Stop using this medication and tell your doctor right away if you have any serious side effects, including: blistering/swelling at the application site, increased/unusual pain at the application site. A very serious allergic reaction to this drug is rare. However, get medical help right away if you notice any symptoms of a serious allergic reaction, including: rash, itching/swelling (especially of the face/tongue/throat), severe dizziness, trouble breathing. This is not a complete list of possible side effects. If you notice other effects not listed above, contact your doctor or pharmacist. In the US - Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or at www.fda.gov/medwatch. In Canada - Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to Health Canada at 1-866-234-2345. Precautions Before using this product, tell your doctor or pharmacist if you are allergic to menthol; or if you have any other allergies. This product may contain inactive ingredients, which can cause allergic reactions or other problems. Talk to your pharmacist for more details. Before using this medication, tell your doctor or pharmacist your medical history. Before having surgery, tell your doctor or dentist about all the products you use (including prescription drugs, nonprescription drugs, and herbal products). During pregnancy, this medication should be used only when clearly needed. Discuss the risks and benefits with your doctor. It is unknown if this medication passes into breast milk. Consult your doctor before breast-feeding. Interactions Drug interactions may change how your medications work or increase your risk for serious side effects. This document does not contain all possible drug interactions. Keep a list of all the products you use (including prescription/nonprescription drugs and herbal products) and share it with your doctor and pharmacist. Do not start, stop, or change the dosage of any medicines without your doctor's approval. Overdose This medicine may be harmful if swallowed. If someone has overdosed and has serious symptoms such as passing out or trouble breathing, call 911. Otherwise, call a poison control center right away. US residents can call their local poison control center at 1-800-222-1222. Canada residents can call a provincial poison control center. Notes Keep all regular medical and lab appointments. Missed Dose If you are using this product on a regular schedule and miss a dose, use it as soon as you remember. If it is near the time of the next dose, skip the missed dose. Use your next dose at the regular time. Do not double the dose to catch up. Storage Store at room temperature away from light and moisture. Do not store in the bathroom. Different brands of this medication have different storage needs. Check the product package for instructions on how to store your brand, or ask your pharmacist. Keep all medications away from children and pets. Do not flush medications down the toilet or pour them into a drain unless instructed to do so. Properly discard this product when it is expired or no longer needed. Consult your pharmacist or local waste disposal company. (Source: WebMD)

What to know about the cerebral cortex?

Cerebral Cortex Your cerebral cortex, also called gray matter, is your brain's outermost layer of nerve cell tissue. It has a wrinkled appearance from its many folds and grooves. Your cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness and functions related to your senses. What is the cerebral cortex? Your cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of your brain. Its surface has many folds, giving it a wrinkled appearance. The folds consist of many deep grooves called sulci and raised areas called gyri. These folds add to the surface area of your cerebral cortex, allowing large amounts of information to be processed by more nerve cells. Your cerebral cortex makes up about half of your brain's total mass. Your cerebral cortex consists of six layers of nerve cells that contain between 14 billion and 16 billion nerve cells. It's two millimeters (mm) to four mm (0.08 inches to 0.16 inches) thick. Your cortex is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each of these lobes is responsible for processing different types of information. Collectively, your cerebral cortex is responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain, including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence and personality. Why is the cerebral cortex called gray matter? The gray matter found in the outer layer of your brain consists of nerve cell bodies, including the end portion of nerves called dendrites. Dendrites are the part of a nerve cell that receives the chemical message from another cell. Your cerebral cortex is gray because that section of the nerve lacks the fatty covering material called myelin. White matter in your brain is made up of bundles of axons, the long center section of a nerve cell that's wrapped in myelin. The myelin gives the tissue its whitish color. What's the difference between the cerebral cortex and the cerebrum? Your cerebral cortex is the outer layer that lies on top of your cerebrum. Your cerebrum is the largest area of your brain. Your cerebrum divides your brain into two halves called hemispheres. The hemispheres are attached by a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum allows your two hemispheres to communicate with each other. What is the neocortex? Most of your cerebral cortex is considered to be the neocortex. "Neo" means new. Your neocortex is so named because its appearance is thought to be relatively new in vertebrate evolution. In humans, 90% of the cerebral cortex is the neocortex. What are the functions of the cerebral cortex? Your cerebral cortex is involved in many high-level functions, such as reasoning, emotion, thought, memory, language and consciousness. Each lobe of your brain is associated with different functions. Functions of the frontal lobe Your frontal lobe is at the front of your brain behind your forehead. Functions of your frontal lobe include: Decision-making, problem-solving. Conscious thought. Attention. Emotional and behavioral control. Speech production. Personality. Intelligence. Body movement. Special areas of note within this lobe are the motor cortex, the prefrontal cortex and Broca's area. Your motor cortex is responsible for body movement. Your prefrontal cortex is in charge of "executive functions," such as thinking and problem-solving. It also supervises and directs other areas of your brain. Broca's area is a part of your frontal lobe that's involved with speech production. Functions of the occipital lobe Your occipital lobe is at the back of your brain. Functions of your occipital lobe include: Visual processing and interpretation. Visual data collection regarding color, motion and orientation. Object and facial recognition. Depth and distance perception. Visual world mapping. Functions of the parietal lobe Your parietal lobe is located between your frontal and occipital lobes and above your temporal lobe. Functions of your parietal lobe include: Sensory information (touch, pressure, pain, position, vibration, temperature) processing. Spatial processing and spatial manipulation. This is the ability to understand where you are in three-dimensional space, such as how to navigate around your home or town. Special areas of note within this lobe are the somatosensory cortex. It receives sensory information ("feeling" information) from all over your body. Here's an example of how brain lobes work together: The motor cortex in your brain's frontal lobe sends the message that directs the muscles in your arm and hand to reach out toward a cup of soup on your kitchen table. The somatosensory cortex of your parietal lobe assesses the information delivered through your touch of the cup, including judgment of its temperature. Spatial processing in your parietal lobe allows you to grasp the cup, flawlessly navigating hand-to-cup distance relative to the table and other surrounding objects. Functions of the temporal lobe Your temporal lobe is located between your frontal and occipital lobes and below your parietal lobe. Functions of your temporal lobe include: Language comprehension, speech formation, learning. Memory. Hearing. Nonverbal interpretation. Sound-to-visual image conversion. A special area of note within this lobe is Wernicke's area. This area was more recently discovered to be involved in language comprehensive based on speech tones and sounds, linking them to previously learned sounds. What are the areas of the cerebral cortex? Some researchers look at the brain in another way and classify the areas of the cerebral cortex by their three main types of functions: sensory, motor and association areas. Sensory areas: These areas of your cerebral cortex receive sensory information from your senses and your environment. Functions include: Making sense of visual information and object recognition. These functions are processed by an area of your occipital lobe called the visual cortex. Assessing touch, temperature, position, vibration, pressure and pain information from your body. These functions are processed by an area of your parietal lobe called the somatosensory cortex. Processing hearing information. This function is processed by an area of your temporal lobe called the auditory cortex. Processing taste and flavor. These functions are processed by an area of your frontal lobe called the gustatory cortex. Motor areas: These areas of your cerebral cortex are involved in voluntary muscle movement. These functions are processed mainly by your frontal lobe. Functions include: Coordination of muscle movement. Planning of complex movements. Learning through imitation and empathy. Association areas: These areas are spread throughout all four lobes and connect and add complexity to functions. Functions include: Organizing and giving meaning to information from sensory and motor areas. Personality and controlling emotional behaviors. Spatial awareness and reasoning. Memory processing. Think in a visual manner and retain visual memories. Build visual information with memories, sound and language. How might the cerebral cortex be damaged? Damage to any area of your cerebral cortex typically results from tumors, trauma, autoimmune diseases or a cerebrovascular accident (brain bleed or stroke). What are the symptoms of a damaged cerebral cortex? Symptoms depend on the area of the cerebral cortex that's damaged. Injury to the frontal lobe Symptoms of damage or injury to your frontal lobe include: Memory issues. Personality changes. Problem-solving, decision-making issues. Attention problems. Emotional deficit, socially inappropriate behavior, behavior changes. Lack of ability to understand or express speech (aphasia). Difficulty speaking (apraxia). Weakness, paralysis, loss of muscle control on one side of the body (flaccid hemiplegia). An additional cause of damage to the frontal lobe is dementia. Injury to the parietal lobe Symptoms of damage to your parietal lobe include: Memory generation. Trouble writing or being unable to write (agraphia). Difficulties with math. Numbness. Disorientation. Poor hand-to-eye coordination. Inability to identify objects by touch only (astereognosis). Loss of sensation. Aphasia. Apraxia. Injury to the temporal lobe Symptoms of damage to your temporal lobe include: Hearing difficulties. Memory issues. Difficulty recognizing faces and objects. Language impairments (such as Wernicke's aphasia), difficulties understanding language. Additional causes of damage to the temporal lobe include epileptic seizures, developmental dyslexia and Alzheimer's disease. Injury to the occipital lobe Symptoms of damage to your occipital lobe include: Difficulty perceiving more than one object at the same time. Trouble recognizing objects by sight. Color blindness. Hallucinations involving vision. Total blindness. A note from Cleveland Clinic Your cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the surface of your brain. It consists of between 14 billion and 16 billion nerve cells. Your cortex is involved in higher processes in the human brain, including memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness and functions related to your senses. (Source: Cleveland Clinic)

What's a list of common phobias?

Common and Unique Phobias Explained Medically reviewed by Lori Lawrenz, PsyD — By Corinne O'Keefe Osborn and Crystal Raypole on January 3, 2022 Types Common fears Treatment Takeaway What is a phobia? A phobia is an irrational fear of something that's unlikely to cause harm. The word itself comes from the Greek word"phobos," which means "fear" or "horror." Hydrophobia, for example, literally translates to fear of water. When someone has a phobia, they experience intense fear of a certain object or situation. Phobias are different from regular fears because they cause significant distress, possibly interfering with life at home, work, or school. People with phobias actively avoid the phobic object or situation, or they endure it with intense fear or anxiety. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), the American Psychiatric Association outlines several of the most common phobias. Agoraphobia, a fear of places or situations that trigger fear or helplessness, is singled out as a particularly common fear with its own unique diagnosis. Social phobias, which are fears related to social situations, are also singled out with a unique diagnosis. Phobias come in all shapes and sizes. Because there are an infinite number of objects and situations, the list of specific phobias is quite long. Types of phobias According to the DSM-5, specific phobias typically fall within five general categories: fears related to animals (spiders, dogs, insects) fears related to the natural environment (heights, thunder, darkness) fears related to blood, injury, or medical issues (injections, broken bones, falls) fears related to specific situations (flying, riding an elevator, driving) other (fear of choking, loud noises, drowning) These categories encompass an infinite number of specific objects and situations. There's no official list of phobias beyond what's outlined in the DSM-5, so clinicians and researchers create names for them as the need arises. This is typically done by combining a Greek (or sometimes Latin) prefix that describes the phobia with the -phobia suffix. For example, a fear of water would be named by combining "hydro" (water) and "phobia" (fear). There's also such a thing as a fear of fears (phobophobia). This is actually more common than you might imagine. People with anxiety disorders sometimes experience panic attacks when they're in certain situations. These panic attacks can be so uncomfortable that people do everything they can to avoid them in the future. For example, if you have a panic attack while sailing, you may fear sailing in the future, but you may also fear panic attacks or fear developing hydrophobia. List of phobias Studying specific phobias is a complicated process. Most people don't seek treatment for these conditions, so cases largely go unreported. These phobias also vary based on cultural experiences, gender, and age. Here's a look at some phobias that have been identified. A achluophobia fear of darkness acrophobia fear of heights aerophobia fear of flying algophobia fear of pain alektorophobia fear of chickens agoraphobia fear of public spaces or crowds aichmophobia fear of needles or pointed objects ailurophobia fear of cats amaxophobia fear of riding in a car androphobia fear of men anginophobia fear of angina or choking anthophobia fear of flowers anthropophobia fear of people or society aphenphosmphobia fear of being touched arachnophobia fear of spiders arithmophobia fear of numbers astraphobia fear of thunder and lightning ataxophobia fear of disorder or untidiness atelophobia fear of imperfection atychiphobia fear of failure autophobia fear of being alone B bacteriophobia fear of bacteria barophobia fear of gravity bathmophobia fear of stairs or steep slopes batrachophobia fear of amphibians belonephobia fear of pins and needles bibliophobia fear of books botanophobia fear of plants C cacophobia fear of ugliness catagelophobia fear of being ridiculed catoptrophobia fear of mirrors chionophobia fear of snow chromophobia fear of colors chronomentrophobia fear of clocks cibophobia fear of food claustrophobia fear of confined spaces coulrophobia fear of clowns cyberphobia fear of computers cynophobia fear of dogs D dendrophobia fear of trees dentophobia fear of dentists domatophobia fear of houses dystychiphobia fear of accidents E entomophobia fear of insects ephebiphobia fear of teenagers equinophobia fear of horses G gamophobia fear of marriage or commitment genuphobia fear of knees glossophobia fear of speaking in public gynophobia fear of women H heliophobia fear of the sun hemophobia fear of blood herpetophobia fear of reptiles hydrophobia fear of water hypochondria fear of illness I-K iatrophobia fear of doctors insectophobia fear of insects koinoniphobia fear of rooms full of people L leukophobia fear of the color white lilapsophobia fear of tornadoes and hurricanes lockiophobia fear of childbirth M mageirocophobia fear of cooking megalophobia fear of large things melanophobia fear of the color black microphobia fear of small things mysophobia fear of dirt and germs N necrophobia fear of death or dead things noctiphobia fear of the night nosocomephobia fear of hospitals nyctophobia fear of the dark O obesophobia fear of gaining weight octophobia fear of the number 8 ombrophobia fear of rain ophidiophobia fear of snakes ornithophobia fear of birds P papyrophobia fear of paper pathophobia fear of disease pedophobia fear of children philophobia fear of love phobophobia fear of phobias podophobia fear of feet pogonophobia fear of beards porphyrophobia fear of the color purple pteridophobia fear of ferns pteromerhanophobia fear of flying pyrophobia fear of fire Q-S samhainophobia fear of Halloween scolionophobia fear of school selenophobia fear of the moon sociophobia fear of social evaluation somniphobia fear of sleep T tachophobia fear of speed technophobia fear of technology tonitrophobia fear of thunder trypanophobia fear of needles or injections U-Z venustraphobia fear of beautiful women verminophobia fear of germs wiccaphobia fear of witches and witchcraft xenophobia fear of strangers or foreigners zoophobia fear of animals Treating a phobia Phobias are typically treated with therapy, medication, or a combination of both: Exposure therapy. During exposure therapy, which is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy, you work with a psychologist to learn how to desensitize yourself to the object or situation that you fear. The goal is to improve your quality of life so that you're no longer hindered or distressed by your fear. Antianxiety medication. Your doctor may recommend certain anxiety-reducing medications that can help you through exposure therapy. While these medications aren't exactly a treatment for phobias, they can help make exposure therapy less distressing. Other medications. Your clinician might also prescribe beta-blockers and benzodiazepines to manage feelings of anxiety or panic. The takeaway Phobias are persistent, intense, and unrealistic fears of a certain object or situation. Specific phobias are related to certain objects and situations. They typically involve fears related to animals, natural environments, medical issues, or specific situations. While phobias can be extremely uncomfortable and challenging, therapy and medication can help. If you think you may have a phobia that's causing a disruption in your life, speak with your doctor for an evaluation and treatment options. (Source: healthline)

What's the history behind the internet?

Internet, a system architecture that has revolutionized communications and methods of commerce by allowing various computer networks around the world to interconnect. Sometimes referred to as a "network of networks," the Internet emerged in the United States in the 1970s but did not become visible to the general public until the early 1990s. By 2020, approximately 4.5 billion people, or more than half of the world's population, were estimated to have access to the Internet. The Internet provides a capability so powerful and general that it can be used for almost any purpose that depends on information, and it is accessible by every individual who connects to one of its constituent networks. It supports human communication via social media, electronic mail (e-mail), "chat rooms," newsgroups, and audio and video transmission and allows people to work collaboratively at many different locations. It supports access to digital information by many applications, including the World Wide Web. The Internet has proved to be a spawning ground for a large and growing number of "e-businesses" (including subsidiaries of traditional "brick-and-mortar" companies) that carry out most of their sales and services over the Internet. (See electronic commerce.) Origin and development Early networks The first computer networks were dedicated special-purpose systems such as SABRE (an airline reservation system) and AUTODIN I (a defense command-and-control system), both designed and implemented in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By the early 1960s computer manufacturers had begun to use semiconductor technology in commercial products, and both conventional batch-processing and time-sharing systems were in place in many large, technologically advanced companies. Time-sharing systems allowed a computer's resources to be shared in rapid succession with multiple users, cycling through the queue of users so quickly that the computer appeared dedicated to each user's tasks despite the existence of many others accessing the system "simultaneously." This led to the notion of sharing computer resources (called host computers or simply hosts) over an entire network. Host-to-host interactions were envisioned, along with access to specialized resources (such as supercomputers and mass storage systems) and interactive access by remote users to the computational powers of time-sharing systems located elsewhere. These ideas were first realized in ARPANET, which established the first host-to-host network connection on October 29, 1969. It was created by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPANET was one of the first general-purpose computer networks. It connected time-sharing computers at government-supported research sites, principally universities in the United States, and it soon became a critical piece of infrastructure for the computer science research community in the United States. Tools and applications—such as the simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP, commonly referred to as e-mail), for sending short messages, and the file transfer protocol (FTP), for longer transmissions—quickly emerged. In order to achieve cost-effective interactive communications between computers, which typically communicate in short bursts of data, ARPANET employed the new technology of packet switching. Packet switching takes large messages (or chunks of computer data) and breaks them into smaller, manageable pieces (known as packets) that can travel independently over any available circuit to the target destination, where the pieces are reassembled. Thus, unlike traditional voice communications, packet switching does not require a single dedicated circuit between each pair of users. Commercial packet networks were introduced in the 1970s, but these were designed principally to provide efficient access to remote computers by dedicated terminals. Briefly, they replaced long-distance modem connections by less-expensive "virtual" circuits over packet networks. In the United States, Telenet and Tymnet were two such packet networks. Neither supported host-to-host communications; in the 1970s this was still the province of the research networks, and it would remain so for many years. DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency; formerly ARPA) supported initiatives for ground-based and satellite-based packet networks. The ground-based packet radio system provided mobile access to computing resources, while the packet satellite network connected the United States with several European countries and enabled connections with widely dispersed and remote regions. With the introduction of packet radio, connecting a mobile terminal to a computer network became feasible. However, time-sharing systems were then still too large, unwieldy, and costly to be mobile or even to exist outside a climate-controlled computing environment. A strong motivation thus existed to connect the packet radio network to ARPANET in order to allow mobile users with simple terminals to access the time-sharing systems for which they had authorization. Similarly, the packet satellite network was used by DARPA to link the United States with satellite terminals serving the United Kingdom, Norway, Germany, and Italy. These terminals, however, had to be connected to other networks in European countries in order to reach the end users. Thus arose the need to connect the packet satellite net, as well as the packet radio net, with other networks. Foundation of the Internet The Internet resulted from the effort to connect various research networks in the United States and Europe. First, DARPA established a program to investigate the interconnection of "heterogeneous networks." This program, called Internetting, was based on the newly introduced concept of open architecture networking, in which networks with defined standard interfaces would be interconnected by "gateways." A working demonstration of the concept was planned. In order for the concept to work, a new protocol had to be designed and developed; indeed, a system architecture was also required. In 1974 Vinton Cerf, then at Stanford University in California, and this author, then at DARPA, collaborated on a paper that first described such a protocol and system architecture—namely, the transmission control protocol (TCP), which enabled different types of machines on networks all over the world to route and assemble data packets. TCP, which originally included the Internet protocol (IP), a global addressing mechanism that allowed routers to get data packets to their ultimate destination, formed the TCP/IP standard, which was adopted by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1980. By the early 1980s the "open architecture" of the TCP/IP approach was adopted and endorsed by many other researchers and eventually by technologists and businessmen around the world. By the 1980s other U.S. governmental bodies were heavily involved with networking, including the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Energy, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). While DARPA had played a seminal role in creating a small-scale version of the Internet among its researchers, NSF worked with DARPA to expand access to the entire scientific and academic community and to make TCP/IP the standard in all federally supported research networks. In 1985-86 NSF funded the first five supercomputing centres—at Princeton University, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of California, San Diego, the University of Illinois, and Cornell University. In the 1980s NSF also funded the development and operation of the NSFNET, a national "backbone" network to connect these centres. By the late 1980s the network was operating at millions of bits per second. NSF also funded various nonprofit local and regional networks to connect other users to the NSFNET. A few commercial networks also began in the late 1980s; these were soon joined by others, and the Commercial Internet Exchange (CIX) was formed to allow transit traffic between commercial networks that otherwise would not have been allowed on the NSFNET backbone. In 1995, after extensive review of the situation, NSF decided that support of the NSFNET infrastructure was no longer required, since many commercial providers were now willing and able to meet the needs of the research community, and its support was withdrawn. Meanwhile, NSF had fostered a competitive collection of commercial Internet backbones connected to one another through so-called network access points (NAPs). From the Internet's origin in the early 1970s, control of it steadily devolved from government stewardship to private-sector participation and finally to private custody with government oversight and forbearance. Today a loosely structured group of several thousand interested individuals known as the Internet Engineering Task Force participates in a grassroots development process for Internet standards. Internet standards are maintained by the nonprofit Internet Society, an international body with headquarters in Reston, Virginia. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), another nonprofit, private organization, oversees various aspects of policy regarding Internet domain names and numbers. Commercial expansion The rise of commercial Internet services and applications helped to fuel a rapid commercialization of the Internet. This phenomenon was the result of several other factors as well. One important factor was the introduction of the personal computer and the workstation in the early 1980s—a development that in turn was fueled by unprecedented progress in integrated circuit technology and an attendant rapid decline in computer prices. Another factor, which took on increasing importance, was the emergence of Ethernet and other "local area networks" to link personal computers. But other forces were at work too. Following the restructuring of AT&T in 1984, NSF took advantage of various new options for national-level digital backbone services for the NSFNET. In 1988 the Corporation for National Research Initiatives received approval to conduct an experiment linking a commercial e-mail service (MCI Mail) to the Internet. This application was the first Internet connection to a commercial provider that was not also part of the research community. Approval quickly followed to allow other e-mail providers access, and the Internet began its first explosion in traffic. In 1993 federal legislation allowed NSF to open the NSFNET backbone to commercial users. Prior to that time, use of the backbone was subject to an "acceptable use" policy, established and administered by NSF, under which commercial use was limited to those applications that served the research community. NSF recognized that commercially supplied network services, now that they were available, would ultimately be far less expensive than continued funding of special-purpose network services. Also in 1993 the University of Illinois made widely available Mosaic, a new type of computer program, known as a browser, that ran on most types of computers and, through its "point-and-click" interface, simplified access, retrieval, and display of files through the Internet. Mosaic incorporated a set of access protocols and display standards originally developed at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) by Tim Berners-Lee for a new Internet application called the World Wide Web (WWW). In 1994 Netscape Communications Corporation (originally called Mosaic Communications Corporation) was formed to further develop the Mosaic browser and server software for commercial use. Shortly thereafter, the software giant Microsoft Corporation became interested in supporting Internet applications on personal computers (PCs) and developed its Internet Explorer Web browser (based initially on Mosaic) and other programs. These new commercial capabilities accelerated the growth of the Internet, which as early as 1988 had already been growing at the rate of 100 percent per year. By the late 1990s there were approximately 10,000 Internet service providers (ISPs) around the world, more than half located in the United States. However, most of these ISPs provided only local service and relied on access to regional and national ISPs for wider connectivity. Consolidation began at the end of the decade, with many small to medium-size providers merging or being acquired by larger ISPs. Among these larger providers were groups such as America Online, Inc. (AOL), which started as a dial-up information service with no Internet connectivity but made a transition in the late 1990s to become the leading provider of Internet services in the world—with more than 25 million subscribers by 2000 and with branches in Australia, Europe, South America, and Asia. Widely used Internet "portals" such as AOL, Yahoo!, Excite, and others were able to command advertising fees owing to the number of "eyeballs" that visited their sites. Indeed, during the late 1990s advertising revenue became the main quest of many Internet sites, some of which began to speculate by offering free or low-cost services of various kinds that were visually augmented with advertisements. By 2001 this speculative bubble had burst. The 21st century and future directions After the collapse of the Internet bubble came the emergence of what was called "Web 2.0," an Internet with emphasis on social networking and content generated by users, and cloud computing. Social media services such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram became some of the most popular Internet sites through allowing users to share their own content with their friends and the wider world. Mobile phones became able to access the Web, and, with the introduction of smartphones like Apple's iPhone (introduced in 2007), the number of Internet users worldwide exploded from about one sixth of the world population in 2005 to more than half in 2020. The increased availability of wireless access enabled applications that were previously uneconomical. For example, global positioning systems (GPS) combined with wireless Internet access help mobile users to locate alternate routes, generate precise accident reports and initiate recovery services, and improve traffic management and congestion control. In addition to smartphones, wireless laptop computers, and personal digital assistants (PDAs), wearable devices with voice input and special display glasses were developed. While the precise structure of the future Internet is not yet clear, many directions of growth seem apparent. One is toward higher backbone and network access speeds. Backbone data rates of 100 billion bits (100 gigabits) per second are readily available today, but data rates of 1 trillion bits (1 terabit) per second or higher will eventually become commercially feasible. If the development of computer hardware, software, applications, and local access keeps pace, it may be possible for users to access networks at speeds of 100 gigabits per second. At such data rates, high-resolution video—indeed, multiple video streams—would occupy only a small fraction of available bandwidth. Remaining bandwidth could be used to transmit auxiliary information about the data being sent, which in turn would enable rapid customization of displays and prompt resolution of certain local queries. Much research, both public and private, has gone into integrated broadband systems that can simultaneously carry multiple signals—data, voice, and video. In particular, the U.S. government has funded research to create new high-speed network capabilities dedicated to the scientific-research community. It is clear that communications connectivity will be an important function of a future Internet as more machines and devices are interconnected. In 1998, after four years of study, the Internet Engineering Task Force published a new 128-bit IP address standard intended to replace the conventional 32-bit standard. By allowing a vast increase in the number of available addresses (2128, as opposed to 232), this standard makes it possible to assign unique addresses to almost every electronic device imaginable. Thus, through the "Internet of things," in which all machines and devices could be connected to the Internet, the expressions "wired" office, home, and car may all take on new meanings, even if the access is really wireless. The dissemination of digitized text, pictures, and audio and video recordings over the Internet, primarily available today through the World Wide Web, has resulted in an information explosion. Clearly, powerful tools are needed to manage network-based information. Information available on the Internet today may not be available tomorrow without careful attention's being paid to preservation and archiving techniques. The key to making information persistently available is infrastructure and the management of that infrastructure. Repositories of information, stored as digital objects, will soon populate the Internet. At first these repositories may be dominated by digital objects specifically created and formatted for the World Wide Web, but in time they will contain objects of all kinds in formats that will be dynamically resolvable by users' computers in real time. Movement of digital objects from one repository to another will still leave them available to users who are authorized to access them, while replicated instances of objects in multiple repositories will provide alternatives to users who are better able to interact with certain parts of the Internet than with others. Information will have its own identity and, indeed, become a "first-class citizen" on the Internet. Society and the Internet What began as a largely technical and limited universe of designers and users became one of the most important mediums of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. As the Pew Charitable Trust observed in 2004, it took 46 years to wire 30 percent of the United States for electricity; it took only 7 years for the Internet to reach that same level of connection to American homes. By 2005, 68 percent of American adults and 90 percent of American teenagers had used the Internet. Europe and Asia were at least as well connected as the United States. Nearly half of the citizens of the European Union are online, and even higher rates are found in the Scandinavian countries. There is a wide variance in Asian countries; for example, by 2005 Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Japan had at least half of their populations online, whereas India, Pakistan, and Vietnam had less than 10 percent. South Korea was the world leader in connecting its population to the Internet through high-speed broadband connections. Such statistics can chart the Internet's growth, but they offer few insights into the changes wrought as users—individuals, groups, corporations, and governments—have embedded the technology into everyday life. The Internet is now as much a lived experience as a tool for performing particular tasks, offering the possibility of creating an environment or virtual reality in which individuals might work, socially interact with others, and perhaps even live out their lives. History, community, and communications Two agendas The Internet has evolved from the integration of two very different technological agendas—the Cold War networking of the U.S. military and the personal computer (PC) revolution. The first agenda can be dated to 1973, when the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sought to create a communications network that would support the transfer of large data files between government and government-sponsored academic-research laboratories. The result was the ARPANET, a robust decentralized network that supported a vast array of computer hardware. Initially, ARPANET was the preserve of academics and corporate researchers with access to time-sharing mainframe computer systems. Computers were large and expensive; most computer professionals could not imagine anyone needing, let alone owning, his own "personal" computer. And yet Joseph Licklider, one of the driving forces at DARPA for computer networking, stated that online communication would "change the nature and value of communication even more profoundly than did the printing press and the picture tube." The second agenda began to emerge in 1977 with the introduction of the Apple II, the first affordable computer for individuals and small businesses. Created by Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.), the Apple II was popular in schools by 1979, but in the corporate market it was stigmatized as a game machine. The task of cracking the business market fell to IBM. In 1981 the IBM PC was released and immediately standardized the PC's basic hardware and operating system—so much so that first PC-compatible and then simply PC came to mean any personal computer built along the lines of the IBM PC. A major centre of the PC revolution was the San Francisco Bay area, where several major research institutions funded by DARPA—Stanford University, the University of California, Berkeley, and Xerox PARC—provided much of the technical foundation for Silicon Valley. It was no small coincidence that Apple's two young founders—Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak—worked as interns in the Stanford University Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and at the nearby Hewlett-Packard Company. The Bay Area's counterculture also figured prominently in the PC's history. Electronic hobbyists saw themselves in open revolt against the "priesthood" of the mainframe computer and worked together in computer-enthusiast groups to spread computing to the masses.

What's to know about wikis?

wiki, website that can be modified or contributed to by users. Wikis can be dated to 1995, when American computer programmer Ward Cunningham created a new collaborative technology for organizing information on websites. Using a Hawaiian term meaning "quick," he called this new software WikiWikiWeb, attracted by its alliteration and also by its matching abbreviation (WWW). Wikis were inspired in part by Apple's HyperCard program, which allowed users to create virtual "card stacks" of information with a host of connections, or links, among the various cards. HyperCard in turn drew upon an idea suggested by Vannevar Bush in his 1945 Atlantic Monthly article "As We May Think." There Bush envisioned the memex, a machine that would allow readers to annotate and create links between articles and books recorded on microfilm. HyperCard's "stacks" implemented a version of Bush's vision, but the program relied upon the user to create both the text and the links. For example, one might take a musical score of a symphony and annotate different sections with different cards linked together. Bush also had imagined that memex users might share what he called "trails," a record of their individual travels through a textual universe. Cunningham's wiki software expanded this idea by allowing users to comment on and change one another's text. Perhaps the best-known use of wiki software is Wikipedia, an online encyclopaedia using the model of open-source software development. Individuals write articles and post them on Wikipedia, and these articles are then open for vetting and editing by the community of Wikipedia readers, rather than by a single editor and fact-checker. Just as open-source software—such as the Linux operating system and the Firefox Web browser—has been developed by nonprofit communities, so too is Wikipedia a nonprofit effort. For those who challenge this model of development, Cunningham and his followers adopted an interesting position. It is always going to be the case that certain individuals will maliciously attempt to thwart open-source websites such as Wikipedia by introducing false or misleading content. Rather than worrying about every user's actions and intentions, proponents of wiki software rely on their community of users to edit and correct what are perceived to be errors or biases. Although such a system is certainly far from foolproof, wikis stand as an example of the origin of an Internet counterculture that has a basic assumption of the goodness of people. In addition to encyclopaedias, wiki software is used in a wide variety of contexts to facilitate interaction and cooperation in projects at various scales. Manuals have been written using the wiki model, and individuals have adapted wiki software to serve as personal information organizers on personal computers. (Source: Britannica)

What should I know about the brain?

Brain Basics: Know Your Brain Image Brain Basics: Know Your Brain colored sectioned brain (no labels) The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior. Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. The brain is the crown jewel of the human body. This fact sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It may help you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep it healthy, and what happens when the brain is diseased or dysfunctional. The brain is like a group of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special responsibilities. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum. The hindbrain controls the body's vital functions such as respiration and heart rate. The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned rote movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball you are activating the cerebellum. The uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the cerebrum and the structures hidden beneath it (see "The Inner Brain"). Image Graphic of Cerebrum and Cerebellum parts of the brain. When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of intellectual activities. It holds your memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read books, and play games. The cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. Despite the split, the two cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure. Although the two hemispheres seem to be mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills. For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice-versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed. Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "gray matter" in the brain they are talking about this thin rind. The cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the quantity of information that can be processed. Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres. The two frontal lobes lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered. In the rearmost portion of each frontal lobe is a motor cortex, which helps plan, control, and execute voluntary movement, or intentional movement, like moving your arm or kicking a ball. When you enjoy a good meal—the taste, aroma, and texture of the food—two sections behind the frontal lobes called the parietal lobes are at work. Reading and arithmetic are also functions in the repertoire of each parietal lobe. The forward parts of these lobes, just behind the motor areas, is the somatosensory cortex. These areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body. As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the occipital lobes, process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness. The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the temporal lobes, which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch. Deep within the brain, hidden from view, lie structures that are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres. These structures not only determine our emotional state, but they also modify our perceptions and responses depending on that state, and allow us to initiate movements that you make without thinking about them. Like the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the structures described below come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain. The hypothalamus, about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the molecules that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies the thalamus, a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum. An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the hypothalamus and the thalamus to the hippocampus. This tiny nub acts as a memory indexer—sending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. The basal ganglia (not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating movements. Parkinson's disease, which results in tremors, rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, is a disease of nerve cells that lead into the basal ganglia. The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts: the cell body, dendrites, and the axon. Image Know Your Brain graphic of neuron with labels The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and may travel away from the cell body down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ. The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating myelin sheath. Myelin is a fatty molecule which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hair's width away. Or axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord. Scientists have learned a great deal about neurons by studying the synapse—the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of tiny vesicles. These structures release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to receptors on the neighboring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that brain cells use to talk to each other. Some neurotransmitters make cells more active (called excitatory) while others block or dampen a cell's activity (called inhibitory). Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter because it generally makes cells more excitable. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones. Alzheimer's disease, which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine. Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter. Too much glutamate can kill or damage neurons and has been linked to disorders including Parkinson's disease, stroke, seizures, and increased sensitivity to pain. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntington's disease. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Low levels of serotonin may cause sleep problems and depression, while too much serotonin can lead to seizures. Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinson's disease. Many medications used to treat behavioral disorders work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain. (Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and stroke)

How do I control crying?

Walk away. ... Use words. ... Have props and use distractions. ... Think about something positive or funny instead. ... Concentrate on breathing. ... Blink and move the eyes. ... Relaxing facial muscles. ... Get rid of that throat lump. (Source: Medical News Today)

What are some truths about intuition?

What to know about what you don't know you know. 1. Intuition Is Highly Efficient—if You Don't Think About It Too Much A body of research reveals that intuition can be not only faster than reflection but also more accurate. We're fairly good at judging people based on first impressions, thin slices of experience ranging from a glimpse of a photo to a five-minute interaction, and deliberation can be not only extraneous but intrusive. In one study of the ability she dubbed "thin slicing," the late psychologist Nalini Ambady asked participants to watch silent 10-second video clips of professors and to rate the instructor's overall effectiveness. Their ratings correlated strongly with students' end-of-semester ratings. Another set of participants had to count backward from 1,000 by nines as they watched the clips, occupying their conscious working memory. Their ratings were just as accurate, demonstrating the intuitive nature of the social processing. Critically, another group was asked to spend a minute writing down reasons for their judgment, before giving the rating. Accuracy dropped dramatically. Ambady suspected that deliberation focused them on vivid but misleading cues, such as certain gestures or utterances, rather than letting the complex interplay of subtle signals form a holistic impression. She found similar interference when participants watched 15-second clips of pairs of people and judged whether they were strangers, friends, or dating partners. Other research shows we're better at detecting deception and sexual orientation from thin slices when we rely on intuition instead of reflection. "It's as if you're driving a stick shift," says Judith Hall, a psychologist at Northeastern University, "and if you start thinking about it too much, you can't remember what you're doing. But if you go on automatic pilot, you're fine. Much of our social life is like that." Thinking too much can also harm our ability to form preferences. College students' ratings of strawberry jams and college courses aligned better with experts' opinions when the students weren't asked to analyze their rationale. And people made car-buying decisions that were both objectively better and more personally satisfying when asked to focus on their feelings rather than on details, but only if the decision was complex—when they had a lot of information to process. Intuition's special powers are unleashed only in certain circumstances. In one study, participants completed a battery of eight tasks, including four that tapped reflective thinking (discerning rules, comprehending vocabulary) and four that tapped intuition and creativity (generating new products or figures of speech). Then they rated the degree to which they had used intuition ("gut feelings," "hunches," "my heart"). Use of their gut hurt their performance on the first four tasks, as expected, and helped them on the rest. Sometimes the heart is smarter than the head. 2. We Get Too Deeply Attached to Intuitive Beliefs Once an intuition hits, we cling to it despite the dangers. Intuition can, for example, lead to all sorts of cognitive and social biases, like the anchoring effect (where decisions are swayed by the first piece of information thrown at us) and racial prejudice. Even in areas where the heart should rule, like romance, it can be clueless. In a classic study, when men on a bridge were stopped by an attractive woman and asked to complete a questionnaire, they were more likely to try to contact her afterward if it was a scary suspension bridge, misattributing emotional arousal to sexual attraction. Our dreams, those unwilled visions of the night, hold a powerful aura of truth we can't quite extinguish. People report they're more likely to change their travel plans if they dreamed about a plane crash than if the government announced an actual travel warning. And test-takers can't shake the "first instinct fallacy." Three in four college students reported that when reconsidering an answer on an exam, their initial choice will usually turn out to be correct. But when erase marks on actual exams were analyzed, the reverse was true: Twice as many changed answers went from wrong to right as right to wrong. "In general," says psychologist Sascha Topolinski of the University of Cologne in Germany, "intuition is something emotional that makes you confident in an idea. 'You cannot take away this feeling from me. I do not trust this car seller. I can't tell you why, but I'm confident I don't like him.'" Intuition about the accuracy of an intuition is even more fallible. When people were asked to rate their confidence that their "gut feelings" had steered them skillfully on a test, confidence ratings had no relationship with actual performance. Even when we acknowledge the absurdity of an intuition, we often stick with it. Consider superstitions. I'm an atheist who knocks on wood while knowing it's hogwash. "When an intuition captures attention and triggers emotions, it may be especially hard to shake," says Jane Risen, a psychologist at the University of Chicago. She calls maintaining beliefs we know to be false "acquiescing to intuition." Intuition may not be magic, but we are truly under its spell. 3. Intuition Can Be Improved—With Practice To have good intuitions in any domain requires a lot of practice. But not all domains are amenable to good intuitions. First, there must be regularities linking events and outcomes—the domain must have high "validity." Gary Klein, a psychologist at the Washington, D.C., consulting firm MacroCognition, has long explored the role of wisdom in the intuition of experts such as fire commanders, who can size up a burning building quickly. "Fires follow the laws of physics," says Klein. The global economy is significantly more chaotic, preventing predictability. (As Gigerenzer notes, five years before the 2007 housing crisis, the president of the American Economic Association said, "Macroeconomics...has succeeded. Its central problem of depression prevention has been solved.") Whether you should trust your feelings should hinge not on the strength of those feelings—we have poor intuitions about intuitions—but on the structure of the domain you're operating in. Look outward, not inward. Second, you need clear feedback to hone your intuitive decisions. A review of the literature shows that weather forecasters, test pilots, and chess masters had more reliable expertise than psychologists, admissions officers, and judges. Outcomes in the latter's areas are fuzzier and can play out long after you've made a decision. That goes for much of everyday life, too."You don't do a diary and an Excel file where you write, 'Okay, on October 1, I made this decision, or I bought this product,' and so on," Topolinski says. We lack hard data about what we do. Good intuitions in one domain don't guarantee good intuitions in another. As Gigerenzer puts it, "A soccer player who has great intuitions about scoring a goal may have bad intuitions about spending his money. So there cannot be a general test of intuition." Even within a domain, expertise can vary between different kinds of tasks. We can use focused thinking not only to train our intuitive expertise over time but also to invite or avoid intuitions in the moment. Metaphors and sketches are excellent tools to help us reframe problems or see solutions more clearly. Klein coaches people to consider premortems: When considering a plan, imagine from a future vantage point that it failed and think about what went wrong. This thinking tool makes weak points real—intuitive objects rather than abstract and ignorable hypotheses. Philosopher Daniel Dennett of Tufts University has coined the term intuition pumps for thought experiments meant to reframe problems. But he notes that they can be used for good or for evil. "One should learn how easy it is to build bogus intuition pumps that will provoke fist-pounding intuitions that aren't worth your allegiance," Dennett says. "But also, intuition pumps can help you out of imagination blockades. Caution is advised." The role of deliberation in honing instincts and knowing when to trust them reveals reflection's close collaboration with intuition, in both its development and deployment. "Our reflective deliberation scaffolds off our intuition, but it goes both ways," says psychologist Gordon Pennycook of the University of Regina in Canada. We also tend to use them in tandem. 4. Intuition Is Sensing; Insight Is Seeing Intuition is closely related to another I word, insight. Sometimes the two are conflated, which is understandable. Both relate to realizations emerging from subconscious processes, offering guidance and hiding their tracks. But they're fundamentally different. "Insight is about seeing," says Eugene Sadler-Smith, a management researcher at Surrey Business School in England. "You can articulate the solution, and you can explain it to someone else." Whereas intuition is sensing: "We can sense a solution to a problem, or we can sense a decision that we should take. It's a judgment—it's almost like a hypothesis. We don't know whether it's right or wrong until we act on it." According to MacroCognition's Gary Klein, "Intuition is how we use our experience to know how to act. Insight runs in the opposite direction. It's not just drawing on what you know. It's changing what you know." To that end, we sometimes need to clear intuition out of the way to obtain the sudden solutions we call insight. Breakthroughs are often counterintuitive. One way to demonstrate the role of habitual hindrances is to look at magic tricks. Illusions work through mental jujitsu, using our assumptions against us. To discover how a trick is done, one must relax certain mental constraints—a good tactic for eliciting insights in general. In one study, participants watched video clips of a dozen magic tricks, and half received a verbal clue directing their attention to an assumption. For example, when the magician appeared to throw a coin from one hand to another before making it disappear, the clue was "transfer to other hand." Given such prods to counter their intuition about what they saw, their solution rate went from 21 percent to 33 percent. Intuition's relationship with insight is complicated. It can sometimes indicate when an insight is possible. A common laboratory test of insight is the remote associates test (RAT): Given three words, such as cottage, swiss, and cake, can you find a fourth that connects them? (In this case, cheese.) A variation on this task shows people either a coherent or a random word triad and makes them guess quickly whether it's solvable before asking them for a solution. Even in cases where people can't summon the solution, they're better than chance at judging the triad's coherence. Scientists use creative intuition to select which paths to follow toward potential discoveries. "This is this idea of sensing the right direction," Sadler-Smith says, "like a radar that says 'Go down there, but not down there.'" Nobel laureates have discussed their use of hunches. Michael S. Brown (Medicine, 1985), has said, "As we did our work, I think, we almost felt at times that there was almost a hand guiding us." But we tend to have poor intuition about how close we are to an insight. In one study, participants were given math and logic problems, whose solutions required either a central insight or mere grinding, and were asked to estimate their distance from the solution every 15 seconds. Unlike for the non-insight problems, estimates for insight problems remained fairly flat until the final "Aha!" In a second study, participants' predictions of whether they'd be able to solve insight problems had no correlation with the truth, unlike for routine algebra problems. Topolinski notes the age-old attempt to perform a mathematical feat called "squaring the circle" before it was proved impossible in 1882. "There were many blind tracks that people followed for millennia," he says. Similarly, Einstein produced his theories of relativity, "then for the rest of his life he's concocting a possible theory of everything." Such a theory may be out there, but "for his capabilities and his time, this was a wrong intuition." 5. Stress Favors Intuition; Sadness Doesn't Deliberation is a luxury. In dire situations—say, while being chased by a bear—you don't have time to weigh all your options. You follow your first instinct (run, presumably). Anxiety engendered in any situation similarly pushes you toward fast and frugal reflexes. If you're truly in danger, that can be handy. Otherwise, reflection might be better. One study looked at the effects of stress on decision-making by attaching electrodes to participants' hands and randomly zapping them. Meanwhile, the poor souls had to complete analogies by flipping through answers one at a time: "Butter is to margarine as sugar is to...beets, saccharine, honey, lemon, candy, chocolate." Compared to participants who didn't receive shocks, they were more likely to jump on an answer without even viewing all the options and, as a result, got more wrong. Stress's effects on the brain are mediated in part by the release of the hormone cortisol. In one experiment, researchers gave participants a cortisol-increasing drug or a placebo, then had them do something called the cognitive reflection test (CRT). The CRT consists of three questions, each with an intuitive but wrong answer. For instance, "A bat and a ball cost $1.10. The bat costs $1.00 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?" You want to say 10 cents, but a quick calculation reveals the ball is 5 cents and the bat is $1.05. Most people, even students at elite colleges, fail to get all three problems right, but cortisol reduced correct answers even further. Even as stress triggers heuristic thinking—habits and short-cuts—it degrades more sophisticated intuitive processing. Remember the remote associates test (cottage, swiss, cake)? One study found that increasing anxiety in participants by showing them hair-raising images scrambled their intuitions about whether a connecting word existed. The morbid images may have affected this performance measure, called an intuition index, in part by lowering participants' mood. Sadness tends to make people think analytically. We're sad when something's wrong, which may be time for focused problem-solving. 6. Some People Are More Intuitive Than Others Some researchers believe there are individual differences in broad intuitive ability. A recent study found two clusters of intuitive skill. One is related to insight—such as conceiving a new metaphor—which is linked to intelligence. The other, related to implicit learning, or learning complex information without being aware of what you've learned—say, picking up a new language—is not strongly linked to intelligence. Perhaps more consequential for behavior than general intuitive ability is thinking style—the degree to which you rely on intuition and reflection in the first place. A common measure in research is the Faith in Intuition (FI) scale, in which people rate agreement with statements like "I believe in trusting my hunches." FI and similar measures have been linked with several positive characteristics. People with high FI receive high intuition index scores—as long as they're in a positive mood, a state that brings intuition out to play. Another scale, with items like "I generally make decisions that feel right to me," correlated with better recognition of social norms, as measured by how accurately people estimated their peers' acceptance of behaviors likes stealing and fighting. And another correlated with greater creativity on several tasks such as drawing and thinking of uses for a cardboard box. But people who put faith in intuition also pay a price. They perform worse on tasks requiring logic. They report having experienced more setbacks resulting from poor decisions, ranging from missing a flight to getting divorced. They report greater magical thinking—belief in astrology, ghosts, luck, God, and so on. And in one study, they were more likely to stereotype based on gender (but only in a positive mood). Topolinski suggests that people might want to seek careers that match their thinking style. An accountant won't get as far relying on her gut as would, say, a counselor. And in any profession, if you know you put great faith in feelings, you might make room for extra reflection on tasks where snap decisions can get you into trouble, like getting to the airport. 7. Morality Intuitions Are Easily Swayed Some of our deepest-held beliefs involve morality, how we feel people should behave toward one another. And although they may seem as rock-solid as fact—Thou shalt not kill—they're just as guided by intuition as anything else. We can reason about many of them, but only to a point. For many, especially on controversial or subtle issues like abortion, it comes down to intuition: It just feels wrong (or right). Moral intuitions are unavoidable and also valuable, says psychologist Matthew Feinberg of the Rotman School of Management in Toronto. They drive kindness as well as social justice movements. "But moral intuitions are also at the heart of many, many problems in society." Impassioned gut reactions can derail rational discussion, as opponents are labeled evil. Many findings highlight the unconscious processing built into moral judgment. Often we base opinions on things we'd never factor into a deliberate decision. In one study, participants' approval of sex between cousins depended on whether someone had secretly deployed fart spray nearby. Visceral repulsion led to moral repulsion. In another study, participants were asked whether it was okay to push a large man off a footbridge to block a trolley from killing five other people. If they'd just watched a clip from Saturday Night Live, versus a documentary, their mood was more positive, and they were four times as likely to approve. This does not sound like reflection: Thou shalt not kill—unless you've heard a good joke lately. Of course, morality is based on more than fleeting incidental cues. We also have deeper values like fairness and loyalty, each an abstraction formed from a lifetime of experience. Psychologist Jonathan Haidt of New York University has delineated five distinct "moral foundations" that guide our behavior: fairness, loyalty, authority, purity, and avoiding harm. Studies suggest that political liberals prioritize fairness and harm avoidance; conservatives favor loyalty, authority, and purity. And Feinberg has found that we can shape people's moral intuitions by catering messages to their preferred values. When he framed an argument for universal health care in terms of purity (fewer diseased Americans) versus fairness (health care for all), conservatives expressed more support for Obamacare. When he framed an argument for military spending in terms of fairness (fighting inequality) versus authority (American supremacy), liberals expressed more support. Likewise, he swayed conservatives to support same-sex marriage through loyalty (patriotic couples) and environmentalism through purity (a clean planet). He also used moral reframing to reduce conservative support for Donald Trump (he disloyally dodged the draft) and liberal support for Hillary Clinton (she unfairly favors Wall Street). Examples, metaphors, images, and stories can give shape to our own and others' intuitions not only in politics but in all realms of life: science, relationships, education. We gain new models of the world, and thought—conscious and not—fills them in. As for messages meant to elicit gut reactions, "We see a lot of that on the Internet these days," says the University of Saskatchewan's Thompson. "Memes. That's exactly what they are." One could fairly call memes the fart spray of the internet. 8. You Can Read People by Reading What They Write Online Humans have strong intuitions about other people. That's because character judgment has such dire consequences, and because we have so much experience with it, over our lifetimes and over evolution. What happens when people-reading goes online? And when it's limited to the reading of what others write? Increasingly, we must assess each other via snippets of text, rather than, say, darting eyes or kind smiles, but that doesn't hold back our snap judgments. Generally, when asked to rate a writer's personality traits based on emails, personal essays, streams of consciousness, mock diary entries, mock blog posts, Twitter feeds, and dating ads, readers agree with each other more than chance would allow, indicating that there are cues in written reports that reliably trigger our intuitions. Which cues do we use? In dating profiles, studies show, swear words suggest high neuroticism and low conscientiousness and agreeableness. Angry words suggest the same in tweets. In personal essays, exaggeration suggests extraversion and openness to experience. Past tense suggests depression in blog posts, and cognitive words like know suggest it in diaries. Surely deliberation plays a role in judgments, but I doubt anyone is counting past-tense verbs. Our judgments about traits from writing samples are also frequently more accurate than chance would allow. And some people are better than others at reading between the lines. One study, by Hall of Northeastern University, found that the best judges were female, agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, compassionate, interested in others' lives, and big readers, especially of fiction. Judgments of personality can come from the thinnest of slices—even just an email address. What's thinner than an email address? Punctuation. A study found that angry- and happy-seeming emails have many exclamation points and few question marks, and feminine-seeming emails have both. Other work found that smileys in formal emails don't make the writer seem warm but do make him or her seem incompetent. Meanwhile, adding a smiley with a nose to a dating profile will win more replies, while adding a noseless smiley will get you fewer ;-). To think, your future may depend on an emoji. Neither head nor heart can survive on its own, and negotiating their symbiosis is a challenge that's much harder than mastering chess or Go. "'It's not about whether intuition or analysis is best,'" Sadler-Smith tells managers. "The real skill in decision-making, problem-solving, creativity, whatever, is blending those two things together. And in a way that's kind of a lifetime project, isn't it?" (Source: Psychology Today)

What is everything to know about money?

money, a commodity accepted by general consent as a medium of economic exchange. It is the medium in which prices and values are expressed; as currency, it circulates anonymously from person to person and country to country, thus facilitating trade, and it is the principal measure of wealth. The subject of money has fascinated people from the time of Aristotle to the present day. The piece of paper labeled 1 dollar, 10 euros, 100 yuan, or 1,000 yen is little different, as paper, from a piece of the same size torn from a newspaper or magazine, yet it will enable its bearer to command some measure of food, drink, clothing, and the remaining goods of life while the other is fit only to light the fire. Whence the difference? The easy answer, and the right one, is that modern money is a social contrivance. People accept money as such because they know that others will. This common knowledge makes the pieces of paper valuable because everyone thinks they are, and everyone thinks they are because in his or her experience money has always been accepted in exchange for valuable goods, assets, or services. At bottom money is, then, a social convention, but a convention of uncommon strength that people will abide by even under extreme provocation. The strength of the convention is, of course, what enables governments to profit by inflating (increasing the quantity of) the currency. But it is not indestructible. When great increases occur in the quantity of these pieces of paper—as they have during and after wars—money may be seen to be, after all, no more than pieces of paper. If the social arrangement that sustains money as a medium of exchange breaks down, people will then seek substitutes—like the cigarettes and cognac that for a time served as the medium of exchange in Germany after World War II. New money may substitute for old under less extreme conditions. In many countries with a history of high inflation, such as Argentina, Israel, or Russia, prices may be quoted in a different currency, such as the U.S. dollar, because the dollar has more stable value than the local currency. Furthermore, the country's residents accept the dollar as a medium of exchange because it is well-known and offers more stable purchasing power than local money. Functions of money The basic function of money is to enable buying to be separated from selling, thus permitting trade to take place without the so-called double coincidence of barter. In principle, credit could perform this function, but, before extending credit, the seller would want to know about the prospects of repayment. That requires much more information about the buyer and imposes costs of information and verification that the use of money avoids. If a person has something to sell and wants something else in return, the use of money avoids the need to search for someone able and willing to make the desired exchange of items. The person can sell the surplus item for general purchasing power—that is, "money"—to anyone who wants to buy it and then use the proceeds to buy the desired item from anyone who wants to sell it. The importance of this function of money is dramatically illustrated by the experience of Germany just after World War II, when paper money was rendered largely useless because of price controls that were enforced effectively by the American, French, and British armies of occupation. Money rapidly lost its value. People were unwilling to exchange real goods for Germany's depreciating currency. They resorted to barter or to other inefficient money substitutes (such as cigarettes). Price controls reduced incentives to produce. The country's economic output fell by half. Later the German "economic miracle" that took root just after 1948 reflected, in part, a currency reform instituted by the occupation authorities that replaced depreciating money with money of stable value. At the same time, the reform eliminated all price controls, thereby permitting a money economy to replace a barter economy. These examples have shown the "medium of exchange" function of money. Separation of the act of sale from the act of purchase requires the existence of something that will be generally accepted in payment. But there must also be something that can serve as a temporary store of purchasing power, in which the seller holds the proceeds in the interim between the sale and the subsequent purchase or from which the buyer can extract the general purchasing power with which to pay for what is bought. This is called the "asset" function of money. Varieties of money Anything can serve as money that habit or social convention and successful experience endow with the quality of general acceptability, and a variety of items have so served—from the wampum (beads made from shells) of American Indians, to cowries (brightly coloured shells) in India, to whales' teeth among the Fijians, to tobacco among early colonists in North America, to large stone disks on the Pacific island of Yap, to cigarettes in post-World War II Germany and in prisons the world over. In fact, the wide use of cattle as money in primitive times survives in the word pecuniary, which comes from the Latin pecus, meaning cattle. The development of money has been marked by repeated innovations in the objects used as money. Metallic money Metals have been used as money throughout history. As Aristotle observed, the various necessities of life are not easily carried about; hence people agreed to employ in their dealings with each other something that was intrinsically useful and easily applicable to the purposes of life—for example, iron, silver, and the like. The value of the metal was at first measured by weight, but in time governments or sovereigns put a stamp upon it to avoid the trouble of weighing it and to make the value known at sight. The use of metal for money can be traced back to Babylon more than 2000 years BC, but standardization and certification in the form of coinage did not occur except perhaps in isolated instances until the 7th century BC. Historians generally ascribe the first use of coined money to Croesus, king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The earliest coins were made of electrum, a natural mixture of gold and silver, and were crude, bean-shaped ingots bearing a primitive punch mark certifying to either weight or fineness or both. The use of coins enabled payment to be by "tale," or count, rather than weight, greatly facilitating commerce. But this in turn encouraged "clipping" (shaving off tiny slivers from the sides or edges of coins) and "sweating" (shaking a bunch of coins together in a leather bag and collecting the dust that was thereby knocked off) in the hope of passing on the lighter coin at its face value. The resulting economic situation was described by Gresham's law (that "bad money drives out good" when there is a fixed rate of exchange between them): heavy, good coins were held for their metallic value, while light coins were passed on to others. In time the coins became lighter and lighter and prices higher and higher. As a means of correcting this problem, payment by weight would be resumed for large transactions, and there would be pressure for recoinage. These particular defects were largely ended by the "milling" of coins (making serrations around the circumference of a coin), which began in the late 17th century. A more serious problem occurred when the sovereign would attempt to benefit from the monopoly of coinage. In this respect, Greek and Roman experience offers an interesting contrast. Solon, on taking office in Athens in 594 BC, did institute a partial debasement of the currency. For the next four centuries (until the absorption of Greece into the Roman Empire) the Athenian drachma had an almost constant silver content (67 grains of fine silver until Alexander, 65 grains thereafter) and became the standard coin of trade in Greece and in much of Asia and Europe as well. Even after the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean peninsula in roughly the 2nd century BC, the drachma continued to be minted and widely used. The Roman experience was very different. Not long after the silver denarius, patterned after the Greek drachma, was introduced about 212 BC, the prior copper coinage (aes, or libra) began to be debased until, by the onset of the empire, its weight had been reduced from 1 pound (about 450 grams) to half an ounce (about 15 grams). By contrast the silver denarius and the gold aureus (introduced about 87 BC) suffered only minor debasement until the time of Nero (AD 54), when almost continuous tampering with the coinage began. The metal content of the gold and silver coins was reduced, while the proportion of alloy was increased to three-fourths or more of its weight. Debasement in Rome (as ever since) used the state's profit from money creation to cover its inability or unwillingness to finance its expenditures through explicit taxes. But the debasement in turn raised prices, worsened Rome's economic situation, and contributed to the collapse of the empire. Paper money Experience had shown that carrying large quantities of gold, silver, or other metals proved inconvenient and risked loss or theft. The first use of paper money occurred in China more than 1,000 years ago. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries paper money and banknotes had spread to other parts of the world. The bulk of the money in use came to consist not of actual gold or silver but of fiduciary money—promises to pay specified amounts of gold and silver. These promises were initially issued by individuals or companies as banknotes or as the transferable book entries that came to be called deposits. Although deposits and banknotes began as claims to gold or silver on deposit at a bank or with a merchant, this later changed. Knowing that everyone would not claim his or her balance at once, the banker (or merchant) could issue more claims to the gold and silver than the amount held in safekeeping. Bankers could then invest the difference or lend it at interest. In periods of distress, however, when borrowers did not repay their loans or in case of overissue, the banks could fail. Gradually, governments assumed a supervisory role. They specified legal tender, defining the type of payment that legally discharged a debt when offered to the creditor and that could be used to pay taxes. Governments also set the weight and metallic composition of coins. Later they replaced fiduciary paper money—promises to pay in gold or silver—with fiat paper money—that is, notes that are issued on the "fiat" of the sovereign government, are specified to be so many dollars, pounds, or yen, etc., and are legal tender but are not promises to pay something else. The first large-scale issue of paper money in a Western country occurred in France in the early 18th century. Subsequently, the French Revolutionary government issued assignats from 1789 to 1796. Similarly, the American colonies and later the Continental Congress issued bills of credit that could be used in making payments. Yet these and other early experiments gave fiat money a deservedly bad name. The money was overissued, and prices rose drastically until the money became worthless or was redeemed in metallic money (or promises to pay metallic money) at a small fraction of its initial value. Subsequent issues of fiat money in the major countries during the 19th century were temporary departures from a metallic standard. In Great Britain, for example, the government suspended payment of gold for all outstanding banknotes during the Napoleonic Wars (1797-1815). To finance the war, the government issued fiat paper money. Prices in Great Britain doubled as a result, and gold coin and bullion became more expensive in terms of paper. To restore the gold standard at the former gold price, the government deflated the price level by reducing the quantity of money. In 1821 Great Britain restored the gold standard. Similarly, during the American Civil War the U.S. government suspended convertibility of Union currency (greenbacks) into specie (gold or silver coin), and resumption did not occur until 1879 (see specie payment). At its peak in 1864, the greenback price of gold, nominally equivalent to $100, reached more than $250. Episodes of this kind, which were repeated in many countries, convinced the public that war brings inflation and that the aftermath of war brings deflation and depression. This sequence is not inevitable. It reflected 19th-century experience under metallic money standards. Typically, wars required increased government spending and budget deficits. Governments suspended the metallic (gold) standard and financed their deficits by borrowing and printing paper money. Prices rose. Throughout history, the price of gold would be far above its prewar value when wartime spending and inflation ended. To restore the metallic standard to the prewar price of gold in paper money, prices quoted in paper money had to fall. The alternative was to accept the increased price of gold in paper money by devaluing the currency (that is, reducing money's purchasing power). After World War I, the British and the United States governments forced prices to fall, but many other countries devalued their currencies against gold. After World War II, all major countries accepted the higher wartime price level, and most devalued their currencies to avoid deflation and depression. (Source: Britannica)

What are the parts of speech?

noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection

What causes sleepwalking?

What Causes Sleepwalking? Medically reviewed by Raj Dasgupta, MD — By Rebecca Joy Stanborough, MFA on July 21, 2020 Have you ever gone to sleep in your bed and woken up on the living room sofa? Or, perhaps you've woken up with mysterious crumbs sprinkled over your pajamas with no recollection of a midnight snack? If so, you may be one of the 6.9 percentTrusted Source of people who've experienced at least one episode of sleepwalking in their life. Although the prevalence of sleepwalking is significantly higher in children, about 1.5 percentTrusted Source of adults have had a sleepwalking episode beyond their childhood years. Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, can be caused by medications, genetics, or health conditions that disrupt your sleep. Here's what we know about why some people sleepwalk. What exactly is sleepwalking? Sleepwalking is a sleeping disturbance that occurs in the deepest part of your nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. It most often occurs within 1 to 2 hours of falling asleep. During an episode of sleepwalking, you may sit up, walk around, and even perform ordinary activities — all while sleeping. Your eyes are open, but you're actually still in a deep state of sleep. The American Psychiatric Association does not consider sleepwalking to be a disorder unless it happens often enough to cause you distress and it disturbs your ability to function during the day. What causes sleepwalking? More common in children than adults, sleepwalking is often outgrown by the teen years. But not everyone stops sleepwalking once they're adults. Although rare, some people may only start sleepwalking in their adult years. Sleep researchers have identified several health conditions, activities, and substances that are known to trigger sleepwalking episodes. It's also possible that you inherited your tendency to sleepwalk. Sleepwalking sometimes runs in families. Stress Stress and anxiety are known to interfere with a good night's rest. Some sleep scientists also think daytime stress can contribute to somnambulism. One studyTrusted Source of 193 patients in a sleep clinic found that one of the main triggers of sleepwalking episodes was stressful events experienced during the day. If you want to decrease your daily stress levels so you can rest at night, you may want to try stress-reduction techniques such as these: get regular exercise practice mindfulness limit caffeine do breathing exercises try yoga Sleep deprivation People who don't get enough sleep are more vulnerable to sleepwalking. ResearchersTrusted Source who studied MRI brain scans of people with a history of sleepwalking found that being sleep-deprived increased the number of sleepwalking episodes people experienced. Migraine If you have chronic migraine, you may be more vulnerable to sleepwalking. In 2015, a group of sleep scientistsTrusted Source interviewed 100 patients who routinely sleepwalk, and found a strong association between sleepwalking and lifelong headaches, particularly migraine. Fever Sleepwalking has been associated with illnesses that cause fever, especially in children. Fevers can also cause night terrors, which are sleep disturbances during which you might scream, thrash your arms about, or try to escape from fearful things you perceive in your sleep. Breathing disorders Obstructive sleep apnea is a breathing disorder that causes you to stop breathing for short periods while you sleep. It's more than just snoring. Among other things, severe sleep apnea can lead to daytime fatigue, high blood pressure, stroke, and heart disease. If you have severe obstructive sleep apnea, your likelihood of sleepwalking is higherTrusted Source than people with mild sleep apnea. There have also been reports of sleepwalking among children who have asthma. Asthma can lead to sleep deprivation, and the medication montelukastTrusted Source has triggered sleepwalking in some children. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) If you have GERD, the contents of your stomach can come back up through your esophagus, causing uncomfortable burning sensations. For many people, symptoms are worse at night. People with GERD and other gastric disorders are more prone to many kinds of sleep disorders, including sleepwalking. Because GERD interferes with sleep, it can cause long-term exhaustion, which also makes you more vulnerable to sleepwalking episodes. Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is a nerve condition that affects your body's ability to move. As the disease progresses, it can affect parts of the brain stem that control movement as well as parts of the brain that control sleep. Normally, when you dream during REM sleep, your brain temporarily paralyzes some muscles to keep you from acting on your dreams and hurting yourself or others in the process. Some studiesTrusted Source indicate that Parkinson's disease may keep that sleep paralysis from happening completely. This, in turn, may lead to sleepwalking and other sleep disturbances. Restless leg syndrome There's some debate among sleep researchers about whether restless leg syndrome (RLS) causes sleepwalking. Some studiesTrusted Source indicate that people with RLS are no more likely to sleepwalk than other people. Other studies point to a connection between sleepwalking and the medications used to treat restless leg syndrome. Certain medications Some sleep medications have caused people to sleepwalk, including the sleep-inducing drug zolpidem, which is also sold under the names Ambien and Edluar. Other medications linkedTrusted Source to sleepwalking include: sodium oxybate used to treat narcolepsy benzodiazepine receptor agonists antidepressants antipsychotics used to treat psychiatric disorders beta-blockers used to treat heart disease and anxiety How do you know if someone is sleepwalking? People who are sleepwalking usually do not respond when you try to get their attention. They may have a glazed or distant look in their eyes. According to sleep experts, sleepwalkers can also engage in other activities while they're in their sleepwalking state, including: eating talking preparing food urinating in places that aren't toilets trying to leave the house having sex Most of the time, people do not remember an episode of sleepwalking when they wake up. If you wake someone up while they're sleepwalking, they may be confused about what's going on. Is sleepwalking dangerous? Although most episodes of sleepwalking end without injury, sleepwalking can be quite dangerous. Some people may attempt to drive or perform other tasks without being able to perceive what's really going on around them. In one studyTrusted Source involving 100 patients with a history of repeated sleepwalking, 57.9 percent had been injured or had injured someone else during an episode of sleepwalking. Injuries were the result of accidents like falling down the stairs, or bumping into objects like walls or furniture. Because someone could hurt themselves or others while they're sleepwalking, it's a good idea to wake up someone who's sleepwalking. Just do it gently, because a sleepwalking person may be startled by being awakened. When is it important to see a doctor about sleepwalking? Most children grow out of sleepwalking by the time they reach their teenage years, without ever needing treatment. However, if your sleepwalking didn't begin until you were an adult, you may want to talk to your doctor to rule out underlying conditions that can cause you to sleepwalk. If you sleepwalk often, or if your sleepwalking is causing problems with your daily functioning or your relationships, it's a good idea to talk to a doctor. How is it diagnosed and treated? The most common way for sleepwalking to be diagnosed is when someone else sees it firsthand. Since most sleepwalking occurs during childhood, parents are the ones who most often report sleepwalking to healthcare providers. If your doctor is concerned about your sleepwalking, a sleep study could reveal more about your condition. During the sleep study, your healthcare team will check your blood oxygen levels, brain waves, breathing, and movements while you're asleep. If your sleepwalking isn't severe, you may be able to prevent it by reducing stress in your daily life and improving your sleep habits. If those methods don't work well enough, your doctor may prescribe medications to help. Clonazepam (Klonopin) and diazepam (Valium) have been shown to reduce sleepwalking. Antidepressants and benzodiazepines may help you with your stress levels so you can rest. For most children, treatment usually isn't necessary because sleepwalking often goes away on its own as the child matures. The bottom line Sleepwalking is a sleep disturbance in which you walk, talk, or do other activities while you're in a deep state of sleep. It happens in the deepest part of your sleep cycle, usually within an hour or two of going to sleep. More common in children than adults, sleepwalking is often outgrown by the teen years. But not everyone stops sleepwalking once they're adults. Sleepwalking often runs in families. It can also be caused by stress, sleep deprivation, certain medications, breathing disorders, neurological conditions, stress, fever, and migraine. If you sleepwalk often, or if your nighttime wandering is causing problems — either at night or during the day — it's a good idea to follow up with your doctor. (Source: healthline)

What is gymnastics?

A greek sport!

What is creatine?

A naturally occurring compound produced by your body that helps muscles produce energy and delays muscle fatigue. [There have been multiple studies done to determine it's effectiveness].

What is a wiki?

A page or collection of Web pages that can be viewed and modified by anybody with a Web browser and Internet access

Who invented the cotton gin?

Eli Whitney in 1793

Who invented the cotton gin?

Eli Whitney in 1793. (Most important creation for the economy at the time).

Do aphrodisiacs really work?

Do aphrodisiacs really work? Chocolate, strawberries, oysters: we've all heard that certain foods can heighten our sexual desire and even performance. But is there any truth to the claims? BBC Future investigates. Named after Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, aphrodisiacs are said to increase libido, potency, and sexual pleasure. Who hasn't heard that chocolates, strawberries and oysters can have such a powerful effect? Historically, aphrodisiacs have included even quirkier edibles - including the toxic Spanish fly, ground rhinoceros and rare plant extracts. In fact, during research for her book Intercourses, co-author Martha Hopkins found that almost every food has been considered an aphrodisiac at one time. "Historically, foods considered to be aphrodisiacs were hard to find, rare or expensive, like truffles, foie gras and caviar, or shaped like a sex organ, like asparagus or artichokes, and even animal testicles," Hopkins says. While we tend to think of aphrodisiacs in terms of lust, romance and libido, in the 17th Century - when everything from pigeons to almonds to parsnips were considered aphrodisiacs - they were associated with reproduction and fertility and given to married couples as more of a medical substance, says Jennifer Evans, senior lecturer in history at the University of Hertfordshire who researches the history of food and fertility. But can any food really affect sexual desire and performance? And why is the idea so persistent? You might also like: • Pheromones are probably not why people find you attractive • Cold remedies: Old wives' tales or legitimate science? • Is juicing actually good for you? Sexy snacks Certain foods can help in a similar way to Viagra medication - by relaxing blood vessels and improving blood flow to the genitals For those who have problems with their circulation, it's true that certain foods can help in a similar way to Viagra medication - by relaxing blood vessels and improving blood flow to the genitals. The amino acid L-arginine, found in foods such as pumpkins, walnuts and beef, is converted to nitric oxide in the body, which increases blood flow. So do foods high in omega 3 fatty acids, including salmon and avocado. Another helper is quercetin. Found in apples, berries, grapes, red wine, garlic and dark chocolate, quercetin has anti-inflammatory properties that can improve blood flow. However, only people with compromised blood flow will see any improvements to sexual function by eating these foods, says Lauri Wright, spokesperson for the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Someone with good circulation isn't likely to see any changes. When most of us think of aphrodisiacs, though, we don't think about sexual function, but desire. One food that's long been believed to heighten sexual desire is chocolate. Studies have shown that cocoa can increase blood flow in parts of our body beyond our torso. But when its direct relationship with sexual desire was studied, there was no evidence found to support its use as an aphrodisiac. In fact, no evidence has been found proving that any one food heightens sexual arousal or desire. There is one exception: alcohol. A number of small studies have shown alcohol consumption is linked to arousal. But it can also impede sexual performance. Red wine in particular may be indirectly linked to sexual function because of its potential benefits to heart health, says Michael Krychman, obstetrician, gynaecologist and a clinical sexual counsellor at the Southern California Center for Sexual Health and Survivorship Medicine. But it's important to note that the link between red wine and cardiovascular health remains inconclusive. The Mediterranean diet may have aphrodisiac qualities Wine's reputation as an aphrodisiac also may come from the fact that it's part of the Mediterranean diet, defined as consisting primarily of plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, wholegrains, legumes and nuts, fish and olive oil and being relatively low in sugar, cheese and meat. More of a lifestyle than a single food, the Mediterranean diet may have aphrodisiac qualities. Holistic health "Research has found that red wine effects sexual function, but we don't know if it's the diet, or a combination of diet, lifestyle and genetics," Krychman says. "What we do know is that, for people who exercise, have a healthy diet and lower stress, all these elements work together and they have better sex lives." Our overall diet can work as an aphrodisiac through benefits like improved blood flow, increased hormones or elevated mood, says Wright. One study involving 600 women with type two diabetes found that the Mediterranean diet was linked to lower levels of sexual dysfunction, while another study concluded the diet may also be associated with an improvement of erectile dysfunction. "The bottom line is that a healthy diet of seafood, lean meats, nuts, fruit, vegetables and wholegrains, which is basically the Mediterranean diet, helps support nerve function and supports blood flow and hormones," Wright says. The reason there is no supporting evidence for any individual food to be an aphrodisiac is a good one: any one food having such a potent effect would be dangerous, says Jessica Abbott, senior lecturer in evolutionary ecology at Lund University in Sweden. "Most of the food we eat isn't going to have side effects, which is reassuring. If they did, it wouldn't be safe to eat them regularly," she says. "Any herbs that have been associated with aphrodisiacs are the types of food we wouldn't usually eat much of, such as touch-me-not plants and high-dose root extract, which have active compounds used as defence against herbivores." Mind over matter So why do some people swear that certain foods have aphrodisiac qualities? It may simply be because they believe they will, says Krychman. "Oysters have limited evidence of having an effect on sexual desire, but a rigorous trial [proving that effect] is lacking - partly because the placebo effect is so big," he says. The fact that sexual desire is so multifaceted and individual for all aphrodisiacs can work to its advantage, says Nan Wise, psychotherapist and sex therapist at Rutgers University in New Jersey. "Desire is physical, psychosocial and relational, and involves a lot of variables. If you believe a food increases desire, the psychology of the placebo effect affects our capacity to get turned on or off," Wise says. It's all about the context of the food we're eating, adds the University of Hertfordshire's Evans. "You don't think of chocolate as an aphrodisiac every time you break into Twix. You have to be in the right context," she says. Our individual experiences also could be strong determinants of which foods boost sexual desire in each of us, says Jean-Christophe Billeter, associate professor of social and sexual behaviour at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. "Humans are very suggestive, and the brain is wired to form a strong memory when we have sexual success. Depending on the situation, if something happened in the environment where a person had sex, this will become something to trigger the desire to have sex in the future." Hunger drive In fact, it may turn out that any food can have aphrodisiac qualities. At the very least, if a person is starving and there's no food around, it makes sense that their sex drive would go down. "Evolutionarily speaking, humans have a desire to have sex in order to reproduce, and we need to be of a healthy weight and have a diet that provides the right nutrients in order to do this," Billeter says. There is evidence that food regularly appeared in 17th-Century pornography for the same reason, says Evans: it was there to help fuel a couple for the next round. Mating patterns change significantly when food isn't nearb In his experiments with fruit flies, Billeter has found that mating patterns change significantly when food isn't nearby. If fruit flies are in an environment where there is food, they'll mate with the first male they encounter up to seven times a day. If there's no food, they only mate once. There is also evidence from nature that we eat foods that make us look appealing to the opposite sex. Consider the characteristics of certain birds: males are more colourful because females find it attractive, and they achieve this colour by eating foods with carotenoids. This applies to humans, too. "In the past, women deemed the most attractive tended to be fatter, as being fat when there wasn't much food around could indicate the woman is good at reproducing," Billeter says. There may also be an aphrodisiac quality inherent in the practice of giving food to a sexual partner - which perhaps explain the real reason a box of Valentine's chocolates or a home-cooked meal can induce desire. "Spiders catch flies to present to females in order to mate, while a species of cricket produces a jelly-like structure to induce females into mating with them," Abbott says. The idea of aphrodisiacs has survived so long because people have always been drawn to concepts that promise youth, longevity and fertility, Evans argues. And for this reason, it's likely we'll continue to believe in them for centuries to come. (Source: BBC Future)

What are some responses to crying?

Eight benefits of crying: Why it's good to shed a few tears Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Lana Burgess on October 7, 2017 Why do people cry? Benefits of crying When to see a doctor Takeaway Crying is a natural response humans have to a range of emotions, including sadness, grief, joy, and frustration. But does crying have any health benefits? It is not unusual to cry, and both sexes cry more than people may assume. In the United States, women cry an average of 3.5 times per month and men cry an average of 1.9 times a month. Interestingly, humans are the only animals to cry tears. This article explores why we cry and what health benefits crying may have. Why do people cry? Humans produce three types of tears: Basal: The tear ducts constantly secrete basal tears, which are a protein-rich antibacterial liquid that help to keep the eyes moist every time a person blinks. Reflex: These are tears triggered by irritants such as wind, smoke, or onions. They are released to flush out these irritants and protect the eye. Emotional: Humans shed tears in response to a range of emotions. These tears contain a higher level of stress hormones than other types of tears. When people talk about crying, they are usually referring to emotional tears. Benefits of crying People may try to suppress tears if they see them as a sign of weakness, but science suggests that doing so could mean missing out on a range of benefits. Researchers have found that crying: 1. Has a soothing effect Self-soothing is when people: regulate their own emotions calm themselves reduce their own distress A 2014 studyTrusted Source found that crying may have a direct, self-soothing effect on people. The study explained how crying activates the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which helps people relax. 2. Gets support from others As well as helping people self-soothe, crying can help people get support from others around them. As this 2016 studyTrusted Source explains, crying is primarily an attachment behavior, as it rallies support from the people around us. This is known as an interpersonal or social benefit. 3. Helps to relieve pain Research has foundTrusted Source that in addition to being self-soothing, shedding emotional tears releases oxytocin and endorphins. These chemicals make people feel good and may also ease both physical and emotional pain. In this way, crying can help reduce pain and promote a sense of well-being. 4. Enhances mood Crying may help lift people's spirits and make them feel better. As well as relieving pain, oxytocin and endorphins can help improve mood. This is why they are often known as "feel good" chemicals. 5. Releases toxins and relieves stress When humans cry in response to stress, their tears contain a number of stress hormones and other chemicals. Researchers believe that crying could reduce the levels of these chemicals in the body, which could, in turn, reduce stress. More research is needed into this area, however, to confirm this. 6. Aids sleep A small study in 2015 found that crying can help babies sleep better. Whether crying has the same sleep-enhancing effect on adults is yet to be researched. However, it follows that the calming, mood-enhancing, and pain-relieving effects of crying above may help a person fall asleep more easily. 7. Fights bacteria Crying helps to kill bacteria and keep the eyes clean as tears contain a fluid called lysozyme. A 2011 studyTrusted Source found that lysozyme had such powerful antimicrobial properties that it could even help to reduce risks presented by bioterror agents, such as anthrax. 8. Improves vision Basal tears, which are released every time a person blinks, help to keep the eyes moist and prevent mucous membranes from drying out. As the National Eye InstituteTrusted Source explains, the lubricating effect of basal tears helps people to see more clearly. When the membranes dry out, vision can become blurry. When to see a doctor Crying has a number of health benefits, but frequent crying may be a sign of depression. Crying in response to emotions such as sadness, joy, or frustration is normal and has a number of health benefits. However, sometimes frequent crying can be a sign of depression. People may be depressed if their crying: happens very frequently happens for no apparent reason starts to affect daily activities becomes uncontrollable Other signs of depression include: having trouble concentrating, remembering things, or making decisions feeling fatigued or without energy feeling guilty, worthless, or helpless feeling pessimistic or hopeless having trouble sleeping or sleeping too much feeling irritable or restless not enjoying things that were once pleasurable overeating or undereating unexplained aches, pains, or cramps digestive problems that do not improve with treatment persistent anxiety suicidal thoughts or thoughts of self-harm If a person is experiencing symptoms of depression, or someone they know is, then they should talk to a doctor. Should a person feel suicidal, or know someone who is feeling that way, they should call: emergency services the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline on 800-273-8255 (if in the U.S.). Takeaway Crying is a normal human response to a whole range of emotions that has a number of health and social benefits, including pain relief and self-soothing effects. However, if crying happens frequently, uncontrollably, or for no reason, it could be a sign of depression. If this is the case, it is a good idea to speak to a doctor. (Source: Medical News Today)

What's are some things to know about emotional abuse?

Emotional Abuse Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff Emotional abuse is a pattern of behavior in which the perpetrator insults, humiliates, and generally instills fear in an individual in order to control them. The individual's reality may become distorted as they internalize the abuse as their own failings. What Is Emotional Abuse? An isolated occurrence doesn't necessarily qualify as emotional abuse, but a pattern of behavior that creates fear and control does. Such mistreatment can occur in a range of interpersonal contexts, including a parental relationship, a romantic relationship, or a professional relationship. People who suffer emotional abuse can experience short-term difficulties such as confusion, fear, difficulty concentrating, and low confidence, as well as nightmares, aches, and a racing heart. Long-term repercussions may include anxiety, insomnia, and social withdrawal. What are the warning signs of emotional abuse? Emotional abuse centers around control, manipulation, isolation, and demeaning or threatening behavior. Signs of abuse include: • Monitoring and controlling a person's behavior, such as who they spend time with or how they spend money. • Threatening a person's safety, property, or loved ones • Isolating a person from family, friends, and acquaintances • Demeaning, shaming, or humiliating a person • Extreme jealousy, accusations, and paranoia • Delivering constant criticism • Regular ridicule or teasing • Making acceptance or care conditional on a person's choices • Refusing to allow a person to spend time alone • Thwarting a person's professional or personal goals • Instilling self-doubt and worthlessness • Gaslighting: making a person question their competence and even their basic perceptual experiences. What are subtle signs of emotional abuse? Sometimes emotional abuse doesn't involve overt threats or vigilant monitoring. More subtle signals that emotional abuse may be occurring in an important relationship include regularly judging a person's perspective without trying to understand it, relying on blame rather than improvement, regarding the other person as inferior, frequent sarcasm, and telling the other person how to feel in an attempt to be "helpful." Healing from Abuse Leaving an abusive relationship is challenging but completely possible. Victims must come to recognize that reasoning with an abuser is not effective and that the individual will probably never change. To begin to heal, experts advise those leaving an emotionally abusive relationship seek support from one's social circle and often a therapist. What is the psychological toll of emotional abuse? Victims of emotional abuse are often worn down so that they cannot see the harmful dynamics clearly. They come to believe that the relationship challenges are their own fault. They may spend time ruminating and bargaining, considering how they can adapt their behavior or avoid confrontation. Victims may struggle with problems of self-esteem, as well as anxiety and depression. What are the consequences of having emotionally abusive parents? Childhood verbal abuse can include constant criticism, put-downs, and rejection. Parents may stop the child from expressing anger or sadness, thereby stifling their range of emotions. The brain also inflates the prominence of negative experiences compared to positive experiences, which renders parental abuse deeply ingrained. (It also makes it nearly impossible for an affectionate parent to counter the effects of an abusive parent.) Childhood abuse can lead to emotional pain, anxiety, depression, self-criticism, low self-esteem, and difficulty forming stable and trusting relationships. But therapy can help individuals process parental abuse and abandon the maladaptive coping mechanisms they developed in childhood. (Source: Psychology Today)

What should I know about emotional abuse in intimate relationships?

Emotional abuse in intimate relationships: The role of gender and age Günnur Karakurt, Ph.D and Kristin E. Silver, B. A. Additional article information Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the moderating roles of gender and age on emotional abuse within intimate relationships. This study included 250 participants with an average age of 27 years. Participants completed the Emotional Abuse Questionnaire (EAQ; Jacobson and Gottman, 1998), whose four subscales are isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage. Multigroup analysis with two groups, female (n = 141) and male (n = 109), was used to test the moderation effect. Younger men reported experiencing higher levels of emotional abuse, which declined with age. Older females reported experiencing less emotional abuse than older males. Overall, emotional abuse was more common in younger participants. Younger women experienced higher rates of isolation, and women's overall experience of property damage was higher than that of men and increased with age. Results are interpreted through the Social Exchange and Conflict frameworks. Keywords: Emotional abuse, intimate partner violence, Emotional Abuse Questionnaire (EAQ), isolation, property damage, age, gender Introduction Intimate partner violence (IPV) is considered a human rights violation and public health issue throughout the world (Campbell, 2002; Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise, & Watts, 2006; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). As currently indexed, violent crimes against intimate partners—current or former spouses, boyfriends, and girlfriends—are committed more frequently against women; these include lethal (homicide) and non-lethal (rape, assault) forms (Catalano, 2000). However, abusive behavior does not always involve tangible violence. Distinctions must be made between physical violence/abuse—traditionally, the most researched and detectable form—and emotional, or psychological, abuse. Emotional abuse is any nonphysical behavior or attitude that is designed to control, subdue, punish, or isolate another person through the use of humiliation or fear (Engel, 2002). The present paper focuses on this form of abuse while examining its relationships to age and gender. Emotional abuse can include verbal assault, dominance, control, isolation, ridicule, or the use of intimate knowledge for degradation (Follingstad, Coyne, & Gambone, 2005). It targets the emotional and psychological well-being of the victim, and it is often a precursor to physical abuse. There is a high correlation between physical abuse and emotional abuse in batterer populations (Gondolf, Heckert, & Kimmel, 2002), and verbal abuse early in a relationship predicts subsequent physical spousal abuse (Schumacher & Leonard, 2005). Thus, there is an emerging emphasis on understanding emotional abuse as a construct separate from physical abuse, worthy of its own theories and prevention strategies (O'Leary & Maiuro, 2001). Gender and age are pertinent to the burgeoning study of emotional abuse. The focus of research on relationship violence has traditionally been on youth and women of childbearing age as the prototypical victims, but there is now evidence thwarting this conventional view. For instance, men can be victims of IPV (e.g. Mills et al., 2003), and older women can be victims of relationship violence (e.g. Zink, Jacobson, Regan & Pabst, 2004). Therefore, the current paper aims not only to investigate emotional abuse, but also to examine how it relates to the gender and age of the victim. Some types of physical behavior can be considered emotional abuse in that they represent physical violence (Marshall, 1996). Examples include: throwing objects, kicking a wall, shaking a finger or fist at the victim, driving recklessly while the victim is in the car, or threatening to destroy objects the victim values. Property damage is a form of emotional abuse considered "symbolic violence" (Engel, 2002) that results in serious psychological, social, and economic costs. Harm inflicted on victim's pets can be emotionally abusive, causing suffering in both humans and animals (Faver & Strand, 2007). Much evidence has accumulated chronicling the deleterious effects specific to emotional abuse. Emotionally abused women can be more lonely and despairing than physically abused women (Loring, 1994). Van Houdenhove et al. (2001) postulate that emotional abuse and neglect may be contributing factors to the development and/or severity of illnesses such as chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. For the termination of an abusive marriage, a better indicator than frequency of physical violence may instead be the severity of emotional abuse, and over time, emotional abuse can be as powerful a control tactic as physical abuse (Jacobson et al., 1996). Further, Sackett and Saunders (1999) investigated the impact of different forms of abuse on women receiving services from a domestic violence agency and found that both emotional abuse and physical abuse contributed to depression and low self-esteem. Due to the complexity of operationalizing emotional abuse, researchers have had difficulty consistently measuring emotional abuse. The development of a valid measurement is hindered by the relative dearth of research on emotional abuse in comparison with research on physical or sexual violence. Some studies use behavioral checklists to measure emotional abuse (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006) but cannot report an aggregate prevalence measure. Other studies have used variations of the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; Straus, 1979; Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy & Sugarman, 1996) or the Abuse Behavior Inventory (ABI; Shepard & Campbell, 1992); both define emotional abuse through specific behaviors. Less often used are the Psychological Maltreatment Inventory (Tolman, 1989) and the Women's Experience with Battering (WEB) Scale (Smith, Earp, & DeVellis, 1995). Partially as a result of difficulties in measurement, calculating accurate prevalence estimates for emotional abuse has been challenging. A recent meta-analytic review by Carney and Barner (2012) examined three aspects of IPV: emotional abuse, sexual coercion, and stalking/obsessive behavior. For emotional abuse, prevalence rates were high, averaging around 80%; 40% of women and 32% of men reported expressive aggression, and 41% of women and 43% of men reported coercive control. Furthermore, new findings from the National Intimate Partner & Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) by Black et al. (2011) found that approximately half of Americans reported experiencing lifetime emotional abuse by a partner. Psychological aggression was measured by combining questions based on both expressive aggression (e.g. name calling) and coercive control (e.g. isolation tactics or threats of harm). Psychological aggression by an intimate partner was reported by 48.4% of women and 48.8% of men. Consequently, emotional abuse appears to be the most common form of IPV. According to a study by Coker et al. (2002), 29% of women (n = 6,790) and 23% of men (n = 7,122) experienced physical, sexual, or psychological IPV during their lifetime. Psychological abuse was measured by two subscales, verbal abuse and abuse of power and control, created from the Power and Control Scale (Johnson, 1996). Women were significantly more likely to experience physical or sexual IPV and abuse of power and control alone; the prevalence of physical IPV alone was 13.3% for women and 5.8% for men, while sexual IPV alone was 4.3% for women and 0.2% for men. Women were less likely to report verbal abuse alone, and the prevalence of psychological IPV alone was 12.1% for women and 17.3% for men, respectively. In both males and females, physical and psychological IPV were associated with physical and mental health sequelae (Coker et al., 2002). Another study by Coker et al. (2000) examining IPV prevalence rates for men (n = 243) and women (n = 313) found men were as likely as women to report perceived emotional abuse (7.4% of women vs. 8.3% of men). Overall, emotional abuse within intimate relationships is common in the United States (US) and is likely the most pervasive form of relationship maltreatment. The present study seeks to elucidate the relationships between emotional abuse, gender, and age. In the next two subsections, we discuss the literature on the effects of gender and age on emotional abuse. However, there is limited literature on the interplay between these two fundamental constructs in their relationship to emotional abuse. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the interaction between gender and age in the path to emotional abuse. Gender and Violence Feminist perspectives have traditionally viewed relationship violence as an expression of patriarchal oppression against women that is socially sanctioned (Lammers, Ritchie & Robertson, 2005). According to Johnson (1995), there are two main forms of violence. Some relationships suffer from conflict-related outbursts of violence: Situational or common couple violence. In this form, either partner may 'lose control' and act violently, but this rarely escalates into more injurious or life-threatening behaviors (Johnson, 1995; Waltz et al., 2000). Alternatively, some relationships suffer from systemic male violence, which is rooted in the patriarchal tradition of men controlling 'their' women (Johnson, 1995). This form of violence is rarer but frequently devastating and often involves economic subordination, threats, isolation, and other control tactics; it is referred to as intimate terrorism or patriarchal terrorism. With time, the severity of violent behaviors tends to intensify (Johnson, 1995). However, the relationship of gender to IPV is not as unambiguous and unilateral as was once assumed, i.e. violence is only committed against women by male perpetrators. Recent research suggests some women actively perpetrate violence against their partners, and debates over the gender symmetry of IPV have generated sizeable controversy. A meta-analytic review by Archer (2000) found women were slightly more likely to use physical aggression in a relationship; however, men were more likely to inflict an injury. The majority of the studies included were conducted in the US in the late twentieth century, and roughly half of the sample was students, thus limiting generalizability. Archer (2000) also concluded that measures based on acts of violence (e.g. slap) versus consequences of violence (e.g. injury ensuing a hospital visit) yield different results. When measures were based on specific acts, more women than men used physical aggression; when measures were based on consequences of aggression, men were more likely than women to injure their partners. It is also vital to consider the sample, as there is likely to be more mutual aggression in community samples, but more male violence in severely victimized samples such as women's shelters. IPV among university students appears to occur at excessive rates. A meta-analytic review by Straus (2004) of students at thirty-one universities in sixteen countries (n = 8,666) found that 29% of the students had physically assaulted a dating partner in the previous year, and 7% had physically injured a partner, with similar rates between women and men. Harmed (2001) investigated IPV among university students in the US and found relative similarity between the genders: women and men (n = 874) reported comparable amounts of overall aggression from dating partners but differed in the manner of violence experienced. Women described increased sexual victimization (39% for women vs. 30% for men), whereas men recounted increased psychological aggression (87% for men vs. 82% for women). Psychological abuse was measured by the ABI (Shepard & Campbell, 1992). Rates of physical violence for men and women were comparable, at 21% and 22%, respectively and men reported perpetrating more emotional abuse than women (d = 0.16). A meta-analysis of female perpetration of IPV within heterosexual relationships by Williams, Ghandour, and Kub (2008) looked at different forms of abuse within three populations: adolescents, college students, and adults. The specific types of violence that comprised the categories—physical, sexual, and emotional—were defined by research team and therefore varied in definition, specificity, and severity. Only 11 of the 62 articles included in the review examined some form of emotional abuse; studies looking at both verbal and psychological abuse were included. Due to methodological and sampling differences across studies, prevalence estimates varied widely and it was not possible to ascertain a developmental trajectory, but within all groups, emotional abuse was the most prevalent form of IPV. Rates of emotional abuse perpetration by college females were particularly high, ranging from 40%-89%, and were measured using various scales and questionnaires (Williams, Ghandour & Kub, 2008); one study used a "global experience measure" and the others utilized either the CTS or the ABI. Hines and Saudino (2003) sought to utilize the CTS2 (Straus et al., 1996) in a sample of college students (n = 481). Females reported perpetrating slightly more psychological aggression than males (86% vs. 82%), and in terms of reported physical aggression, 29% of males and 35% of females admitted to perpetration. In terms of both psychological and physical abuse, there were no statistically significant gender differences. Physical aggression tended to co-exist with psychological aggression. In contrast to previous research, no gender differences emerged regarding injuries. However, in line with earlier studies, males reported perpetrating much more sexual coercion than females; the prevalence rates were 29% for men and 13.5% for women. Straus (2005) contends that although violence perpetrated by women may result in fewer fatalities than male-perpetrated IPV, it is a substantial proportion of all injuries and needs to be addressed within the broader framework of ending IPV. Further, violence perpetrated by women, though frequently minor, makes them vulnerable to severe retaliation by men. Despite high perpetration rates across genders, a review has concluded that women are still disproportionately victimized by IPV and more frequently sustain serious injuries (Hamberger, 2005). Overall, a better understanding of gender effects on IPV is needed as it pertains to emotional abuse. Age and Violence A few studies have addressed the role of age on IPV, with the focus primarily on physical violence. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have estimated that between 12% and 20% of middle and high school students experience physical or emotional abuse in dating relationships (2006). According to the NISVS survey conducted by Black et al. (2011), approximately 1 in 5 women and nearly 1 in 7 men who reported rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner first experienced some form of IPV between 11 and 17 years of age. In a stratified cluster sample of 5,414 high school students from a study conducted by Coker et al. (2000), 12% of adolescents self-reported severe dating violence (SDV) as a victim (7.6%) or a perpetrator (7.7%), and SDV rates (victimization/perpetration combined) were higher in girls (14.4%) than boys (9.1%). SDV and forced sex were associated with poorer health-related quality of life, lower life-satisfaction, and more adverse health behaviors both in female victims and male perpetrators (Coker et al., 2000). In an examination of IPV among adolescents, Molidor and Tolman (1998) surveyed high school students (n = 635) on their experiences with IPV, with a discernment toward contextual factors. The authors collected data by modifying the CTS. Boys and girls reported similar frequencies of overall violence, but girls reported experiencing more moderate and severe forms of violence along with more acute physical consequences. In terms of reactions, over half of boys reported "laughing" in response to physical IPV, and a third of boys ignored it. A third of the girls reported defending themselves against IPV, and 40% cried. Girls were much more likely to perceive assaults against them as serious with damaging physical and psychological effects. Boys perceived less negative impact on themselves and the relationship. The data suggest much of girls' violence against boys may be to defend against sexual aggression. Rivara et al. (2009) wanted to understand if the diminishing rates of IPV among American women over the past four decades were a result of age, period, and/or cohort effects. IPV was measured using questions from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS; CDC, 2001). Psychological abuse questions were centered on fear due to a partner's anger, threats, name-calling, put-downs, or controlling behavior. After randomly selecting and interviewing women (n = 3,568), they found that regardless of birth cohort, IPV was most common among women in their mid-20s to early 30s. IPV was reported in 42% of the sample. Rivara et al. (2009) also found that women aged 26 to 30 had the highest risk of IPV, and the risk decreased with age, with substantial drop-offs after age 50. Interestingly, age-related decline in prevalence of physical and/or sexual IPV began at a younger age than that of nonphysical IPV. Younger birth cohorts were at a reduced risk for IPV, after correcting for age and period effects. However, in a study by Mezey, Post, and Maxwell (2002) examining different forms of IPV against women throughout the lifespan (n = 1,249), physical abuse was negatively related to age, but nonphysical abuse, such as emotionally abusive and controlling behavior, was not. Non-physical abuse was measured as follows: ten questions were taken from Smith, Smith, and Earp (1995), and Smith, Tessaro, and Earp (1999) from their WEB scale to measure psychological vulnerability, and the five-question scale developed by Wilson, Johnson, and Daly (1995) was used to measure autonomy-limiting behavior. Rates of physical violence rose from age 22 until peaking at age 32 and decreased substantially after age 52. Having a younger partner was significant in predicting a woman's risk of physical violence. But age was not a significant predictor of psychological vulnerability or autonomy-limiting behavior, two non-physical forms of abuse, and a partner's age did not predict a woman's risk of psychological abuse. Thus, rates of non-physical abuse were similar between younger and older women: Women appear vulnerable to emotional abuse across the lifespan. Further investigation is warranted to understand these age effects. Moreover, as can be seen from previous research focusing on relationship violence, age and gender are highly interwoven. However, there is limited research that can unfold the complex interaction between gender and age and their relationship to emotional abuse. Therefore, this study aims to explore the answer to the question: what is the role of gender and age on emotional abuse in intimate relationships? Methods Participants This study included 250 participants who were in a relationship for more than a year. Participants were 141 females (56%) and 109 males (44%). The average age of the participants in the sample was 27 years (SD=9.05), ranging from 18 to 61. Nine percent (n=22) of the participants were under the age of 20, and the majority of the participants (58%, n=146) were between the ages of 20 and 30. Approximately one sixth (n=41) were between 30 and 40, 7% (n=18) were between 40 and 50, and 4% (n=9) were older than 50 years of age. The mean duration of the relationship was 33 months, ranging from 13 months to 30 years. Most of the participants were dating (52%, n=129), approximately one third (n=78) of the participants were married, 4% (n=10) were engaged, 2% (n=10) were cohabiting, one percent (n=3) were single, and 10% did not report their relationship status. Approximately three quarters of the participants (n=183) were Caucasian, 7% (n=18) were Hispanic, 6% (n=15) were Asian, 3% (n=9) were African American, 1% (n=3) were Native American, 3% (n=9) reported other ethnicities, and 5% (n=13) did not report their race/ethnicity. One fifth (n=54) of the participants reported having children, ranging from one child to seven children. One sixth (n=43) of the participants reported having lower income, and 11% (n=27) of the participants reported having higher income, while 68% (n=171) reported being middle class. Procedures Participants were either non-student community members or college students recruited through announcements around a large Midwestern and a large Southwestern university. The email address of the investigator was provided in the flyers that were distributed in classrooms, around the campuses, and throughout the community. Participants contacted the investigator for answers to their questions and to arrange a time for participation. Before data collection, participants signed consent forms. Participants then completed questionnaires on demographic information and emotional abuse. Following completion of the questionnaires, participants were debriefed about the study objectives, and they received extra course credit or $20 compensation. Measures Demographic information A demographic questionnaire included questions about basic characteristics of the participants, including age, gender, race, education level, and socioeconomic status. The remaining questions were related to relationship characteristics of the participants, including the duration of the relationship. Emotional Abuse Questionnaire (EAQ) The EAQ was developed by Jacobson and Gottman (1998). In their original study of battered married women, Jacobson and Gottman (1998) found severe emotional abuse was more likely to drive women out of a relationship than severe physical abuse. They identified four distinct categories of emotional abuse: destruction of pets and property, sexual coercion, isolation attempts, and degradation. Destruction of property was often used as an intimidation tactic, and sadistic behavior toward pets indicated a disregard toward the pain of living beings. Sexual coercion and marital rape can occur without physical force, and sexual coercion fell under the purview of emotional abuse when the victim was made to feel ashamed, guilty, or afraid to refuse her/his partner. Isolation attempts restricted a woman's freedom and often led to loneliness and feelings of claustrophobia. Degradation was the most common type of severe emotional abuse, including both public and private insults. The EAQ was based off of this original study. It has 66 items assessing emotional abuse, each rated on a 4-point frequency scale (Never to Very Often). The EAQ has four subscales: isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage. Internal consistency for the subscales is .92, .94, .72, and .82, respectively. The isolation subscale has 24 items including "my partner keeps me from spending time with the people I choose," and "my partner prevents me from leaving the house when I want to." The degradation subscale has 28 items, including "my partner humiliates me in front of others," and "my partner ridicules me." The sexual abuse subscale has 7 items, including "my partner makes me engage in sexual practices I consider perverse," and "my partner pressures me to have sex after an argument." The property damage subscale has 7 items, including "my partner intentionally damages things that I care about," and "my partner threatens to break things that are valuable to me." In order to reach a comprehensive definition of emotional abuse, all subscales were used in this study. The EAQ has been widely used in previous research, indicating its external validity (Babcock, Jacobson, Gottman, & Yerington, 2000). The EAQ was chosen for the current study due to its wide range of different patterns of emotional abuse and its strong psychometric values. Scale scores were obtained by averaging the items. Higher scores indicated higher levels of experiencing emotional abuse. Results Data for this study was collected using non-experimental, correlational design. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows software package. Descriptive statistics for major variables in the study are presented in Table 1. In order to ensure that the data were normally distributed, univariate analysis was conducted. The skewness and kurtosis estimates and histograms were examined. Additionally, a Shapiro-Wilk test for normality was performed. Examining the distribution of the variables on emotion regulation and age indicated a slightly right skewed distribution with unsatisfactory normality. Therefore, these variables were transformed in order to avoid violating the normality assumptions. The necessary transformation was carried out by taking the natural logarithm of the variables. After transformation, the emotion regulation and age variables satisfied normality assumptions. Table 1 Table 1 Correlations among major variables Correlations among the major variables, as well as their means and standard deviations, are shown in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, almost all correlations among various measures were in the expected direction. For example, degradation was positively correlated with isolation (r=.52, p< .001), sexual abuse (r=.40, p< .001), and property damage (r=.56, p< .001). Table 2 presents the gendered correlations between major variables. As can be seen in Table 2, while there is a significant correlation among women between property damage and degradation (r =.72, p< .001), and property damage and sexual abuse (r =.86, p< .001), we do not see this correlation among men. Table 2 Table 2 Gendered correlations among major variables In order to test the moderation effect, multigroup analysis was used. The multigroup model consisted of two groups: female (n = 141) and male (n = 109). Two models, namely the unconstrained and fully-constrained models, were examined for the multigroup analysis (for females and males). The fully-constrained model is the one where all estimated parameters are required to be equal across groups, while the unconstrained model is the one where estimated parameters are allowed to differ (Byrne, 2010). The unconstrained model fit the data well [χ 2 (1) =2.935, p>0.05]. The results of model comparison tests using delta chi-square difference indicated that as compared to the fully constrained model, the unconstrained model fit the data better [Δχ 2 =2.935; Δdf=1; p(d) = 0.001], which indicated that the two models were different; i.e., gender moderates the path from age to general emotional abuse for at least one of the gender groups. Motivated by these results, we examined the structural path parameters to further understand the relationship between age and emotional abuse for each gender. The structural path parameters showed that gender moderates the path from age to emotional abuse (β=−.28. p<.05) for males. However, this path was not significant for females. Chi-square threshold tests indicated a confidence interval of 90%. These results are shown in Figure 1. As can be seen in the figure, the differences in age affect the experience of emotional abuse differently for males and females. For example, older males tended to report experiencing lower rates of emotional abuse as compared to younger males. Moreover, they tended to report similarly with older females. On the other hand, younger males reported the highest overall rates of emotional abuse, while younger females reported higher rates of emotional abuse that tended to decrease as they aged. Older females reported the lowest overall rates of emotional abuse. Figure 1 Figure 1 Prototypical plots of emotional abuse as a function of age and gender Detailed analyses were conducted to further understand the moderation effect for each specific domain of emotional abuse. The results of these analyses are shown in Figure 2. As seen in the figure, the unconstrained model fit well to the data [χ 2 (1) =2.935, p>0.05]. Models testing the moderation among age and specific domains of emotional abuse (isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage) provided a better fit for the unconstrained model [Δχ 2 =10.37; Δdf=3; p(d) = 0.016], which indicated that the model for each specific domain was different in terms of gender. For males, the structural path parameters showed that gender moderates the path from age to isolation (β=−.29. p<.05), property damage (β =−.33, p<.05), and sexual abuse (β =−44, p<.05). For females, the structural path parameters showed that gender moderates the path from age to sexual abuse (β =−31, p<.001) and property damage (β =.27, p<.05), but not the other domains of emotional abuse. Figure 2 Figure 2 Final multigroup modeling results for subscales of emotional abuse as a function of age and gender *p<.05 Further, path to path analysis to validate the results indicated that this moderation effect lies in the isolation [Δχ 2 =2.75; Δdf=1; p(d) = 0.09] and property damage [Δχ 2 =2.75; Δdf=1; p(d) = 0.006] domains. These results are shown in Figures 3 and ​and4.4. As can be seen in Figure 3, the differences in age affect the experience of emotional abuse, particularly isolation and property damage, differently for males and females. In general, females reported experiencing more isolation as compared to males. Younger females reported having the highest rates of isolation, while older males reported having the lowest rates of isolation. Older males tended to report experiencing lower rates of isolation as compared to younger males. Figure 3 Figure 3 Prototypical plots of isolation as a function of age and gender Figure 4 Figure 4 Prototypical plots of property damage as a function of age and gender Similarly, Figure 4 showed that the difference in age affects the experience of property damage differently for males and females. The baseline for experiencing property damage was quite different for males and females: females reported experiencing much more property damage. While the rate of experiencing property damage did not differ much between younger and older males, older females tended to report experiencing higher rates of property damage. Discussion The current study primarily aimed to investigate the role of gender on emotional abuse. There have been various studies investigating emotional and physical abuse against women, while research on emotional abuse against men is quite limited. We also examined how other individual characteristics, such as age, were associated with gender in influencing emotional abuse above and beyond its main effects. Results of the study indicated significant interaction effects between age and gender. Gender moderated the path from age to emotional abuse for males. Younger men reported experiencing the most emotional abuse, and this declined with age. Older females experienced the least amount of emotional abuse—comparable to older males. Overall, emotional abuse was more common in younger participants, which is in line with previous research showing youth report the highest rates of IPV. Young women experienced the highest rates of isolation, and women's overall experience of property damage was substantially higher than men's experience. In fact, women's experience of property damage increased with age. The findings do not fully validate all previous research, where following the risk of relationship aggression toward women throughout the lifespan found that physical violence decreased over time while emotional abuse did not change (Mezey, Post & Maxwell, 2002). Yet, Mezey et al.'s study looked at psychological vulnerability and controlling behavior, while the current study looked at isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage as forms of emotional abuse. Thus, methodological differences may be responsible for the conflicting results, and further exploration is warranted regarding longitudinal risk of emotional abuse. Emotional Abuse & Men The findings of the present study suggest that men's overall risk of emotional abuse may be increasing while women's risk may be decreasing. Due to factors such as increased provision of resources for female victims and the role of law enforcement, along with women's empowerment through feminism, rates of both fatal and non-fatal IPV against women have declined in the past two decades (Rivara et al., 2002). Archer (2000) now reports similar rates of IPV between the genders, and although there is a paucity of research examining emotional abuse of men, there is some evidence that men are now experiencing increased rates of emotional abuse (Harned, 2001). Overall, the current study speaks to men's escalating experience of emotional abuse, and the results can be interpreted through multiple theoretical paradigms. According to micro-resource conflict theory (Sprey, 1999), the results of the current study can be partially understood in terms of conflict resulting from changing gender roles. Younger men are reporting experiencing higher rates of emotional abuse as gender roles—and the distribution of resources—are changing. Women are renegotiating roles and expectations because although they traditionally have been victims of patriarchal discrimination and inequality, in developed nations they increasingly have access to similar resources as men (Walker, 1999). For example, in the US, a historic male monopoly on higher education has dissipated, with more women than men currently holding baccalaureate degrees (US Census Bureau, 2011). Women's emotional abuse of men could be a way to "even the playing field" in a competitive struggle to gain control over scarce resources. Further, women may be utilizing emotional forms of abuse because, traditionally, relational aggression is more indirect and socially acceptable for women than physical violence (Archer, 2004; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Men's higher incidence of experiencing emotional abuse in the present study can also be explained through the Social Exchange and Choice Framework. In accordance with this theory, people rationally pursue their self-interests by calculating the ratio of costs to rewards in order to maximize profit, and people's actions can be understood and predicted by understanding their interests or values (White & Klein, 2002). Emotional abuse is not traditionally considered a form of IPV, and abuse is generally stigmatized and/or unrecognized in men. For younger men experiencing emotional abuse in their relationships, they may not consider themselves to be victims, so the rewards of the relationship (e.g. companionship, access to sex) would outweigh the costs (conflict that is not considered abuse). Additionally, as young men do not commonly discuss their relationship problems with other men in the context of suffering abuse, a young man may see his relationship as normal and a better choice than his comparison level (what his peers experience) and his comparison level of alternatives (being alone). As males age, they may be better at identifying abusive relationships and more adept at identifying favorable alternatives, so they would be less likely to sustain relationships with emotionally abusive females. Emotional Abuse & Women: Isolation Although men's overall risk of emotional abuse may be increasing, in the current study, young women experienced the highest rates of isolation. Isolation tactics are forms of emotional abuse and include such behaviors as restricting a person's contact with family and friends or physically confining a person. Isolation aims to undermine the victim's life and identity outside the relationship and foster a sense of dependency. Although there are many reasons (such as easier control of partner and increasing power in the relationship) to believe that abusers try to socially isolate their partners, the evidence for isolation is mixed. For example, McCloskey, Treviso, Scionti, and daPozzo (2002) found that batterers used isolation tactics, and battered women received less social support than non-battered women (Carlson, McNutt, Choi, & Rose, 2002). Other researchers found no differences in network sizes of battered and non-battered women, indicating that both groups show about 10.7 social network members (Tan, Basta, Sullivan, & Davidson, 1995). However, detailed analysis demonstrated that perception of availability of instrumental and emotional support was associated with the severity of assault: the more severe the abuse, the more severe the isolation (Kocot & Goodman, 2003). Alternatively, often in an attempt to cease violence, women may self-isolate (Flitcraft, 1995). However, in many instances, self-isolation is due to coercion and fear of retaliation (Goetting, 1999). Young women's increased risk of emotional abuse through isolation in the present study can be explained through the Social Exchange and Choice Framework. Younger women may be more vulnerable to isolation within their relationships because due to a complex amalgam of social, cultural, and economic factors, younger women may put a higher value on emotional connectivity than independence, and younger women may value a romantic partnership more than the benefits of life as a single person. Thus, for a young woman with this set of values and with a lack of awareness concerning the parameters of a healthy relationship, experiencing emotional abuse and isolating tactics by her male partner is not too big a cost to bear for the benefits of remaining in a romantic relationship. The lower rates of emotional abuse among older women can be interpreted as follows: with time and experience come a matured perspective, an increased analytic ability to maximize utility, and other characteristics that would decrease likelihood of victimization, such as a strong social support network, high self-esteem, knowledge of what constitutes abuse, and economic stability. Emotional Abuse & Women: Property Damage In the present study, women's overall experience of property damage was substantially higher than men's experience, and women's reported experience of property damage increased with age. Property damage is a form of emotional abuse considered "symbolic violence" (Engel, 2002). In their development of an economic abuse scale, Adams, Sullivan, Bybee, and Greeson identified multiple forms of economic abuse: the prevention of resource acquisition, the prevention of resource use, and the exploitation of resources (2008). When abusive male partners engage in behaviors that generate costs—damaging and destroying possessions and household items, and damaging apartments or cars—women's economic resources are depleted because "not only do they lose the property they once had, but they also incur the costs to reinstate the utilities, replace the items, and repair the damage" (Adams et al., 2008, pp. 567). Women's economic stability is compromised, fostering increased economic dependency and the inability to leave (Rusbult & Martz, 1995). If a woman does manage to escape the abuser, she is much more likely to end up in poverty or homeless, which carries serious risks of poor physical and psychological health for both women and their children (Brown & Moran, 1997; Lynch, Kaplan & Shema, 1997). Finally, the harm inflicted on victim's pets by abusers is a form of both property damage and emotional abuse that results in extreme distress (Faver & Strand, 2007). The results of the current study speak to women's increased risk of property damage and can be explained through the Conflict Framework. As explained previously, gender conflict has arisen in recent years due to changing roles and expectations, fueled by women's acquisition of instrumental resources such as higher education and lucrative employment. Male violence against females, illustrated through property damage in this study, could be analogous to women's increased emotional abuse of men in the current study: there is a competition for power and control, and this struggle manifests itself in relationship conflicts between the genders. Limitations Results of this study should be considered in light of its limitations. These include its focus on dating relationships of heterosexual participants. Same sex couples could have different emotional abuse dynamics with different age effects. Blosnich and Bossarte (2009) demonstrated that same-sex and opposite-sex victims of IPV experienced similar poor health outcomes (Blosnich & Bossarte, 2009). Thus, despite the restricted legal and social recognition of IPV within same-sex relationships, it is an area worthy of further analysis. Furthermore, the sample of the study was small and mostly composed of white and middle class university students and individuals from the community. The findings of this study may have limited generalizability to upper and lower socioeconomic classes and people of diverse backgrounds. Future research In future research, specifying the developmental course of romantic relationships and identifying the sequence of events and factors that lead to emotional abuse is important. The construct of self-esteem, its longitudinal course, and its variance between genders may also relate to people's experiences with IPV, and emotional abuse specifically. In order to combat emotional abuse and address young men's unique susceptibility, primary prevention programs should be developed to target vulnerable couples in order to protect both women and men, and in line with Straus and Ramirez (2007), these programs should be implemented in a gender- and culturally-sensitive way that will avoid deteriorating women's subordinate social status. Practice Implications Combined with younger men's overall higher incidence of emotional abuse as reported in this study, these results highlight the importance of educating youth on emotional abuse and the need for prevention campaigns for both males and females. Relationship counselors should recognize the seriousness of emotional abuse and that males have substantial rates of victimization. Emotional abuse must be addressed not only to end the distress it causes, but also to prevent the escalation to physical violence that is damaging to families and society. Females reported an elevated experience of isolation within emotionally abusive relationships in the current study, with the highest occurrences among younger women. Therapists and counselors should pay special attention to controlling, isolating behaviors of partners as precursors to emotional abuse. An emphasis should be placed on couples' ability to maintain healthy, stable relationships with family, friends, and colleagues independent of the primary romantic attachment, as becoming "lost" within the relationship is a common reason women remain in abusive entanglements, along with the fear of being alone (Engel, 2002). Finally, women's higher reporting of property damage by their male partners is of concern, especially as it appears to increase over time. Emotional abuse within relationships may be difficult to detect by couples counselors, but destruction of personal property, even if unintentional, should be addressed (Engel, 2002) and taken as an admonition of abuse. Conclusion The effects of emotional abuse are just as detrimental as the effects of physical abuse. However, the law recognizes physical and sexual violence as crimes against the individual but not emotional abuse (Rivara et al., 2009), although it is a pervasive form of relationship abuse (Black et al., 2011). Therefore, it is important to further our knowledge on emotional abuse and its effects on human psychology and health. Acknowledgments This publication was made possible in part by the Clinical and Translational Science Collaborative of Cleveland, UL1TR000439 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) component of the National Institutes of Health and NIH roadmap for Medical Research. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH. This research was also supported in part by the Texas Tech University with funding from the College of Human Sciences and Kappa Omicron Nu honor society.

Are there scientifically proven aphrodisiacs?

Exploring scientifically proven herbal aphrodisiacs Sabna Kotta, Shahid H. Ansari, and Javed Ali Additional article information Abstract Procreation was an important moral and religious issue and aphrodisiacs were sought to ensure both male and female potency. Sexual dysfunction is an inability to achieve a normal sexual intercourse, including premature ejaculation, retrograded, retarded or inhibited ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, arousal difficulties (reduced libido), compulsive sexual behavior, orgasmic disorder, and failure of detumescence. The introduction of the first pharmacologically approved remedy for impotence, Viagra (sildenafil) in 1990s caused a wave of public attention, propelled in part by heavy advertising. The search for such substances dates back millennia. An aphrodisiac is an agent (food or drug) that arouses sexual desire. The hunt for natural supplement from medicinal plants is being intensified mainly because of its fewer side effects. In this review, we have mentioned the pharmacologically tested (either in man or animal or in both) aphrodisiac plants, which have claimed for its uses. Keywords: Aphrodisiac plants, herbal aphrodisiacs, impotence, sex stimulants INTRODUCTION An aphrodisiac is defined as any food or drug that arouses the sexual instinct, induces veneral desire and increases pleasure and performance. This word is derived from ëAphroditaeí the Greek Goddess of love and these substances are derived from plants, animals or minerals and since time immemorial they have been the passion of man.[1] A lot of natural substances have historically been known as aphrodisiacs in Africa and Europe, like yohimbine and the mandrake plant, as well as ground rhinoceros horn in the Chinese culture and "Spanish fly" which is actually toxic.[2,3] Even in today's culture, there are certain foods that are used as aphrodisiacs, including strawberries and raw oysters. Chocolate, coffee, and honey are also believed to have aphrodisiac potential. Although these natural items are claimed as aphrodisiacs, there is no or little scientific confirmation supporting those assertions. In a recent study conducted in the Boston area, 52% of men between the ages of 40 and 70 reported some degree of erectile dysfunction (ED). Enhanced sexual behavior may provide increased relationship satisfaction and self-esteem in humans.[4] The hunt for an effective aphrodisiac has been a constant pursuit throughout history. The role of various dopaminergic, adrenergic, and serotonergic agents has been intensively examined in both human and animal studies. Some of these drugs have been considered for their potential role for the treatment of sexual dysfunction, while some others have contributed to the basic neurophysiological processes in sexual arousal.[5] Aphrodisiacs can be classified by their mode of action into three types: Those that increase libido, potency, or sexual pleasure. Various substances of animal and plant origin have been used in folk medicines of different cultures to energize, vitalize and improve sexual function, and physical performance in men, out of these very few have been identified pharmacologically. For increasing libido, ambrein, a major constituent of Ambra grisea, is used in Arab countries. It contains a tricyclic triterpene alcohol which increases the concentration of several anterior pituitary hormones and serum testosterone. Bufo toad skin and glands contain bufotenine (and other bufadienolides), a hallucinogenic congener of serotonin. It is the active ingredient in West Indian "love stone" and the Chinese medication chan su. In traditional Chinese medicine, Panax ginseng is used as a sex stimulant. It works as an antioxidant by enhancing nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in the endothelium of corpora cavernosa (CC); ginsenosides also cause transmural nerve stimulation-activated relaxation associated with increased tissue cyclic guanosine monophosphate. For increasing sexual pleasure, cantharidin ("Spanish fly") from blister beetles, which have been used for millennia as a sexual stimulant.[6] CAUSES OF IMPOTENCE Sexual dysfunction is a serious medical and social symptom that occurs in 10-52% of men and 25-63% of women. ED, the main reason of male impotence, is considered as one of the most important public health problems, since it affects a great percentage of men. ED is defined as the consistent inability to obtain or maintain an erection for satisfactory sexual relations. An estimated 20-30 million men suffer from some degree of sexual dysfunction.[7] It occurs commonly in middle-aged and older men. Impotence occurs in 50% of men with diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis is the cause of approximately 40% of ED in men older than 50 years. Among the most commonly recognized conditions associated are high blood pressure, lipid problems (cholesterol, triglycerides), diabetes, and cigarette smoking.[8,9] Endocrine disorders like low testosterone and thyroid problems also contributes to ED. Pelvic trauma, pelvic surgery (major prostate, bladder, and bowel operations) and pelvic radiation therapies are also connected with ED. Direct trauma to the perineum can cause vascular problems in the penis and lead to ED that may be treatable by penile artery bypass surgery. Sexual dysfunction is also caused by various factors such as psychological disorders like anxiety, depression, stress, fear of sex, neurological disorders, stroke, cerebral trauma and Parkinson's disease, penile diseases like phinosis, peyroniesetc. Other organic causes include chronic renal failure, hepatic failure, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chronic alcohol abuse and cigarette smoking also adversely affect sexual potency. Decrease in hormone level with age, systemic diseases like cancer also influences sexual ability. ED is also associated with some therapeutic agents like antihypertensives, antipsychotics, antidepressants, and drugs for diabetes mellitus.[10,11,12] MECHANISM INVOLVED IN APHRODISIAC POTENTIALS Penile erection occurs as a result of smooth muscle relaxation in the penis mediated by a spinal reflex and involves central nervous processing and integration of tactile, olfactory, auditory, and mental stimuli. The reflex involves both autonomic and somatic afferents and modulated by supraspinal influences peripherally. The balance between the factors leading to contraction and relaxation, control the tone of the penile vasculature and smooth muscle of the CC. This determines the functional state of the penis; detumescence and flaccidity, tumescence, and erection.[12,13] During arousal NO synthase is activated for the release of NO from the axons of parasympathetic nerve endings in the walls of the arteries and sinusoids of the penile CC.[14,15] NO stimulates soluble guanylase cyclase (GC) and the activated GC then catalyze the conversion of guanosine triphosphate to cyclic Guanosine Mono Phosphate (cGMP), which activates cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGKI) and to a lesser extent protein kinase A. Activated cGKI and protein kinase A phosphorylate phospholamban, a protein that normally inhibits the Ca2+ pump within the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The Ca2+ pump is then activated and as a result the level of free cytoplasmic Ca2+ is reduced, resulting in smooth muscle relaxation. In the same way, the protein kinases activate the cell-membrane Ca2+ pump, leading to a decreased sarcoplasmic Ca2+ concentration which induces a loss of contractile tone of the penile smooth muscle and an increased blood flow in cavernous body resulting in erection.[16,17,18,19] Another mechanism which causes penile erection is through cyclic adenosine monophosphate pathway (cAMP). Corporal smooth muscle relaxation is mediated via cAMP. The activated membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase, which generates cAMP, it activates protein kinase A and to a lesser extent, protein kinase G. Prostagladin E1 also increases the intracellular concentrations of cAMP in the corpus cavernosum smooth muscle cells. The generation of cAMP activates the Ca2+ pump and consequently, the level of free cytoplasmic Ca2+ is reduced, resulting in smooth muscle relaxation. Similarly, the protein kinase activates the cell-membrane Ca2+ pump, leading to a decreased sarcoplasmic Ca2+ concentration which induces a loss of contractile tone of the penile smooth muscle and increase of blood flow in the cavernous body resulting in erection.[18,19,20,21] One of the mechanisms by which cyclic nucleotides induce the relaxation of smooth muscle is through the opening of potassium (K+) channels, which leads to the efflux of K+ from the smooth muscle cell, down their electrochemical gradient. This results in hyperpolarization and an inhibitory effect on trans membrane Ca2+ flux and eventually, smooth muscle relaxation.[22,23] After cessation of erotic stimuli, NO release from the parasympathetic nerves of the penis declines and the cGMP level in the smooth muscle cells falls because of a decrease in synthesis coupled with the ongoing degradation of cGMP by phosphodiestrase type 5. These muscle cells return to the more contracted state and the penis becomes more flaccid because of the reduced amount of blood in the corpora. Alteration in either psychological, hormonal, neurological, vascular, or cavernosal factors can cause some degree of ED.[24,25,26] The past 20 years of research on erectile physiology revealed the biochemical factors and intracellular mechanisms responsible for corpus cavernosal smooth muscle contraction and relaxation, and revealed that ED is predominantly a disease of vascular origin. Despite the increasing availability of effective conventional medical treatments, plant derived and herbal remedies continue to provide a popular alternative for men seeking to improve their sexual life.[27] The available drugs and treatments have limited efficacy, unpleasant side effects, and contraindications in certain disease conditions. There are many herbal drugs that have been used by men with ED with varying degrees of success. According to Ayurveda, some herbs have been traditionally used as Vajikaran Rasayana herbs because of their putative positive influence on sexual performance in humans.[28] HERBAL APHRODISIACS Chlorophytum borivilianum Tuberous roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum (CB) (commonly known as safed musli) (family Liliaceae) possess immunomodulatory and adaptogenic properties and are used to cure impotency, sterility, and enhance male potency. Mayank et al. studied the effect of lyophilized aqueous extracts obtained from the roots of C. borivilianum, on sexual behavior in male albino rats and compared with untreated control group animals. They observed a significant variation in the sexual behavior of animals as reflected by reduction of mount latency (ML), ejaculation latency (EL), post-ejaculatory latency, intromission latency (IL), and an increase of mounting frequency (MF). Improvement in sexual behavior of extract treated animals achieved by enhanced penile erection and reduced hesitation time. The observed effects appear to be attributable to the testosterone like effects of the extracts. NO based intervention may also be involved as observable from the improved penile erection. The present results, therefore, support the folklore claim for the usefulness of these herbs and provide a scientific basis for their purported traditional usage.[29] Kenjale et al. designed a study to evaluate the aphrodisiac and spermatogenic potential of the aqueous extract of dried roots of CB in rats, and it observed a marked aphrodisiac action, increased libido, sexual vigor and sexual arousal. Similarly, at the higher dose, all the parameters of sexual behavior were enhanced, but showed a saturation effect after day 14. On day 60 the sperm count increased significantly in both the CB groups, 125 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg, in a dose dependent manner. They concluded that the roots of CB can be useful for the treatment of certain forms of sexual inadequacies, such as premature ejaculation and oligospermia.[30] Mondia whitei Mondia whitei is from the Periplocaceae family has been used by many traditional medicine practitioners for the management of ED. It is used to increase libido and also for the management of low sperm count. Lampiao et al. investigated motility parameters on aqueous administration to human spermatozoa in vitro. Results showed significantly enhanced total motility as well as progressive motility in a time-dependent manner. These support the use of M. whitei especially in men affected with asthenozoospermia.[31] According to Suresh-Kumar et al. the aqueous and hexane extract of M. whitei showed sexual enhancement in sexually inexperienced male rats. This is due to the reduction of the hesitation time of the sexually inexperienced males towards receptive females as indicated by the significant decrease in the ML. This suggest that the aqueous and hexane extract of M. whitei may act by inducing changes in levels[32] of neurotransmitters, modulating the action of these neurotransmitters on their target cells or by increasing androgen levels. It confirms the demonstration of adrenergic effect of aqueous and hexane extracts of M. whitei on chronic administration in vivo in rats.[33,34] Tribulus terrestris Tribulus terrestris (TT) is a flowering plant belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae, native to warm temperate and tropical regions. Administration of TT to humans and animals improves libido and spermatogenesis. Neychev et al. investigated the influence of T. terrestris extract on androgen metabolism in young males. The findings of study predict that T. terrestris steroid saponins possess neither direct nor indirect androgen-increasing properties.[28,35] It is also found to increase the levels of testosterone, leutinizing hormone, dehydroepiandrosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate.[36,37] The corpus cavernosal tissues obtained from New Zealand White rabbits following treatment with TT were tested in vitro with various pharmacological agents and electrical field stimulation and was found to have a proerectile effect. A study by Gauthaman et al.[38] showed the androgen releasing property of the TT extract and its relation to sexual behavior and intracavernous pressure using castrated rats. Crocus sativus Crocus sativus L., commonly known as saffron, is a perennial stem less herb belongs to the family Iridaceae and is widely cultivated in Iran and other countries, including India and Greece. In traditional medicine, saffron is recommended as an aphrodisiac agent. Madan et al. studied the effects of saffron stigma extract and two active constituents, crocin and safranal, on sexual behaviors in male rats.[39,40] Hosseinzadeh et al. studied the aphrodisiac activities of C. sativus stigma aqueous extract and its constituents, safranal and crocin, in male rats. The aqueous extract crocin, safranal, sildenafil as a positive control and saline were administered intraperitoneally to male rats. MF, intromission frequency (IF), erection frequency (EF), ML, IL, and EL were the factors evaluated during the sexual behavior study. It was found that Crocin, at all doses, increased MF, IF and EF behaviors and reduced EL, IL and ML parameters. Safranal did not show aphrodisiac effects. The present study revealed the aphrodisiac activity of C. sativus aqueous extract and its constituent crocin.[41] Safarinejad et al. conducted an open label, randomized, fixed-dose, crossover study comparing efficacy and safety of sildenafil citrate and saffron for treating ED in men naïve to treatment. The findings do not support a beneficial effect of saffron administration in men with ED.[42] Myristica fragrans The dried kernel of broadly ovoid seeds of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Nutmeg) of the family Myristicaceae has been mentioned in Unani medicine to be of value in the management of male sexual disorders. In a study by Tajuddin et al., it was found that administration of 50% ethanolic extract of a single dose of Nutmeg and Clove, and Penegra resulted in the increase in the mating performance of the mice. It was found that out of 6 control animals only 2 males mated (inseminated) 2 females and the remaining 4 males mated 1 female each during the overnight experimental period. Whereas, Nutmeg treated male animals mated 3 females each except 2 which mated 5 females each. In the Clove treated male animals 3 mated 2 females each, 2 mated 4 females each and remaining 1 mated 3 females each. In the Penegra treated animals 4 mated 5 females each and 2 mated 3 females each.[43] Phoenix dactylifera Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) of the family Palmae is a native to North Africa has been extensively cultivated in Arabia and Persian Gulf. The date palm pollen (DPP) is used in the traditional medicine for male infertility. In an experimental study by Bahmanpour et al. investigated the effect of P. dactylifera, pollen, on sperm parameters and reproductive system of adult male rats. They observed that the consumption of DPP suspensions improved the sperm count, motility, morphology, and DNA quality with a concomitant increase in the weights of testis and epididymis. The date palm contains estradiol and flavonoid components that have positive effects on the sperm quality. The comparative evaluation between control and experimental groups revealed that consumption of DPP suspensions improved the sperm count, motility, morphology, and DNA quality with a concomitant increase in the weights of testis and epididymis. It did not significantly affect the weight of the prostate and the seminal vesicle or the histology of the reproductive tissues. From the study, it was concluded that DPP seems to cure male infertility by improving the quality of sperm parameters.[44] Lepidium meyenii Lepidium meyenii (Maca) belongs to the family Cruciferae is a Peruvian hypocotyl that grows exclusively between 4000 m and 4500 m in the central Andes. Maca is traditionally employed in the Andean region for its supposed aphrodisiac and/or fertilityenhancing properties. Bo Lin et al. determined the effect of oral administration of a purified lipidic extract from L. meyenii on the number of complete intromissions and mating in normal mice, and on the latent period of erection (LPE) in rats with ED. Oral administration enhanced the sexual function of the mice and rats, as evidenced by an increase in the number of complete intromissions and the number of sperm-positive females in normal mice, and a decrease in the LPE in male rats with ED. The study revealed for the first time an aphrodisiac activity of L. meyenii.[45] Gonzales et al. conducted a 12-week double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, parallel trial in which active treatment with different doses of Maca Gelatinizada was compared with a placebo. The study aimed to test the hypothesis that Maca has no effect on serum reproductive hormone levels in apparently healthy men when administered in doses used for aphrodisiac and/or fertility-enhancing properties. Data revealed that when compared with placebo Maca had no effect on any of the hormones studied nor did the hormones show any changes over time. Multiple regression analysis showed that serum testosterone levels were not affected by treatment with Maca at any of the times studied (P, not significant). In conclusion, treatment with Maca does not affect serum reproductive hormone levels.[46] Gonzales et al. conducted a 12-week double blind placebo-controlled, randomized, parallel trial in which active treatment with different doses of Maca Gelatinizada was compared with placebo to demonstrate if effect of Maca on subjective report of sexual desire was because of effect on mood or serum testosterone levels. An improvement in sexual desire was observed with Maca since 8 weeks of treatment. Serum testosterone and estradiol levels were not different in men treated with Maca and in those treated with placebo. Logistic regression analysis showed that Maca has an independent effect on sexual desire at 8 and 12 weeks of treatment.[47] Cicero et al. evaluated the effect of Maca after oral administration on rat sexual behavior. The following sexual performance parameters were acutely decreased, 1st mount, 1st intromission, ejaculation, intercopulatory interval and copulatory efficacy. Moreover, chronic Maca treatment induced an apparently not dose-related increase in rat locomotion, during the second 10-min period of observation in the activity cage. Thus, they concluded that both acute and chronic Maca oral administration significantly improve sexual performance parameters in male rats.[48] Kaempferia parviflora Kaempferia parviflora belongs to the family Zingiberaceae is a native plant of Southeast Asia, is traditionally used to enhance male sexual function. However, only few scientific data in support of this anecdote have been reported. The results showed that all extracts had virtually no effect on the reproductive organ weights even after 5 weeks. However, administration of the alcohol extract significantly decreased mount and ejaculatory latencies when compared with the control. By contrast, hexane and water extracts had no influence on any sexual behavior parameters. It has no effect on fertility or sperm motility. On the other hand, alcohol extract produced a significant increase in blood flow to the testis without affecting the heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure. In a separate study, an acute effect of alcohol extract of K. parviflora on blood flow to the testis was also investigated. The results indicated that alcohol extract had an aphrodisiac activity probably via a marked increase in blood flow to the testis.[49] Eurycoma longifolia Eurycoma longifolia (commonly called tongkat ali or pasak bumi) is a flowering plant in the family Simaroubaceae, native to Indonesia, Malaysia, and to a lesser extent, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. It has gained notoriety as a symbol of man's ego and strength by the Malaysian men because it increases male virility and sexual prowess during sexual activities. The butanol, methanol, water, and chloroform extracts of the roots of E. longifolia Jack were studied by Ang et al. using various tests of potency of treated male rats. The results showed that E. longifolia produced a dose-dependent, recurrent and significant increase in the episodes of penile reflexes as evidenced by increases in quick flips, long flips and erections of the treated male rats during the 30 min observation period. These results provide further evidence that E. longifolia increases the aphrodisiac potency activity in treated animals.[50] In another study by Ang et al., the aphrodisiac effect of E. longifolia Jack (0.5 g/kg) was evaluated in noncopulator male rats using an electrical cage. Fractions of E. longifolia Jack decreased the hesitation time of noncopulator male rats, throughout the investigation period. Furthermore, it possessed a transient increase in the percentage of the male rats responding to the right choice, more than 50% of the male rats scored "right choice" after 3 weeks post-treatment and the effect became more prominent after 8 weeks post-treatment using the electrical copulation cage. Hence, this study lends further support to the use of the plant by indigenous populations as a traditional medicine for its aphrodisiac property.[51] Ang et al. again evaluated the effects of butanol, methanol, water, and chloroform fractions of E. longifolia Jack on the laevator ani muscle in both uncastrated and testosterone stimulated castrated intact male rats after dosing them for 12 consecutive weeks. Results showed that all the fractions increased the leavator ani muscle, when compared with the control (untreated) in the uncastrated intact male rats and testosterone-stimulated castrated intact male rats. Hence, the proandrogenic effect as shown by this study further supported the traditional use of this plant as an aphrodisiac.[52] Satureja khuzestanica Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad belongs to the family Lamiaceae is an endemic plant that is widely distributed in the Southern part of Iran. Sulmaz et al. studied the effect of Satureja khuzestanica essential oil (SKEO) in male rat fertility. SKEO was administered orally at doses of 75, 150, and 225 mg/kg/day for 45 days through drinking water. Treated and control rats were mated with female on day 45 of treatment. SKEO significantly improved all the parameters evaluated such as potency, fecundity, fertility index, and litter size.[53] According to Rezvanfar et al. coadministration of SKEO significantly improved cyclo phosphamide (CP)-induced changes in plasma testosterone, sperm quality, spermatogenesis and fertility, toxic stress, and DNA damage. It is concluded that CP-induced toxic effects on androgenesis and spermatogenesis is mediated by free radicals. SKEO protects reproductive system from toxicity of CP through its antioxidant potential and androgenic activity. Moreover, concentrations of FSH and testosterone were significantly increased in SKEO-treated groups. Also the weights of testes, seminal vesicles, and ventral prostate weights were increased by SKEO. Histopathological analysis showed that in male rats treated with SKEO the number of spermatogonium, spermatid cords, Leydig cells, and spermatozoids was increased. Furthermore, in these groups, the Sertoli cells were hypertrophic.[54] Panax ginseng For many years, Panax ginseng belonging to family Aralaceae has enjoyed a reputation as one of the finest aphrodisiacs in the world. The word Panax, in fact, means "all-healing" in Greek and is thus a reference to the roots supposed revitalizing properties for the whole human-body. As the neurotransmitter inducing penile erection, NO release was shown to be enhanced by GS in rabbit corpus cavernosum in vitro. Ginsenosides enhanced both acetylcholine-induced and transmural nerve stimulation-activated relaxation associated with increased tissue cGMP. The latter effect was eliminated by tetrodotoxin and was associated with decreased tissue cGMP. Ginsenoside-enhanced CC relaxation was attenuated by nitro-l-arginine and oxyhemoglobin, and enhanced by superoxide dismutase. It is postulated that cardiovascular protection by GS may be partly mediated by the release of NO, a potent antioxidant, and that the GS-enhanced release of NO from endothelial cells, especially from perivascular nitric oxidergic nerves in the CC, may partly account for the aphrodisiac effect of P. ginseng used in traditional Chinese medicine.[55] Pausinystalia yohimbe Pausinystalia yohimbe of the family Rubiaceae is an evergreen tree native to West Africa, also present in Asia. It is the only herb listed in the Physician's index reference for sexual function. Yohimbe has been widely used for more than 75 years as an accepted treatment for male ED. The US FDA approved yohimbe as the first plant-derived drug for treating impotency in late 1980s and was dubbed the "herbal viagra" in the February 1999 edition of Environmental Nutrition In Europe. Yohimbe is believed to be effective in dealing with ED, mainly due to its ability to stimulate blood flow by dilating blood vessels. The increase in the flow of blood to the penis helps in bringing about erections. Another manner in which Yohimbe relates to impotence is that it increases the body's production of norepinephrone; which is essential in the formation of erections. Studies have shown that this herb can restore potency even to diabetic and heart patients that were suffering from impotency due mainly to their diseases. Yohimbe is also believed to act as a stimulant for the pelvic nerve ganglia and also to boost adrenaline supply to nerve endings. That leads to an increase in sexual sensation and stamina. In men without ED, Yohimbe in some cases appears to increase sexual vigor and prolong erections. Adeniyi et al. conducted a study to know the effect of yohimbine in the treatment of men with orgasmic dysfunction. A 20-mg dose of yohimbine was first given to 29 men with orgasmic dysfunction of different etiology in the clinic. Patients were then allowed to increase the dose at home (titration) under more favorable circumstances. Of the 29 patients who completed the treatment, 16 managed to reach orgasm and were able to ejaculate either during masturbation or sexual intercourse. A further three achieved orgasm, but only with the additional stimulation of a vibrator. A history of preceding nocturnal emissions was present in 69% of the men in whom orgasm was induced but only 50% who failed treatment. Of the patients, two have subsequently fathered children (one set of twins) and another three men were also cured. Side effects were not sufficient to cause the men to cease treatment. It was concluded that yohimbine is a useful treatment option in orgasmic dysfunction.[56] Rumry injected yohimbine into adult mice and found no change in the reproductive rate of these animals. Later, Ludwig and von Ries reported that injections of small amounts of this drug into immature mice caused the development of a typical estrous condition. D′Amour, using prepuberal rats, was unable to confirm the results of Ludwigand von Ries. Hechter, Lev and Soskin, while studying the relation of hyperemia to estrin action, claim that yohimbine alone was capable of producing an estrous reaction in castrate mice. D′Amour was unable to obtain cornification of the vaginal epithelium of castrated rats.[57] Fadogia agrestis Fadogia agrestis belongs to the family, Rubiaceae possess significant aphrodisiac potential. Yakubu et al. evaluated the aphrodisiac potential of the aqueous extract of F. agrestis in Male rats. Their sexual behavior parameters and serum testosterone concentration were evaluated. The results showed a significant increase in MF, IF and significantly prolonged the ejaculatory latency and reduced mount and IL. There was also a significant increase in serum testosterone concentrations in all the groups in a manner suggestive of dose-dependence. The aqueous extract of F. agrestis stem increased the blood testosterone concentrations and this may be the mechanism responsible for its aphrodisiac effects and various masculine behaviors. It may be used to modify impaired sexual functions in animals, especially those arising from hypotestosteronemia. Yakubu et al. studied the effects of administration of aqueous extract of F. agrestis stem on some testicular function indices of male rats. Compared with the control, extract administration for 28 days at all the doses resulted in a significant increase in the percentage testes-body weight ratio, testicular cholesterol, sialic acid, glycogen, acid phosphatase and g-glutamyl transferase activities while there was a significant decrease in the activities of testicular alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, glutamate dehydrogenase and concentrations of protein.[58] Montanoa tomentosa Montanoa tomentosa of the family Asteraceae has an extensive ethnomedical history of use as a traditional remedy for sexual impairment. Carro-Juárez et al. studied the copulatory behavior of sexually active male rats after oral administration of the aqueous crude extract of M. tomentosa. They also evaluated the effect extract on males with anesthetization of the genital area and on sexual behavior of sexually inactive male rats (noncopulators). Results showed that acute oral administration of crude extracts of M. tomentosa facilitates expression of sexual behavior in sexually active male rats, significantly increases mounting behavior in genitally anesthetized animals and induces the expression of sexual behavior in noncopulating males. Altogether, these data revealed a facilitatory action of this extract on sexual activity and particularly on sexual arousal. Present findings provided experimental evidence that the crude extract preparation of M. tomentosa, used as a traditional remedy, possesses aphrodisiac properties.[59] Carro-Juárez et al. again investigated the pro-sexual effect M. tomentosa and its possible pro-ejaculatory properties in spinal male rats. The data showed that the extract acts directly at the spinal system in charge of the expression of the ejaculatory motor patterns and suggest that the aqueous crude extract exerts its aphrodisiacs properties by increasing sexual potency acting as an oxytocic agent.[60] Terminalia catappa Terminalia catappa is a large tropical tree belongs to the family, Combretaceae a significant aphrodisiac potential. Ratnasooriya et al. observed that T. catappa seeds at dose of 1500 mg/kg or 3000 mg/kg, per oral for 7 days in rats had a marked improvement of aphrodisiac action, sexual vigor. In contrast, the higher dose (3 000 mg/kg, p.o.) reversibly inhibited all the parameters of sexual behavior other than mounting.[61,62] Casimiroa edulis The seed extract of Casimiroa edulis belongs to the family Rutaceae is consumed in many parts of the world, including Central America and Asia as an aphrodisiac. Ali et al. studied the aphrodisiac actions of the aqueous extract of the seeds of on the sexual behavior of normal male rats. In this investigation, healthy male albino rats were fed with C. edulis extract (test reference) and sildenafil citrate (standard reference). Both the groups exhibited a significant increase in MF, IF, and first sand second ejaculatory latencies. Although a similar pattern of mating behavior was observed among the test and the standard groups, however, in all the cases as expected, sildenafil produced greater activity than the C. edulis extract. These results suggest the possibility of a similar mode of action of C. edulis and sildenafil citrate on mating behavior in these animals. This research, thus provide preliminary evidence that the aqueous seed extract of C. edulis possesses alphrodisiac activity and may be used as an alternative drug therapy to restore sexual functions probably via a neurogenic mode of action.[63] Turnera diffusa In folk medicine, Turnera diffusa or Damiana of the family Turneraceae is considered as an aphrodisiac. Estrada et al. conducted a study to determine whether T. diffusa recovers sexual behavior in sexually exhausted male rats and to identify the main components in an aqueous extract. T. diffusa (80 mg/kg) significantly increased the percentage of males achieving one ejaculatory series and resuming a second one. In addition, T. diffusa significantly reduced the post-ejaculatory interval. The HPLC - ESI-MS analysis showed the presence of caffeine, arbutine, and flavonoids as the main compounds in the active extract. The results supported the use of T. diffusa as an aphrodisiac in traditional medicine and suggest possible therapeutic properties of T. diffusa on sexual dysfunction. The flavonoids present in active extract may participate in its pro-sexual effect, which is analogous to those produced by yohimbine, suggesting a shared mechanism of action.[64] Table 1 shows the list of plants having aphrodisiac potential. Table 2 shows of some herbal products available in market. Table 1 Table 1 List of plants having aphrodisiac potential Table 2 Table 2 List of some herbal products available in market CONCLUSION The search for natural supplement from medicinal plants is being intensified probably because of its fewer side effects, its ready availability, and less cost. The available drugs and treatments have limited efficacy, unpleasant side effects, and contraindications in certain disease conditions. A variety of botanicals are known to have a potential effect on the sexual functions, supporting older claims and offering newer hopes. This review, while evaluating various factors that control sexual function, identifies a variety of botanicals that may be potentially useful in treating sexual dysfunction. All the plants in this review have exhibited significant pharmacological activity. Demands of natural aphrodisiacs require increasing studies to understand their effects on humans and safety profile. Due to unavailability of the safety data, unclear mechanisms, and lack of knowledge to support the extensive use of these substances, uses of these products may be risky to the human being. With more clinical data, exact mechanisms of action, safety profile, and drug interaction with other uses of these aphrodisiacs plant materials, treating sexual disorder can become fruitful. Footnotes Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None declared. (Source: NIH)

What does the new world encyclopedia have to say about gymnastics?

Gymnastics is a sport involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical strength, flexibility, balance, endurance, gracefulness, and kinesthetic awareness, such as handsprings, handstands, split leaps, aerials and cartwheels. Gymnastics evolved from beauty practices and fitness regimes used by the ancient Greeks, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circus performance skills. Since its entrance into the United States in 1830, it has rapidly evolved into a perennial Olympic sport. Gymnastics is a sport that harmonizes body movement to the lilting tunes of choreographed music, very much like a form of art. Gymnastics events test the strength, rhythm, balance, flexibility and agility of the gymnast, demanding an intense level of self-discipline. history of gymnastics dates back several thousand years ago, to the Greek civilization. The word gymnastics comes from the ancient Greek word "gymnos" meaning naked. To the Ancient Greeks, physical fitness was paramount, and all Greek cities had a gymnasia, a courtyard for jumping, running, and wrestling. As the Roman Empire ascended, Greek gymnastics gave way to military training. The ancient Romans, for example, introduced the wooden horse. In 393 C.E. the Emperor Theodosius abolished the Olympic Games, which by then had become corrupt, and gymnastics, along with other sports declined. Later, Christianity, with its medieval belief in the base nature of the human body, had a deleterious effect on gymnastics. For centuries, gymnastics was all but forgotten.[1] In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, however, two pioneer physical educators - Johann Friedrich GutsMuth (1759 - 1839) and Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778 - 1852), considered the father of modern gymnastics - created exercises for boys and young men on apparatus they designed that ultimately led to what is considered modern gymnastics. In particular, Jahn crafted early models of the horizontal bar, the parallel bars (from a horizontal ladder with the rungs removed), and the vaulting horse.[1] By the end of the nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first "modern" Olympic Games in 1896. However, from then, and up until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric gymnastics that would seem strange to today's audiences: synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, horizontal ladder, etc. During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events, and the first women's Olympic competition - primitive, for it involved only synchronized calisthenics - was held at the 1928 Games in Amsterdam. By the 1954 Olympic Games, apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 10) had been agreed upon. At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues to inspire. The new medium of television helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia Comaneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Olympic Games held in Montreal, Canada. She was coached by the famous Romanian, Bela Karolyi. According to Sports Illustrated, Comaneci scored four of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor exercise. Unfortunately, even with Nadia's perfect scores, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviets. Nadia will always be remembered as "a fourteen year old, ponytailed little girl" who showed the world that perfection could be achieved. In 2006, a new points system was put into play. Instead of being marked 1 to 10, the gymnast's start value depends on the difficulty rating of the exercise routine. Also, the deductions became higher: before the new point system developed, the deduction for a fall was 0.5, and now it is 0.8. The motivation for a new point system was to decrease the chance of gymnasts getting a perfect score. (Source: New World Encyclopedia)

What are the federal holidays?

Holidays Holidays are a welcome break, and a chance to celebrate important events. The Federal Government recognizes 10 holidays. However, several things can affect when you observe your holidays such as your alternative work schedule (if you work one) and if you work full time or part-time. There are also special rules for state and local holidays for employees who work outside the Washington DC metropolitan area. Federal Holidays New Year's Day January 1 Martin Luther King's Birthday 3rd Monday in January Washington's Birthday 3rd Monday in February Memorial Day last Monday in May Juneteenth National Independence Day June 19 Independence Day July 4 Labor Day 1st Monday in September Columbus Day 2nd Monday in October Veterans' Day November 11 Thanksgiving Day 4th Thursday in November Christmas Day December 25 Inauguration Day Holiday If you work in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area, you will have 1 additional holiday, Inauguration Day. This holiday falls on January 20th of every 4th year. If you are working in Washington on this day (even if you normally are assigned elsewhere), it will be a holiday. If you are on travel elsewhere, it will not. If Inauguration Day falls on a Sunday, the next day chosen for observance of Inauguration Day is the holiday. If Inauguration Day falls on a Saturday, Federal employees in the DC area who do not work on Saturday will not receive an Inauguration Day holiday. Determining Your Holiday Day Off Normally, if you're scheduled to work on a Federal holiday, you'll have that day off and you'll be paid normally, whether you're a full-time or part-time employee. If you work on an intermittent schedule (daily, hourly, piece-work, etc.), you don't receive paid holidays or replacement holidays for days off, and if you work on a holiday, you don't receive premium pay. Replacement or In-Lieu-Of Holidays Some employees can't observe the holiday on the day designated as the holiday because of their work schedule. These employees get a "replacement or in-lieu-of holiday." Replacement holidays are usually referred to as "in-lieu-of" holidays. If you work on a flexible or compressed work schedule and your holiday falls on a non-workday, then you get a replacement holiday on your scheduled workday immediately before the holiday. But, if the actual holiday falls on a Sunday non-workday, then you get your replacement holiday on your next scheduled workday. If you're a part-time employee, you are not entitled to a replacement holiday when a holiday falls on one of your non-workdays. Part-time employees do not get replacement holidays if the holiday falls on one of their scheduled non-work days. If you're a part-time employee, you may be given administrative leave if you are unable to work because an office is closed to provide a replacement holiday for other employees. Working on a Holiday A shift that overlaps two days, one of which is a holiday, is considered a holiday throughout. If you have to work on the Federal holiday, you'll be paid at the holiday premium rate for your scheduled non-overtime hours, whether you're a full or part-time employee. Special rules apply if you work outside the U.S., if your normal work week is not Monday-Friday. State and Local Holidays If you work at an office or other site outside of the Washington DC area, you will normally be given an excused absence and your workplace will be closed on state, local, territorial or foreign holidays celebrated locally. Whether or not you get the day off is based on a determination by the head of your operating unit that work can't be performed effectively because of the holiday. Unscheduled state and local holidays will not automatically result in the closing of your workplace. Your office will be closed for unscheduled holidays only if the building where you work is closed, building services are unavailable, local transportation services are unavailable, or your primary duties involve interaction with people and organizations that will be observing the holiday. If your office is closed, the day is a non-workday and: No personal leave is charged for the time off If your group (but not all employees at the site) is affected by a building closing, you will be given an excused absence for the time missed. You can't be given an excused absence for personal reasons related to a local holiday (such as at the request of an employee to attend a local ceremony); absence will be charged to leave. (Source: US Department of Commerce)

What should I know about the creative part of my brain?

The Creative Brain Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D. Additional article information Abstract Our author's Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity Lab at Penn State uses brain imaging and behavioral experiments to examine how creative thinking works in different contexts and domains, from the arts to the sciences to everyday life. His article examines the part of the brain that directs creative thought and asks the million-dollar question: Can creativity be enhanced? When we think about creativity, the arts often come to mind. Most people would agree that writers, painters, and actors are all creative. This is what psychologists who study the subject refer to as Big-C creativity: publicly-recognizable, professional-level performance. But what about creativity on a smaller scale? This is what researchers refer to as little-c creativity, and it is something that we all possess and express in our daily lives, from inventing new recipes to performing a do-it-yourself project to thinking of clever jokes to entertain the kids. One way psychologists measure creative thinking is by asking people to think of uncommon uses for common objects, such as a cup or a cardboard box. Their responses can be analyzed on different dimensions, such as fluency (the total number of ideas) and originality. Surprisingly, many people struggle with this seemingly simple task, only suggesting uses that closely resemble the typical uses for the object. The same happens in other tests that demand ideas that go beyond what we already know (i.e., "thinking outside the box"). Such innovation tasks assess just one aspect of creativity. Many new tests are being developed that tap into other creative skills, from visuospatial abilities essential for design (like drawing) to scientific abilities important for innovation and discovery. But where do creative ideas come from, and what makes some people more creative than others? Contrary to romantic notions of a purely spontaneous process, increasing evidence from psychology and neuroscience experiments indicates that creativity requires cognitive effort—in part, to overcome the distraction and "stickiness" of prior knowledge (remember how people think of common uses when asked to devise of creative ones). In light of these findings, we can consider general creative thinking as a dynamic interplay between the brain's memory and control systems. Without memory, our minds would be a blank slate—not conducive to creativity, which requires knowledge and expertise. But without mental control, we wouldn't be able to push thinking in new directions and avoid getting stuck on what we already know. Creativity By Default Creative thinking is supported in part by our ability to imagine the future—our capacity to envision experiences that have not yet occurred. From planning dinner to envisioning an upcoming vacation, we routinely rely on our imaginations to picture what the future might look like. Interestingly, the same brain region that allows us to imagine a future is also involved in recalling the past: the hippocampus. A seahorse-shaped region embedded in the temporal lobe of the brain, the hippocampus plays an important role in piecing together details of experiences—people, places, objects, actions—both to accurately re-construct past events and to vividly construct possible future events. Early research with amnesiac patients provided clear evidence for the role of the hippocampus in remembering and imagining, finding that patients with damage to this area had trouble not only recalling the past but also imagining the future. Since then, researchers have used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study how the brain remembers and imagines. Strikingly, some of the same brain regions activate when we recall past experiences and imagine future experiences. Important among them is a large set of cortical regions collectively known as called the default network. This network got its name from early brain imaging studies that found that the areas it connects—medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, bilateral inferior parietal lobes, and medial temporal lobes—tend to activate "by default" when people are simply relaxing in a brain scanner without a cognitive task to do. When left to our own devices, we tend to engage in all sorts of spontaneous thinking—sometimes referred to as mind-wandering—much of which involves recalling recent experiences and imagining future ones. The engagement of the hippocampus and default network in memory and imagination is consistent with a popular theory of episodic memory known as the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis, which posits that both memory and imagination involve flexible recombination of episodic details, such as people, places, and events that we've encountered. On the one hand, remembering a past experience seems to require that we reconstruct that experience: piecing together the relevant people, places, and things that comprised the event—not simply pressing play like a video recorder. Likewise, imagining a future experience apparently requires that we construct that experience based on what has happened in the past. The flexible nature of the episodic system seems to be particularly beneficial for creative thinking, which also requires connecting information in new and meaningful ways. In a recent study, we explored further whether the same brain regions support memory, imagination, and creative thinking. We presented research participants with a series of object cue words (e.g., cup) and asked them to use the cue words to either 1) remember a personal past experience, 2) imagine a possible future experience, or 3) think of creative uses for the object. This design allowed us to determine which brain regions were common and unique to episodic (remembering and imagining) and creative thinking. We found that memory, imagination, and creative thinking all activated the bilateral hippocampus. This finding builds on other recent work on memory and creativity using episodic specificity induction, a procedure in which participants are trained to recall episodic memories in a high degree of detail. These studies found that episodic specificity induction (which strongly engages the default network) can improve creative divergent thinking: after the induction (they were instructed to recall in detail a recently-watched video), participants produced significantly more ideas, and these ideas were significantly more variable in their topics. A subsequent fMRI study found that the episodic induction process boosted activity in the left anterior hippocampus, linking creative performance to heightened activity in a brain region strongly associated with episodic memory. Together, these findings provide clear evidence that the hippocampus—as part of the medial temporal lobe subsystem of the default network—supports the generation of creative ideas: more proof that the same brain region that supports our ability to remember also supports our ability to imagine and create. Directing Creative Thought A controversial question in creativity research concerns the phenomenon of cognitive control: our capacity to regulate the contents of our minds. Does creative thinking happen spontaneously, or can we deliberately direct the process? On the one hand, relaxing the filter on our brains by letting our minds wander—a process governed by the hippocampus and default network—can allow new ideas to come to mind that might not have otherwise. On the other hand, serendipity and spontaneity alone do not guarantee either novelty or usefulness: we often need to redirect our thought processes away from what we already know and think hard about whether our ideas will actually work. This highlights two key elements of the creative thought process: idea generation and idea evaluation. Cognitive neuroscience has begun to provide insight into these two sides of creativity. For example, one fMRI study asked visual artists to generate and evaluate ideas for a book cover based on short written descriptions. During idea generation, activation of the hippocampus and default network increased, presumably reflecting engagement of the episodic system. During idea evaluation, where artists were asked to critique their drawings, they again activated hippocampal and default regions, and also frontal brain regions associated with cognitive control, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Most interestingly, the analysis also showed increased communication (i.e., functional connectivity) between these regions during idea evaluation, suggesting cooperation between the spontaneous/generative aspects of the default network and the deliberate/evaluative aspects of the control network. These networks typically work in a complementary fashion: when one activates, the other tends to deactivate. When we let our minds wander, for example, we engage the default network, without needing to focus our attention through our control networks; conversely, when we try to focus our attention on a given task, we need our control network to work efficiently, without distraction from the mind-wandering default network. The study with visual artists, along with subsequent findings with poets and others, suggests that creative thinking involves increased communication between brain networks that usually work separately. In a recent study, we explored whether this brain connectivity pattern may provide insight into individual differences in creative thinking, i.e., what makes some people more creative than others? One possibility is that creative people can more readily co-activate the default and control networks to solve creative problems. We recruited a large sample of participants, mostly undergraduate and graduate students and asked them to complete the creative uses task during fMRI. We recorded their ideas while they were in the scanner and later scored them for creative quality, allowing us to link each person's brain patterns to the quality of their ideas. We found that, as expected, people varied widely in their performance on this task. Some consistently came up with common uses for objects, such as saying a brick could be used for building something, while others devised decidedly more innovative responses, e.g. a brick could be ground up and used as a filtering substance. To analyze the data, we used a machine learning method called connectome-based predictive modeling (CPM). CPM allows researchers to characterize individual differences in such behavioral traits as personality and intelligence, by identifying functional connections in the brain that reliably predict these traits in new participants who were not used to build the models. In our study, CPM was used to estimate creative thinking ability based on brain connectivity patterns during the creative uses task. Our analysis showed stronger functional connections between the default, control, and salience networks (a network involved in switching between the default and control networks) in highly creative people: the brain connectivity pattern reliably predicted the creativity score. Importantly, the association generalized to three other samples of participants: individuals with stronger functional connections between these networks tended to produce more original ideas. Boosting Creativity Psychology and neuroscience have made encouraging progress in our understanding of how the creative brain works. As summarized above, we now know that creative thinking involves the interplay of the brain's default and executive control networks, and that these connections allow us to spontaneously generate ideas and critically evaluate them, respectively. And we are learning about how our memory systems contribute: the same networks that we use to recall the past also allow us to imagine future experiences and think creatively. Yet several important questions remain. One of the most important concerns whether creativity can be enhanced—and if so, how? Research findings thus far suggest that neuroscience tools can be used to predict the ability to think creatively, based on the strength of their brain network connections. But we do not yet know whether these connections can be strengthened to improve creative thinking. Longitudinal studies are needed. Just as the efficacy of cognitive or brain training programs in improving intelligence has been critically questioned, skepticism should be applied to interventions that claim to boost creativity. While it remains unclear whether creativity can be improved in the long-term (i.e, trait creativity) some strategies may boost short-term (i.e. state) creativity. Given what we've learned about the neuroscience of creativity, it seems possible that harnessing the flexible and generative potential of the default network may provide a short-term boost. For example, when we are stuck on a problem— a phenomenon known as fixation or impasse—taking a break to let our minds wander may loosen things up and help us find a creative solution. Another potentially useful strategy involves priming the episodic system. The episodic induction process mentioned earlier—thinking about a past experience with as much detail as possible—has been shown to temporarily boost the number of ideas people generate on a creative thinking task. Until rigorous science on creativity training has been conducted, there are a few things that may modestly boost creativity in a more sustained way. For one, we can pick up a creative hobby, like painting or learning a musical instrument. One study that trained students how to play music reported gains in their musical creativity over time. But whether such gains transfer to make people generally more creative is not yet known. (This is where cognitive "brain training" programs fall short: people tend to get better on specific training tasks, but this improvement doesn't generalize to other tasks.) Until research has clarified whether cognitive abilities can actually be improved through neuroscience-based intervention, old-fashioned arts education might be our best bet. Footnotes Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of psychology at The Pennsylvania State University, where he directs the Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity Lab. His lab studies the psychology and neuroscience of creativity, using brain imaging and behavioral experiments to examine how creative thinking works in different contexts and domains, from the arts, to the sciences, to everyday life. His research has been supported by grants from the John Templeton Foundation and the National Science Foundation. He received his Ph.D. at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and completed postdoctoral training at Harvard University. Article information Cerebrum. 2020 Jan-Feb; 2020: cer-02-20. Published online 2020 Jan 1. PMCID: PMC7075500 PMID: 32206175 Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D. Copyright 2020 The Dana Foundation All Rights Reserved Articles from Cerebrum: the Dana Forum on Brain Science are provided here courtesy of Dana Foundation (Source: NIH (National Institute of Health))

What are the different types of phobias?

What are the different types of phobias? Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Steph Coelho on June 3, 2020 What is a phobia? Types Common phobias Other phobias Treatment Seeing a doctor Summary A phobia is a type of anxiety disorder. It causes a person to experience overwhelming or debilitating fear of a situation or thing that typically does not pose any real danger. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, in the United States alone, around 12.5%Trusted Source of adults experience a phobia of a specific situation or object at some point in their lives. This article describes what a phobia is and outlines the different categories of phobia. It also lists some of the most common and least common phobias, as well as some ways a person can treat a phobia. What is a phobia? A phobia is an overwhelming or debilitating fear, usually of something that poses no real danger at all. If it does pose some danger, the person's response is usually out of proportion to the actual danger it poses. People who have a phobia are generally aware that their fear is irrational. They will nonetheless experience severe anxiety upon exposure to their phobia. Having a phobia does not just mean that someone is scared of something. People with phobias have an exaggerated fear response. In severe cases, people may rearrange their lives to avoid the situation or thing that is causing their anxiety. Types of phobia There are three broad phobia categories: specific phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia. The sections below will look at these in more detail. Specific phobias Specific, or "simple," phobias are those that relate to a particular object or situation. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)Trusted Source classifies specific phobias according to the following categories: Animal type: Examples include dogs, snakes, and spiders. Natural environment type: Examples include storms, water, and heights. Blood, injection, and injury (BII) type: Examples include needles, invasive medical procedures, and blood. Situational type: Examples include a fear of flying and a fear of enclosed spaces. Other type: This type is characterized by any phobia that does not fit into the above categories. People often develop specific phobias when they are younger. They may find that the phobia becomes less severe with age, but this is not always the case. Social phobias A social phobia is an extreme fear of being in social situations that may cause embarrassment or humiliation. One example of a social phobia is a fear of public speaking. Agoraphobia Agoraphobia is a fear of being in public spaces or crowded areas without an easy means of escape. In severe cases, people with agoraphobia become housebound because they are afraid to leave their safe space. Social phobias and agoraphobia are more likely to cause life impairment because the situation or thing that causes the phobia is a lot more difficult to avoid. Common phobias Phobias are a common type of anxiety disorder. They can affect any person, regardless of their age or sex. Below is a list of some of the most common phobias. Phobia Prevalence and facts Acrophobia (fear of heights) Another name for acrophobia is "visual height intolerance." According to the DSM-5, 6.4%Trusted Source of adults will experience acrophobia at some point in their lives. The authors add that women are slightly more likely to experience this type of phobia than men. Aerophobia (fear of flying) Another name for aerophobia is "pteromerhanophobia." Aerophobia is among the most common phobias. A 2019 studyTrusted Source of flight anxiety in Norwegian adults found that aerophobia is more common among women than men. The study also pointed to several sources of severe flight anxiety, including odd sounds, turbulence, and a fear of terror attacks. Agoraphobia (fear of public spaces or crowds) Agoraphobia often causes avoidance behaviors that significantly impact a person's life. People with agoraphobia may avoid a variety of social situations. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, around 1.3%Trusted Source of adults in the U.S. experience agoraphobia at some point in their lives. Arachnophobia (fear of spiders) A 2010 study reports that spiders are among the most common sources of phobias in the world. BII phobias BII phobias include Aichmophobia and hemophobia. Aichmophobia is a fear of needles or sharp-pointed objects. Hemophobia is a fear of blood. BII phobias are very common, affecting around 3-4%Trusted Source of the general population. People with BII phobias may avoid certain medical appointments and procedures. This can significantly affect their health. Claustrophobia (fear of tight or crowded spaces) According to a 2020 articleTrusted Source, between 7.7% and 12.5% of people will experience claustrophobia at some point in their lives. Several situations may cause anxiety for people with claustrophobia. For example, elevators and MRI machines pose a problem for people who are fearful of tight spaces. Dentophobia (fear of dentists) Extreme dental anxiety affects around 10%Trusted Source of people in the United Kingdom. Dentophobia is a common phobia in Western countries and seems to affect men and women equallyTrusted Source. A 2014 studyTrusted Source found that people avoid the dentist for a variety of reasons. These include previous traumatic experiences at the dentist and learned fear through other people. People who avoid dental appointments due to dentophobia may experience poor oral health. This can have a direct impact on a person's overall health and quality of life. Driving phobia (fear of driving a car) As with other phobias, driving phobia exists on a spectrum. Some people are reluctant to drive, while others avoid driving altogether. A 2017 studyTrusted Source found that around 6% of adults aged 55-70 years experience moderate-to-severe driving anxiety. The study linked driving anxiety to poorer mental and physical health and a lower quality of life. Entomophobia (fear of insects) Entomophobia is also known as "insectophobia." A 2018 study investigated the prevalence of entomophobia and arachnophobia in school-aged Iranian children. Of the 260 children who took part in the study, 4.5% had a severe phobia of insects and arachnids, 33.3% had a moderate phobia, and 62.2% had a mild phobia. The study also found that increasing knowledge of insects helped reduce entomophobia. Glossophobia (fear of public speaking) Glossophobia falls under the category of social phobias. People with glossophobia avoid public speaking for fear of judgment, embarrassment, or humiliation. Hypochondria (fear of illness) Hypochondria involves excessive worrying about medical conditions. Other names for hypochondria include "somatic symptom disorder" and "health anxiety." Mysophobia (fear of dirt and germs) Mysophobia, or "germaphobia," is a fear of microorganisms such as bacteria, parasites, or viruses. This type of phobia often occurs alongside obsessive-compulsive disorder. Sociophobia (fear of social judgment) Sociophobia is a common type of anxiety disorder. It affects more than 1 in 8 people at some point in their lives. Social fears vary widely, from fear of speaking in public to fear of using public restrooms. Zoophobia (fear of animals) A person who experiences a fear of animals will usually fear a specific type of animal, such as dogs, reptiles, or birds. Such fears usually start at an early ageTrusted Source. A 2019 study investigated the prevalence of zoophobia in school-aged children in India. Of the 2,743 students who took part in the study, 20.6% of males and 32.8% of females reported having zoophobia. Other phobias A person may develop a phobia of any type of situation or thing. Because of this, there are hundreds of different phobias that people may experience. Below are some examples of less common phobias. It is important to note that health experts may disagree on the definitions of certain phobias, and some phobias have several names. Achluophobia or nyctophobia: This refers to a fear of darkness. Androphobia: This refers to a fear of men. Anginophobia: This refers to a fear of choking. Arithmophobia: This refers to a fear of numbers. Autophobia: This refers to a fear of being alone. Bacteriophobia: This refers to a fear of bacteria. Bathmophobia: This refers to a fear of steep slopes or stairs. Coulrophobia: This refers to a fear of clowns. Cyberphobia: This refers to a fear of computers. Emetophobia: This refers to a fear of vomiting. Escalophobia: This refers to a fear of escalators. Gynophobia: This refers to a fear of women. Hydrophobia, or aquaphobia: This refers to a fear of water. Iatrophobia: This refers to a fear of doctors. Lockiophobia: This refers to a fear of childbirth. Necrophobia: This refers to a fear of death or dead things. Nosocomephobia: This refers to a fear of hospitals. Obesophobia: This refers to a fear of gaining weight. Pogonophobia: This refers to a fear of beards. Pyrophobia: This refers to a fear of fire. Somniphobia: This refers to a fear of sleep. Treatment options Most phobias are treatable, and many are curable. In some cases, avoiding the source of a phobia is relatively easy. However, treatment may be necessary for people who cannot easily avoid the source of their phobia. The sections below discuss some possible treatment options in these cases. Self-help techniques Self-help techniques may combine different types of therapy, such as: Relaxation techniques: These include breathing exercises that help a person relax during times of heightened stress or anxiety. Visualization techniques: These are exercises that allow a person to mentally visualize how they will successfully cope with a situation that could trigger anxiety. Self-help groups: Meeting other people with phobias and sharing coping strategies for dealing with phobias and anxiety can help. Cognitive behavioral therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of talking therapy that is usually very successful in treating phobias. CBT aims to help people identify irrational thinking patterns and behaviors that maintain or exacerbate their phobia. A CBT therapist will then teach a person some strategies for dealing with the phobia in a more rational and adaptive way. These strategies can ultimately reduce feelings of fear around the source of the phobia. CBT typically involves exposure therapy. Exposure therapy Exposure therapy, or "desensitization therapy," involves gradually exposing a person to their fear until they learn to become less fearful of it. For example, if a person has a fear of spiders, their exposure therapist may recommend that they read a book about spiders. Once the person is comfortable doing this, their therapist may suggest that they hold a picture of a spider. The therapist may then arrange for a person to view some spiders at a zoo. The final stage of the exposure therapy may involve holding a spider. Medications Since talking therapies are usually effective at treating phobias, medications are rarely necessary. However, a healthcare provider may sometimes prescribe tranquilizers, beta-blockers, or antidepressants to help control the anxiety that accompanies a phobia. When to see a doctor A person should see a doctor if they have a phobia that is interfering with their everyday activities. Sometimes, however, a person's phobia may limit their ability to seek treatment. For example, a person who has severe agoraphobia may fear leaving the house to seek treatment. Likewise, a person who has a fear of healthcare providers or medical procedures may avoid visiting their doctor. In some cases, a person may feel more comfortable talking to a healthcare provider over the phone. The ADAA have a helpful search tool that allows people to find a psychotherapist in their area. Some providers also offer counseling services via email or video. Summary A phobia is an overwhelming or debilitating fear of a particular situation or thing that likely does not pose any real danger. The sources of some phobias are more difficult to avoid than others. A person should seek professional help if their phobia causes constant anxiety or interferes with their daily life. Phobias tend to be highly treatable. CBT and exposure therapy are particularly effective treatments for phobias. A person can see a doctor or psychotherapist for advice on how to access these treatments. (Source: Medical News Today)

What are some signs of emotional abuse?

What are the signs of emotional abuse? Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Jon Johnson on July 18, 2019 Where does it happen? Control Shame Blame Humiliation Unpredictability Isolation What to do Summary Some signs of abuse, such as marks on the body from physical harm, are easy to notice. Other forms of abuse may be more difficult to see or understand. Some signs of emotional abuse can be obvious from outside the situation, but a person in that situation may miss them or be unaware that the situation is abusive at all. Emotional and mental abuse involves a person acting in a way to control, isolate, or scare somebody else. The form of abuse may be statements, threats, or actions, and there may be a pattern or regularity to the behavior. Learning more about the signs and situations in which emotional abuse may occur can help people identify their situation and seek the help they need. Where does it happen? Emotional abuse can take place in a number of different relationships, including in business partnerships or families. Abusive people tend to abuse those they are very close with. For example, it may be their partner that they are abusing. However, emotional abuse may also take place in other types of relationships. These include: with a business partner or close team member with a parent with a caretaker with a close friend a person relies on As the National Association of Adult Survivors of Child Abuse note, emotional and mental abuse can be very subtle at times. The person may not even notice that someone is manipulating them. It is essential to identify these patterns and try to put an end to them. Emotional abuse takes many shapes but may fall into one of several categories depending on what the abusive person is attempting to do. We cover some of these types of abuse in the sections below. Control Controlling behavior is a red flag in any relationship. Examples of controlling behavior include: making demands or orders and expecting them to be fulfilled making all decisions, even canceling another's plans without asking continually monitoring another person's whereabouts insisting on regular calls, texts, or pictures detailing where the person is, and even showing up to these places to make sure they are not lying requiring immediate responses from calls or texts exerting financial control over the other, such as by keeping accounts in their name or only giving the other person an allowance spying by going through the person's phone, checking their internet history, or looking through their communications with others having a rule in place demanding the person's passwords for their phone, social media accounts, and email at any time treating the person as though they are a child, including telling them what to eat, what to wear, or where they can go yelling, which is frequently a scare tactic and can be a way for an abusive person to let the other know who is in control using the other's persons fears; abusive people will often manipulate a person's fears to control them withholding affection; abusers may punish a person for "bad" behavior by withholding affection or making them feel they are undeserving of love giving excessive gifts with the implication that these gifts may disappear at any time, or as a reminder of what they would lose if they left the relationship Shame An emotionally abusive person may try to shame the other person about their behavior. Abusive people may try to make a person feel shame for their shortcomings or feel as though they are much worse for these shortcomings. This takes many forms, including: Lectures: The abusive person may give lectures about the other person's behavior, in a way to make it clear that the other person is inferior. Outbursts: This involves aspects of control, as well. Not doing what an abusive person wants may result in an outburst of angry behavior from them. It is both a way to control the person and make them feel shame for "not listening." Lies: Abusive people may blatantly lie, telling the person false opinions from their friends about their "bad" behavior. Walkouts: Abusive people may leave a situation rather than resolve it. In a disagreement at home, for example, they may remark about how the other is "crazy." This can put all the blame on the other person and make them feel ashamed while also never solving the issue. Trivializing: If the other person wishes to talk about their issues or problems, the abusive person may criticize them for even having the issue or tell them that they are making a big deal out of nothing. Blame Blame typically stems from the abusive person's sense of insecurity. By blaming others, they do not have to feel their shortcomings. This may take many forms, such as: Jealousy: Jealousy can be an abuse tactic. The abusive person may regularly confront the other for talking to or "flirting with" other people. They may accuse the other person of cheating on them regularly. Playing the victim: The abusive person may try to turn the tables on the other person by blaming them for the issues the abusive person has not dealt with. They may even accuse the other person of being the abusive one in the relationship. Egging the person on: The abusive person typically knows how to get the other one angry. They may irritate them until the person becomes upset, and then blame them for getting upset. Humiliation Much of the time, an abusive person's actions or words seem to serve no purpose other than to humiliate the other. This type of behavior includes: Blatant name calling: Abusive people may blatantly call the other stupid, "an idiot," or other harmful names. If confronted, they may try to pass it off as sarcasm. Joking or sarcasm: Although sarcasm can be a tool for comedic release if both people enjoy the joke, sometimes, abusive people disguise their derogatory remarks as sarcasm. If the other person feels offended, the abusive one may make fun of them further for "lacking a sense of humor." Harmful nicknames: Nicknames or pet names may be normal in relationships. However, a name that hurts is unacceptable. Public displays: Abusive people may openly pick fights in public, only to blame the other person if they become angry. They may also pick on the other person or openly make fun of them in a social setting. Patronizing: This may include talking down to another person for trying to learn something new, or making it obvious that the person is "not on their level." Insults on appearance: An abusive person may insult the other's appearance around others. Cheating: Abusive people may cheat on their partners to hurt or humiliate them, or to imply that they are highly desirable. Unpredictability Abusive people may seem to make situations chaotic for no other reason than to keep the other in check. Unpredictable behaviors may include: drastic mood swings, such as from being very affectionate to full of rage and breaking things emotional outbursts starting arguments for seemingly no reason self-contradiction, such as making a statement that contradicts the one they just said gaslighting, such as denying facts or making the other feel as though they do not remember the situation correctly acting two faced, such as being charming in public but completely changing the minute they get home 0 seconds of 0 seconds Isolation Abusive behavior may include isolating a person or preventing them from leaving the house. Abusive people also act in many ways to make the other feel isolated from others, including: telling another person they cannot spend time with friends or family hiding the person's car keys stealing, hiding, or even destroying the person's cell phone or computer making fun of or belittling the person's friends or family, making the other person feel bad for spending time with them taking up all of the person's free time locking the person in a room or the house What to do Anyone who feels that they are in immediate danger of physical harm should try to call 911. Anyone who is seeing the signs of emotional abuse but is not in immediate danger should seek help. The National Domestic Violence Hotline offers anonymous help by phone, text, or even online chat. The hotline is available 24/7 and can help a person find a shelter or other services. If a person feels uncomfortable reaching out to services such as these immediately, they can reach out to a friend or family member. Telling a trusted person may help them feel supported and less isolated. Some people feel that they can deal with the abuse, or they may try to justify it by saying that it is not as bad as physical abuse. However, as the Office on Women's HealthTrusted Source note, emotional abuse has its own long term effects, and it is also often a sign that physical abuse will follow. Because of this, it is important to take action toward stepping away from an emotionally abusive situation. This includes steps such as: Setting boundaries with the abusive person: This includes standing up for oneself to any degree necessary to get the abuse to stop. In many cases, this includes ending a relationship or cutting ties with a partner and never speaking to them again. Changing priorities: Abusive people manipulate a person's sense of sympathy, often to the point that they are neglecting themselves while taking care of the abusive person. It is important to end this habit and begin putting one's own priorities first. Get professional help: Seeking long term professional help in the form of therapy and support groups can strengthen a person's resolve and help them believe that they are not alone in recovering from abuse. Exit plan: Anyone who feels that they are in an emotionally abusive situation should also have a plan for getting out of the situation when the time comes. Working with those that love and support them may help this plan feel stronger, and it may help the person take action when the time is right. Summary Emotional abuse takes many forms and can be much more subtle than other forms of abuse. Anyone seeing the signs of emotional abuse should seek help in any manner they feel comfortable with. Confiding in a professional or a close friend may help them move toward a future in which they can step away from the situation. (Source: Medical News Today)

What's the Difference Between Venomous and Poisonous?

When people talk about dangerous snakes like black mambas and cobras, at least one person in the conversation will ask whether the snake is poisonous. Bolstered by medical references and haphazard mentions on television and elsewhere in the mass media, the phrase "poisonous snake" has been drilled into our collective consciousness. But this phrase is not technically correct—strictly speaking, most dangerous snakes are venomous. According to biologists, the term venomous is applied to organisms that bite (or sting) to inject their toxins, whereas the term poisonous applies to organisms that unload toxins when you eat them. This means that very few snakes are truly poisonous. The vast majority of snake toxins are transferred by bite. One exception is the garter snake (Thamnophis), which is small and harmless in terms of its bite but is toxic to eat because its body absorbs and stores the toxins of its prey (newts and salamanders). Poisonous animals include most amphibians (that is, frogs, toads, salamanders, etc.), which carry around some amount of toxins on their skin and within their other tissues, such as the highly toxic poison secreted by various poison dart frogs. These chemicals are strong enough that they can be deadly to humans, so you would be wise to keep these creatures off your menu. Along with snakes, dangerous spiders are also generally venomous. Some lizards are venomous as well; the potency of lizard venom ranges from relatively mild, such as that of the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) and various species of iguana, to the witches' brew of toxins and bacteria injected into the prey of the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). In addition, other animals (such as bees, ants, and wasps) are venomous even though they do not contain fangs per se. The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is probably the best-known venomous mammal. Male platypuses have a fanglike spur on the inner side of each ankle that is connected to a venom gland located over the thighs. The spurs can be wielded in defense, and the venom is potent enough to kill small animals and to cause intense pain in humans if the spur penetrates the skin. Similarly, cnidarians (jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones) have capsules called nematocysts (which may be tiny, elongated, or spherical) that contain coiled, hollow, usually barbed threads, which can be turned outward to ward off enemies or capture prey. These barbed threads often contain toxins. When it comes to plants, things get a little fuzzy. Several plants, such as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and castor beans (Ricinus communis), are poisonous and thus should not be consumed. In addition, while plants do not have formal teeth, ankle spurs, or nematocysts, some have similar structures that can transmit toxins to unsuspecting victims that brush against them. One of the most familiar toxic plants is poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans); nearly all parts of the plant contain urushiol, a substance that can produce a severe itchy and painful inflammation of the skin known as contact dermatitis. Yet it would be quite a stretch to call poison ivy venomous (and anyway, we'd have to start calling it "venom ivy," wouldn't we?). On the other hand, nettles, a group of about 80 species belonging to the genus Urtica, might actually qualify as venomous. These plants have raised structures called trichomes that are capable of stinging animals that brush against them. In the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), the trichomes of the leaves and stems have bulbous tips that break off when an animal passes by, revealing needlelike tubes that pierce the skin. They inject a mix of acetylcholine, formic acid, histamine, and serotonin, causing an itchy burning rash in humans and other animals that may last up to 12 hours. Granted, these toothlike (or needlelike) structures aren't technically fangs, but they provide a very similar defensive function. (Source: Britannica)

Who invented the internet?

Who Invented the Internet? BY EVAN ANDREWS As you might expect for a technology so expansive and ever-changing, it is impossible to credit the invention of the internet to a single person. The internet was the work of dozens of pioneering scientists, programmers and engineers who each developed new features and technologies that eventually merged to become the "information superhighway" we know today. Long before the technology existed to actually build the internet, many scientists had already anticipated the existence of worldwide networks of information. Nikola Tesla toyed with the idea of a "world wireless system" in the early 1900s, and visionary thinkers like Paul Otlet and Vannevar Bush conceived of mechanized, searchable storage systems of books and media in the 1930s and 1940s. Still, the first practical schematics for the internet would not arrive until the early 1960s, when MIT's J.C.R. Licklider popularized the idea of an "Intergalactic Network" of computers. Shortly thereafter, computer scientists developed the concept of "packet switching," a method for effectively transmitting electronic data that would later become one of the major building blocks of the internet. The first workable prototype of the Internet came in the late 1960s with the creation of ARPANET, or the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. Originally funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, ARPANET used packet switching to allow multiple computers to communicate on a single network. On October 29, 1969, ARPAnet delivered its first message: a "node-to-node" communication from one computer to another. (The first computer was located in a research lab at UCLA and the second was at Stanford; each one was the size of a small house.) The message—"LOGIN"—was short and simple, but it crashed the fledgling ARPA network anyway: The Stanford computer only received the note's first two letters. The technology continued to grow in the 1970s after scientists Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf developed Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP, a communications model that set standards for how data could be transmitted between multiple networks. ARPANET adopted TCP/IP on January 1, 1983, and from there researchers began to assemble the "network of networks" that became the modern Internet. The online world then took on a more recognizable form in 1990, when computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. While it's often confused with the internet itself, the web is actually just the most common means of accessing data online in the form of websites and hyperlinks. The web helped popularize the internet among the public, and served as a crucial step in developing the vast trove of information that most of us now access on a daily basis. (Source: History Channel)

Who invented the internet?

Who Invented the Internet? BY EVAN ANDREWS As you might expect for a technology so expansive and ever-changing, it is impossible to credit the invention of the internet to a single person. The internet was the work of dozens of pioneering scientists, programmers and engineers who each developed new features and technologies that eventually merged to become the "information superhighway" we know today. Long before the technology existed to actually build the internet, many scientists had already anticipated the existence of worldwide networks of information. Nikola Tesla toyed with the idea of a "world wireless system" in the early 1900s, and visionary thinkers like Paul Otlet and Vannevar Bush conceived of mechanized, searchable storage systems of books and media in the 1930s and 1940s. Still, the first practical schematics for the internet would not arrive until the early 1960s, when MIT's J.C.R. Licklider popularized the idea of an "Intergalactic Network" of computers. Shortly thereafter, computer scientists developed the concept of "packet switching," a method for effectively transmitting electronic data that would later become one of the major building blocks of the internet. The first workable prototype of the Internet came in the late 1960s with the creation of ARPANET, or the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. Originally funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, ARPANET used packet switching to allow multiple computers to communicate on a single network. On October 29, 1969, ARPAnet delivered its first message: a "node-to-node" communication from one computer to another. (The first computer was located in a research lab at UCLA and the second was at Stanford; each one was the size of a small house.) The message—"LOGIN"—was short and simple, but it crashed the fledgling ARPA network anyway: The Stanford computer only received the note's first two letters. The technology continued to grow in the 1970s after scientists Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf developed Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP, a communications model that set standards for how data could be transmitted between multiple networks. ARPANET adopted TCP/IP on January 1, 1983, and from there researchers began to assemble the "network of networks" that became the modern Internet. The online world then took on a more recognizable form in 1990, when computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. While it's often confused with the internet itself, the web is actually just the most common means of accessing data online in the form of websites and hyperlinks. The web helped popularize the internet among the public, and served as a crucial step in developing the vast trove of information that most of us now access on a daily basis. (Source: History Channel)

Why can't I remember anything?

Why Can't I Remember Anything? Written by Barbara Brody Medically Reviewed by Christopher Melinosky, MD on August 23, 2022 Faulty memory happens to us all. You can't find your car keys -- again. You meet someone at a party, and 5 minutes later you forget their name. You leave the grocery store and have no idea where your car is parked. Relax. No one has a perfect memory, and it's OK to have some lapses, even if you're still young. What's Normal? Things you learned only recently -- like a name at a party -- are the hardest to remember, because they haven't yet taken root in your mind. It's also common to forget where you put something or an appointment that was on your schedule. Most of the time that happens because you weren't paying close attention in the first place. Maybe you were focused on not spilling your glass of wine instead of learning that new person's name, or you might have been thinking about your grocery list instead of where you left your car. You also tend to forget things when you're tired, sick, or stressed out. Quick Tricks There are things you can do to improve your recall day to day. You may have to organize (or reorganize) your life a little: Get organized. Stash the items you misplace often in the same spot, and they'll be less likely to go missing in the future. Install a key hook and cell phone charging station so they have dedicated places. Write it down. When it comes to keeping track of your schedule, phone numbers, and birthdays, put pen to paper. Even if you don't look at your notes, the act of writing them down can help you recall things. Consult your calendar. Get a date book or wall calendar and write meetings, appointments, family outings -- and everything else -- in it. Look at your next day's schedule before you go to bed to help keep events fresh in your mind. Play word games. Create an online password you'll never forget by using an acronym. Come up with an easy-to-recall sentence or phrase. For example, you could use the year your favorite sports team won big: SSSBC14 could stand for Seattle Seahawks Super Bowl Champions in 2014. It means something to you, so you'll remember it, but isn't easy for a hacker to figure out. If the password was assigned, make up a sentence that fits it. Repeat, repeat, repeat. From a name of someone you just met to an address you need to get to, saying something again can help it stick with you. Work at it. Do something to challenge your brain -- learn a new language, discuss books with your friends, or curl up with a crossword puzzle. Get social. People who volunteer, or just keep up with friends and family, are more likely to stay alert. Lifestyle and Memory Lifestyle affects memory. For example, your diet plays a role. If your cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar are too high, the blood vessels in and around your brain can get clogged or damaged. A Harvard study showed that people who eat more saturated fat (found in meat and dairy products) do worse on memory tests than those who eat less. If you're trying to make better food choices, consider the Mediterranean diet. This way of eating -- which features omega-3-rich fish, heart-healthy olive oil, and plenty of fresh produce -- has been linked with protecting thinking and memory. Guess what else is just as good for your memory as for the rest of your body? Regular exercise. It promotes blood flow to the brain. You should be getting 30 minutes each day. And you need regular sleep, which helps your brain file memories so you can access them later on. If you smoke, stop. It damages blood vessels. If you're a heavy drinker, lighten your intake. Research shows heavy drinking will mess with your memory. Moderate drinking (no more than 1 drink per day for women or 2 for men), though, might actually protect it. Memory and Aging Memory slips do seem to get worse through the years. You slowly start losing brain cells beginning in your 20s, and certain chemicals that these cells need also decline. It makes sense that your memory is sharper at 25 than at 55 or 75. Major memory changes don't always signal Alzheimer's disease. They can be caused by strokes, head injuries, lack of vitamins in your diet, or sleep trouble. They might even be a side effect of one of the drugs you're taking. When in doubt, see a doctor to sort it out. There are red flags that might reveal a more serious problem. If your slip ups happen often (you forget where you parked every day) or get in the way of daily life (you can't balance a checkbook or you don't remember where you live), see a doctor. Get checked out if your family or friends tell you that you weren't sure who someone was -- and it was a person you know well, such as a close friend or relative. And if you live with someone whose personality has changed or seems confused -- they're not sure where they are or what year it is -- get them to a doctor. (Source: WebMD)

Why can't I stop crying?

Why Can't I Stop Crying? Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Susan York Morris — Updated on June 3, 2019 Frequency Causes Function Benefits Seek help Treatment Outlook Tips There are no guidelines for how much crying is too much. Conditions like depression or pseudobulbar affect may cause you to cry more frequently. Crying is natural and may help you feel better. Overview Some people cry while reading a sad book or watching videos of baby animals. Others cry only at funerals. And for certain people, the mere hint of anything that arouses emotions can cause tears to flow. If you've ever had tears well up in a meeting or wept out loud in a movie theatre, you may have wondered if it's normal. Is there such a thing as crying too often or too much? Do you cry too much? There are no guidelines for how much crying is too much. A study in the 1980s found that women cry an average of 5.3 times per month and men cry an average of 1.3 times per month. A newer study found that the average duration for a crying session was eight minutes. If you're concerned that you're crying too much, if you can't seem to stop crying, or have started crying more than usual, talk to your doctor. It may be a sign of depression or another mood disorder. What causes people to cry more frequently? There are a lot of reasons, besides having an immediate emotional response, why you may cry more than normal. Tearfulness is frequently associated with depression and anxiety. People often experience the two conditions at the same time. Certain neurological conditions can also make you cry or laugh uncontrollably. Depression Depression is a mood disorder in which you have persistent feelings of sadness that last more than a few weeks. Activities you once found pleasurable may no longer interest you. Symptoms of depression may include: sadness and gloominess feelings of hopelessness or worthlessness low energy difficulty concentrating Your crying may be related to depression if you: cry over small things or have trouble identifying why you're crying cry much more than normal have trouble stopping your tears Excessive crying is more likely to happen if your depression is milder. People with severe depression often have trouble crying or expressing other emotions. Anxiety We all have times when we're nervous and anxious. With anxiety disorder, though, you experience worry and nervousness more often, maybe even on a daily basis. Symptoms often include: edginess or irritability excessive worry muscle tension fatigue difficulty focusing or concentrating trouble sleeping Pseudobulbar affect Sudden uncontrollable crying, laughing, or feeling anger can be a symptom of a condition called pseudobulbar affect (PBA). PBA is an involuntary neurological state related to an injury or disturbance in parts of your brain that control your emotions. Sometimes called emotional incontinence, the uncontrolled emotions associated with PBA often don't match how you feel or what you're experiencing. Because the symptoms are similar, PBA may be misdiagnosed as depression. PBA often occurs in people who have: history of stroke Parkinson's disease Alzheimer's disease dementia amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease multiple sclerosis (MS) Gender and personality Studies indicate that, on average, women cry more often than men. One possible reason for this is that testosterone may inhibit crying. Cultural norms may also account for some of the differences in crying among men and women. Besides a difference between sexes, people who are empathetic and concerned about the well-being of others may cry more than people who are less empathetic. People who are anxious, insecure, or obsessive, cry more and for longer periods of time than other people. Why do we cry? Glands located above your eyes produce most of your tears. They're called lachrymal glands. The word lachrymal means tear. Every time you blink, tears flow to your eyes from ducts attached to your lachrymal glands. This keeps the surface of your eyes lubricated and protects them from substances like dust, smoke, or onion gasses. Tears also drain into your nose. Tears are made up of: water salt protective antibodies enzymes The chemistry of tears caused by emotion, sometimes called psychic tears, is different than that of tears that moisten and protect your eyes. Psychic tears contain more of the protein-based hormones your body produces under stress. There's limited research on the science and psychology of crying. Some researchers believe crying is a way your body gets rid of stress-related hormones. Other studies show tears may trigger the release of endorphins. Endorphins are hormones that make you feel good and reduce pain. A recent focus of research is the response people have to the chemical content of tears. StudiesTrusted Source have shown, for example, that men are less aggressive and less sexually aroused when smelling women's psychic tears. Does crying make you feel better? Crying doesn't necessarily make you feel better. In one study, only about 30 percent of participants said crying made their mood improve. Crying is more likely to make you feel better if: you have the emotional support of a friend you're crying because of a positive experience it enables you to understand your emotions better it helps you resolve an issue or problem Seeking help If you have symptoms of depression or anxiety, or emotional responses that don't feel right, don't try to tough it out alone. Mood disorders can have a negative impact on every part of your life. This includes your relationships, work, or school. They also make you more vulnerable to physical illnesses. Talk with your doctor about what you're experiencing. Your doctor may refer you to a psychiatrist or therapist who specializes in working with people who have mood disorders. Treatment Approximately 80 percent of people with depression improve significantly with treatment. Treatment for depression and anxiety can include psychotherapy (talk therapy) and medications. Self-care is important, too. Many people find relaxation techniques, meditation, mindfulness, and exercise helpful. Therapy and medications can also alleviate the effects of PBA. Some people with PBA see an improvement after taking a drug called dextromethorphan hydrobromide and quinidine sulfate (Nuedexta). Nuedexta was developed just for PBA, and it's the only drug that's approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat the condition. Antidepressants may also be prescribed for PBA. However, the FDA hasn't approved the use of antidepressants as a PBA treatment. When a drug is used to treat a condition other than the ones it's FDA-approved for, then that's considered off-label drug use. Outlook Some people cry more than others. Women tend to cry more than men, even in cultures where it's acceptable for males to cry. Crying more than is normal for you may be a symptom of depression or a neurological disorder. If you're concerned about the amount you're crying, talk to your doctor. Tips for managing crying There's nothing wrong with crying, but if you want to try to manage your tears, there are some things you can try: Focus on taking slow, deep breaths. Breathe in through your nose and out through your mouth. This may help you relax, which could also stop the flow of tears. Relax your facial muscles so your expression is neutral. Think about something repetitious, like a poem, a song, or nursery rhyme you've memorized. Take a walk or find another way to temporarily remove yourself from a stressful or upsetting situation. Suicide prevention If you think someone is at immediate risk of self-harm or hurting another person: • Call 911 or your local emergency number. • Stay with the person until help arrives. • Remove any guns, knives, medications, or other things that may cause harm. • Listen, but don't judge, argue, threaten, or yell. If you or someone you know is considering suicide, get help from a crisis or suicide prevention hotline. Try the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 800-273-8255. (Source: healthline)

Why do we argue and how to stop it?

Why We Argue and How to Stop Turning arguments into constructive discussions. KEY POINTS Arguments damage relationships because they attempt to force others to support your goals without considering their interests. Seven scientifically validated principles for transforming arguments into positive, constructive discussions. This post reviews the book, Why We Argue and How to Stop, by Jerry Manney. The book is described as a guide to navigating disagreements, managing emotions, and creating healthier relationships by using scientifically validated communication tools. The Basis and Scope The scientifically validated communication tools described by Manney derive from a program called Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT). Originally developed by Robert J. Myers, Ph.D., to help family members encourage substance abusers into treatment, the positive communications aspect of CRAFT has been demonstrated to improve the tone of communication in general, not just in cases involving substance abuse. Although Manney briefly discusses the role of substance abuse in arguments and uses many references to the principles of the Al-Anon 12-Step program, he mainly addresses relationships where arguments occur even when substances do not play a role: the workplace, social media, spouses, intimate partners, ex-spouses, and parents and children. Why Do We Argue? Manney explores the reasons people argue, and he begins by listing 19 possible reasons for arguing that he has encountered in over 35 years of counseling practice. He then identifies the core reason for arguing. Arguing is an attempt to change another person's behavior when the other person's goals conflict with your goals. In a previous blog post, I explain how conflict in relationships is inevitable because people's goals are never in complete alignment, and how people use moral arguments to persuade others to put their interests above others. But trying to force people to support your goals while ignoring their own interests is a losing proposition. Such arguments tend to involve emotional outbursts, yelling, and sometimes violence, all of which are destructive to relationships. Because this kind of arguing is not productive, Manney explains how to take a break from heated arguments. Constructive resolution of disagreements can take place only when people are calm, respectful, and oriented to working together toward a solution that is acceptable to everyone. A Different Way Manney also alludes to a line from the Rita Mae Brown book, Sudden Death, "Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again, but expecting different results." This quote, often repeated in Al-Anon meetings, illustrates a common human foible, our tendency to act out of habit, even when our actions have been totally ineffective. This sets up the remainder of Manney's book, which encourages us to try a wide array of different communication techniques that we probably never considered before. Instead of arguing harder, he suggests that we try a new, different approach. The list of new communication techniques is so extensive that it may overwhelm the reader. Manney is completely aware of that potential problem, rhetorically asking the reader at one point, "Feeling overwhelmed?" His suggested solution is a variation of the 12-step "one day at a time," which is "one step at a time." He encourages the reader to try one technique at a time to see how well it works. He also encourages the reader to keep a journal to record factors that trigger arguments (certain times of day or the week, particular comments, topics, and actions of others), our old, habitual ways of communicating in arguments, attempts at using new communication techniques, and the consequences of using the new techniques). Positive change is possible, but only when we carefully observe and take notes on our interactions with others. Seven Guidelines for Positive Communication Manney also describes the seven principles of positive communication in the CRAFT model. He summarizes these seven principles with one "overriding principle that positive, respectful, non-confrontational communication is more likely to get you the result you want: to have your concerns really heard and considered." After realizing that your old arguing habits have been ineffective, you may be open to trying something different. Briefly, here are the guidelines. Be brief. Long-winded rants cause confusion and defensiveness. Focusing briefly on one concern at a time increases the likelihood of a positive outcome. Be positive. Respectfully communicating what you would like rather than what you don't like gives them a clearer understanding of your expectations. (But make sure that your expectations are reasonable.) Be specific. Generalizations such as always, never, everyone, and no one are rarely true. People are better able to change specific behaviors than vague, generalized patterns. Label your emotions. People are better able to understand your feelings when you can label them precisely and accurately. Offer an understanding statement. Demonstrating that you understand another person makes them less defensive. Accept partial responsibility. Acknowledging your role in a conflict demonstrates that you are not scapegoating the other person and you are willing to change. Offer to help. Jumping in to clean, fix, and move objects, among other actions, without being asked is disrespectful. More productive is simply asking, "Is there some way that I can help?" Other Principles of Positive Communication While the CRAFT model of positive communication represents the lion's share of Why We Argue and How to Stop, Jerry Manney sprinkles in an additional set of positive communication principles. Most of these principles are accepted wisdom in the counseling profession, although the scientific support for the principles varies. For example, Manney endorses using "I statements" rather than "You statements" because the former are constructively assertive and the latter, are destructively aggressive. Certainly, the tone in conversations is important, but in a previous blog post I question the alleged superiority of "I statements." Manney also notes that in any interaction we can control only at best our half of the conversation. He encourages a proactive, rather than a reactive, style in which we focus on what we want to say and on saying it in a way that others will hear and respect. This gives us control over our thoughts, feelings, and actions. If we instead only react to perceived criticism, we are on the defensive, we give control of our emotions to the other person. Taking things personally when they're not caused by you is a cognitive distortion called personalization in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. An excellent way to avoid reactivity is to remember the second of the Four Agreements, "Don't take anything personally." This agreement recognizes that each person perceives the world in a unique way and that when someone criticizes you, this indicates a disturbance in their mind, not necessarily a defect in you. Understanding that people have different perspectives has a number of positive consequences for communication. One is that we are less likely to engage what cognitive behavioral therapists call polarized thinking, the mistaken notion that people are always either totally good and right or bad and wrong. Another is to avoid what cognitive behavioral therapists call mind-reading, the tendency to assume what people are thinking and feeling. The third of the Four Agreements is "Don't make assumptions." It is best to ask others what they are thinking and feeling. In his discussion of the fact that people see the world from different perspectives, Manney explains the differences between the way men and women process information, experience the world, and communicate their experiences. He documents just a few examples, and I wish he had provided more. Professor Deborah Tannen has conducted extensive research on gender differences in communication, and a reference to her work would have fit well here. Also, gender differences are generalizations that do not always fit individuals. It would be wrong to assume what someone is thinking because of their gender. Again, it is always better to ask. Still another excellent idea from Manney is engaging in self-care, which is not a bad kind of selfishness. We can be of no use to others unless we are in good shape ourselves. As the flight attendant says, "Put on your own oxygen mask before assisting others." We cannot engage constructively with others when we are hungry, angry, lonely, tired (HALT), or stressed out seriously (SOS). Self-care includes good eating habits, exercise, sleep, relaxation, and enjoyable activities every day. It also requires good time management, recognizing priorities, and taking care of first things first. We also need to stop arguing with ourselves by letting go of negative self-talk, resentment, self-righteous indignation, anger, excessive guilt, and anxiety, while cultivating empathy, gratitude, perspective, and a live-and-let-live attitude. Part of the live-and-let-live attitude is asking ourselves when conflict arises and engaging only when truly necessary, "How important is it?" A Final Note on Self-Improvement It is always useful to remember that you are not an all-powerful being who can control everything. Troubles and conflict are part of the human condition. Change is possible if you can cultivate an approach to life that helps you through the difficulties. Practice makes progress (not perfection). Recognize when you need professional help with serious psychological conditions (Manney also addresses common problems such as anxiety, depression, substance abuse, violence, and sexual abuse that require professional intervention; I wish that it had included personality disorders as well). I heartily recommend this book to anyone interested in improving their interpersonal relationships. (Source: Psychology Today)

Can anyone have a mental health crisis?

Yes. I think anyone can. (Source: me)

What is emotional abuse?

Belittling, rejecting, ignoring, blaming child for things the child has no control over

Is it good to get blisters

Blisters develop to protect damaged skin and help it heal. They're mostly caused by friction, burns and skin reactions, such as an allergic reaction. Blood blisters appear when blood vessels in the skin have also been damaged. They're often more painful than a regular blister. (Source: NHS)

How do i find the right therapist?

10 Sure Signs You Need To See A Therapist (And How To Find The Right One) We all experience stress, anxiety, mood swings and other forms of emotional distress at one point or another in our lives. Whether it's because of a professional setback, rejection, financial issues, relationships, personal loss or some other reason. Most of the time, we're able to bounce back eventually. But sometimes we might need a little extra help to do so. Maybe you're feeling low or empty and are unable to "snap out of it". Or, maybe you're noticing certain negative patterns in your lifestyle that you can't seem to break. Sometimes the signs of mental or emotional distress are obvious. But at other times, they are harder to pinpoint. "Our emotions, thoughts and things we do have a direct effect on our energy, productivity and overall health," says Dr Lindsey Giller, a clinical psychologist in the Mood Disorders Center at Child Mind Institute, New York. "Taking care of your mental health strengthens your ability to cope with everyday stressors and handle challenges more effectively," she tells. This is why it's crucial to pay attention to your mental well-being and ask for help if you feel like things are getting out of hand. Often, people freak out when they hear the word "therapy". But contrary to common misconception, psychotherapy isn't just for those who are struggling with mental illness. It can be beneficial for anyone who is experiencing stress, intense emotions or life transitions and wants to improve their life. Psychotherapy or talk therapy provides you with a safe, non-judgmental place to vent about your experiences, explore your options and develop the skills to handle various life challenges, says Dr Helen Friedman, a clinical psychologist in full-time private practice in St. Louis, Missouri. There are many forms of psychotherapy. "So, it's important to know what to expect from the treatment you or your child is receiving," says Dr Giller. The main types of psychotherapy include interpersonal psychotherapy (centers on improving interpersonal relationships and social functioning of an individual), psychoanalytic psychotherapy (used for treating depression, PTSD and other psychological disorders), cognitive analytical therapy (emphasizes on investigating one's past behaviour and belief, negative behavioural patterns and help them make better choices in the future), systemic psychotherapy (analyzes interactions and dynamics of people in relationships, eg: couples therapy) and humanistic therapy (focuses on developing a strong sense of self and reaching one's potential). Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) is yet another type of talk therapy that has been scientifically tested and proven effective in a wide range of cases. "CBT emphasizes on initiating changes in one's life (be it behaviour, thoughts, etc.) to improve overall satisfaction and functioning. It helps you become more aware of your behavioral patterns and helps you make necessary changes to manage various life situations more efficiently," explains Dr Giller. Should you see a therapist? It's important to remember that reaching out is not a sign of weakness, but a significant step toward the path of self-care. And the sooner you seek help, the faster you can get back on track. Here are ten critical signs it's time to get professional help, according to mental health experts: You're having difficulty regulating your emotions. While we all feel sad, anxious or angry at some point in our lives, it's important to pay attention to how often or how intensely you feel these emotions. "Anger is often a part of a depressive presentation," says Dr Ramani Durvasula, a California-based licensed clinical psychologist and author of Don't You Know Who I Am?: How to Stay Sane in an Era of Narcissism, Entitlement, and Incivility. In fact, in men, depression is often missed because their short-temper or irritability is wrongly assumed as a masculine trait. Besides depression, "uncontrolled anger may also reflect negative feelings about the self or the world, frustration, or a poorly regulated response to stress," adds the psychologist. Similarly, if someone continually feels sad, empty and disinterested in everything, it may be a sign of clinical depression. "This is different than a depressed mood, which everyone feels from time to time," notes Dr Friedman. In children, "instead of experiencing increased sadness, many show irritability, anger or hostility towards others," tells Dr Giller. Psychotherapy can help you or your child manage emotions more effectively. "It's an honest, objective and confidential space that allows a person to explore uncomfortable feelings, understand its root causes, place it in a context and learn coping skills to overcome those feelings," says Dr Durvasula. Additionally, "it's a trusting space where you can be vulnerable and explore deeper issues that require the assistance of a trained professional, such as trauma or high-risk behaviors (e.g drug use, suicidal behavior, etc), adds the psychologist. You aren't performing as effectively at work or school. A decrease in performance at work or school is a common sign among those struggling with psychological or emotional issues. "Mental health issues can impair attention, concentration, memory, energy, and can result in an apathy which saps the enjoyment from work or even the drive to work," tells Dr Durvasula. It can result in a lack of interest and errors at work, which can result in subpar work productivity. This can even prove to be risky for yourself or others, Dr Durvasula points out. For example, if you're a caretaker, doctor, law enforcement officer or responsible for operating or transporting a piece of machinery. "Seeking a therapist's assistance can help you effectively self-regulate your behaviour and learn more adaptive ways to manage stress through active problem solving and relaxation strategies," says Dr Giller. You're experiencing changes or disruptions in sleep or appetite. "Mental health issues can have a profound impact on our sleep and appetite," notes Dr Friedman. "An individual who is anxious or in a manic state may have sleeplessness, while someone who is severely depressed might sleep all the time," she tells. Similarly, "when overwhelmed by stress, some people overeat to dull their emotions, while others find they can barely eat," adds the clinical psychologist. So, if you notice that you've been eating or sleeping either less or more than usual for a long period, it might be time to hit the pause button and seriously assess the situation. You're struggling to build and maintain relationships. "Our mental health can impact our relationships in a variety of ways—it might lead a person to pull back from those who are close to them, cause insecurity in a relationship, or it may lead to them heavily leaning on another person for emotional support," tells Dr Durvasula. In addition, "people struggling with psychological or emotional issues may also have difficulty in cultivating relationships at work or school, working in teams, or communicating with superiors, colleagues or subordinates," she adds. All of these situations can take a toll on new or pre-existing relationships. If you often find yourself in conflict with others or have trouble communicating your feelings to others, therapy can help. "A skilled therapist can teach you improved social skills, such as respectful assertiveness, sticking with the 'I' language rather than 'you' language, fair fighting, etc," tells Dr Friedman. You've experienced trauma. Those who have a history of physical or sexual abuse or some other trauma that they haven't fully recovered from can also hugely benefit from talk therapy. "Psychotherapy allows a person to explore these painful experiences with someone who is experienced in hearing about these issues—in a confidential space that's free of judgment," says Dr Durvasula. Plus, the client doesn't have to worry about "'protecting' the therapist from hearing about these experiences. In addition, "a therapist can help the person develop new ways of thinking about the traumatic event as well as learn techniques for breaking the associations and the hold that the trauma has over them," she adds. You no longer enjoy activities you typically did. People struggling with psychological or emotional issues often feel disconnected or alienated from life. Consequently, they lose interest in things they usually loved to do, whether it's hobbies or socializing. "The most common causes of perpetual disinterest and feeling of inner emptiness include depression, grief or chronic childhood abuse and/or neglect," says Dr Friedman. Additional signs that someone might be experiencing depression or some other form of mood disorder include increased isolation, apathy about the future and even wishing that they weren't alive. "The good news is that therapy can help someone suffering from depression or problems related to emotion dysregulation," tells Dr Giller. "Therapy can help you figure out what's holding you back, get rid of negative thoughts and behaviours and reconnect with what brings you joy," says Dr Friedman. You're grieving. Whether it's a divorce, significant breakup or loss of a loved one, overcoming grief of any kind can be a long and painful process, especially if you've no one to share that emotional burden with. The ordeal is twice as difficult for those who experience significant losses in a short span of time. "Therapy or grief counseling can help someone who's grieving by providing a safe, compassionate place to process the loss and all the distressing emotions that go along with it," says Dr Friedman. Your physical health has taken a hit. "We don't give mental health the same kind of attention as physical health and that is a huge mistake given that they are interconnected," says Dr Durvasula. "Mental health issues such as stress, anxiety and depression have both direct and indirect effects on our physical health—direct because psychological issues affect the central nervous system which in turn has an impact on all other health systems (endocrine, immune, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, etc.)," she tells. While indirectly, "they are associated with a whole host of physical health conditions including headaches, fatigue, muscle aches and pains, greater cardiovascular reactivity, weaker immune system, chronic inflammation, etc," notes Dr Durvasula. So, if you've been suffering from any of these health conditions for a long time, you could benefit from the treatment and support of a trained mental health professional. You want to improve yourself but don't know where to start. "Therapy can help you become the best person you can be in relationship to both self and others," says Dr Friedman. It can help you untangle and better understand sticky interpersonal situations in which you find yourself. "A skilled therapist can help you understand your own part in a situation and what you can do differently to produce a better outcome. Moreover, she can also help you better understand others' point of view so that you are more aware of your impact on others," tells the psychology expert. "By understanding your impact on others and how your behavior makes them feel, you can be more effective in your interactions," she explains. And since a trained therapist is a pattern-seeker, "she can point out a person's negative patterns so that more positive ones can be initiated," adds Dr Friedman. You're using substance or sex to cope. When under mental or emotional stress, "we turn to things that are rewarding, numbing, distracting or destructive in order to cope — which explains why substance use and sex are often used as coping mechanisms," says Dr Durvasula. In the short term, "substance use can temporarily help alleviate unwanted feelings like hopelessness, anxiety, irritability and negative thoughts. But in the longer run, it exacerbates these difficulties and often leads to abuse or dependence," Dr Giller points out. "Substance use also interferes with treatment for mental health disorders," she adds. This is why if you or your loved one is struggling with addiction, it's crucial to seek professional help as soon as possible. "A friend or family member should be supportive but they cannot be a personal rehab center," notes Dr Durvasula. "They must try to get the person on board with seeking out treatment," she advises. It's also important to note that forcing someone into treatment often doesn't work, but motivating a person to want to make the change is usually more effective. "Never shame or guilt-trip them, instead get them to talk about it. Make an appointment and go with them if that helps them," adds the psychologist. If you're still unsure of whether you need therapy or not, use this brief questionnaire by Psych Central to help determine if you need to see a mental health professional. How to find the right therapist? "Research suggests that the quality of the relationship between you and your therapist is a healing factor in and of itself, which is why having the right therapist is very important," tells Dr Friedman. Here are a few easy, expert-approved tips to find a good therapist: Ask around. Ask people you trust if they have any recommendations. "Someone who knows you may know what works for you," says Dr Durvasula. You can also ask your health care provider for recommendations. Look online. "Conduct an online search for top psychologists in your area or for your specific mental health issue," suggests Dr Friedman. "Websites of national mental health professional organizations like the American Psychological Association and state and local organizations have a Find A Therapist page that can also aid in finding a qualified mental health professional," she adds. Do a quick interview. "Don't be afraid to call the therapists and doing a brief interview by phone," says Dr Friedman. By asking questions about hours, fee, location, you can get a feel for the therapist. "Look for someone who is warm, compassionate and highly competent—that's the winning ticket!" she adds. Get multiple recommendations. "Practitioner-patient match is always important, but particularly so when talking about therapy," says Dr Durvasula. "Get more than one recommendation. And even though it may not be cheap, meet wth more than one therapist if you can, so you can find a person who is the best fit," she suggests. Be clear about what you want. It is important to know that there are many different types of therapy, including some well-studied treatments like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), Interpersonal therapy (IPT), etc. However, "not all mental health professionals are trained in all of these approaches, so it's imperative to ask a prospective therapist if she or he is trained in any of the treatments you are interested in receiving," says Dr Giller. (Source: Forbes)

How do I handle an existential crisis?

Existential Crisis: Grappling With the 'Monster' Within Tips for navigating an existential crisis. Human rejection, a sense of worthlessness, and an introspective struggle with the central questions—Who am I? Why was I created? What is the meaning of life?—drove Frankenstein's monster on a murderous rampage. Though the monster may simply be a work of fiction, similar concerns foment increasing mental health crises in this country, crises that have no physiological basis but can lead to hopelessness, depression, and, particularly among the young, suicide. American psychiatrist Irvin Yalom refers to this angst as "existential anxiety" or "existential crisis." In his book Existential Psychotherapy, he outlines four major life concerns—fear of death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness—that can create anxiousness, especially among seriously ill patients, the aged, and intellectually gifted children and adults who look beyond the concrete and grapple with questions for which there are oftentimes no answers. Death, of course, is inevitable, and if inevitable, why are we here, a person might muse. Freedom, as defined by Yalom and colleagues, is the absence of structure, making it the individual's responsibility to create the necessary rules and guidelines by which to live. An existence that has a definitive termination without structure can promote feelings of isolation from others—an inability and lack of desire to be socially close—and a strong sense of meaninglessness. What is the point of being alive? Is Life Just About Working and Dying? Experts say an existential crisis occurs when questions of death and life's meaning become so overwhelming that they prompt a personal conflict, resulting in stress and anxiety. Indeed, in gifted children and adolescents, existential crises can be common. That is because gifted children have unique cognitive, social, and emotional traits that make them "deep thinkers" with an acute sensitivity to issues in the world around them. They demonstrate strong reasoning skills, question their own roles in society and the behavior of others, are frightened by the seemingly limitless and divergent life choices, have a sense they are "different," and tend to withdraw from normal social interactions. Of course, the larger questions about life—and death—have no answers, and those who find themselves in an existential crisis must determine ways of getting past it. Ultimately, most do. But, among some, this existential questioning not only can lead to dark despair and depression but also foster suicidal ideation. Statistics released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention just a couple of years ago showed the suicide rate up about 25 percent since 1999, with suicide being the second leading cause of death among college students. Well-known psychologist, researcher, and author Clay Routledge blames part of the increase in suicides on a reflective sense of meaninglessness, fears of the uncertainty of life, and a growing realization that we all must age and eventually die. "Our capacity to reflect on ourselves, to think about the past and the future and to engage in abstract thought has given us access to some uncomfortable truths," Routledge writes. Is there no more to life than working and dying? With their increasing detachment from religion, the young may have difficulty finding the identity and human dignity that a belief in a higher power can afford, leaving them to question their own value in society. Kilroy J. Oldster, the author of the Dead Toad Scrolls, calls suicide "an emotional reaction to the absurdity of life... a panic-stricken reflex induced by the sinister twins of fear and foreboding." The young seem more prone to this reflex because life experiences make adults more pragmatic—and rational. "A thinking person accepts that, while he or she might never comprehend a unifying meaning of life, they prefer to experience each permitted day of life to the fullest," Oldster writes. A Crisis Not Just for the Gifted Of course, overwhelming emotion—and dread—conjured by pondering life's meaning is not limited to the young, the gifted, and the non-religious. For example, in a study published online in 2018, researchers reported that patients with advanced cancers often experience existential dilemmas, suffering "high rates of psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, and spiritual despair." These same scientists found that "individual, meaning-centered psychotherapy" is oftentimes effective in "improving spiritual well-being and quality of life." Authors of a 2018 study in the Indian Journal of Palliative Care report that "self-reflective learning groups" or peer-group discussions among patients can help the terminally ill bridge the existential challenges posed by pending death. Loss or tragedy in one's life; arrival at a significant age marker, such as 50, 60, or 70; guilt about a past action or event; and intense dissatisfaction with one's career choice can also force a person down a reflective path to existential depression. Existential Depression Is Not All Bad Symptoms of existential depression include feelings of disconnectedness; intense, unhealthy anxiety about world issues; increased isolation from others; lack of motivation; and withdrawal from activities that were once a source of excitement and joy. People are just going through the motions. The disorder may be difficult to diagnose, but approaches such as psychoeducation can help one not only survive it but, perhaps, experience what some experts define as the Greek "metanoia"—a transformation of mind and heart, even a conversion of one's life purposes. "Depression is not merely an inopportune 'disease.' Sometimes it is an opportunity that allows us a new and more authentic view of existence," writes Lodovico Berra in an article in the March 2019 issue of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Beyond life circumstances and psychology, it is worthwhile noting that some seemingly "existential" depression may fundamentally be a true depression—with a biological and hereditary basis. With such words in mind, here are some tips for navigating through an existential crisis: "Reframe your mindset," according to an April 2020 article headlined "The Existential Crisis Survival Guide." That means finding something of value to do in your life, such as volunteering or enjoying a new activity like tennis, dancing, or piano lessons. Accept that there are questions beyond the answerable limits of the human mind. We all grapple with them. Do research that can provide some context for what you struggle to understand. Remember that you—and your ego—are not in control of everything. You must rely on others for support. Trust and use their advice to make the right choices. Rejoice in everyday life. A flower gives its all by offering value and beauty without question or regard to its short duration. We all have a purpose in life. Find yours. Seek professional counseling if your questioning and rumination continue to overwhelm. Finally, know you are not alone. When it comes to matters of life—and death—there's a bit of that Frankenstein monster in all of us. (Source: psychology today)

Is it good to have an existential crisis?

Facing an existential crisis: What to know An existential crisis may occur when a person frequently wonders whether or not life has any inherent meaning or purpose. A person may also question their own existence within a world that might seem meaningless. Experiencing an existential crisis is common, and it is normal and often healthy to question one's life and goals. However, an existential crisis can contribute to a negative outlook, especially if a person cannot find a solution to their questions of meaning. Existential crises may be associated with a number of mental health conditions. For this reason, it is sometimes best to involve a doctor — especially if an existential crisis has the potential to lead to despair or suicidal ideation. That said, there are some ways to face an existential crisis in a healthy way, ultimately benefiting a person's mental health and well-being. Keep reading to learn about the different types of existential crisis, the risks and complications, and some ways to overcome them. What is an existential crisis? Simply put, the term "existential crisis" refers to a moment of deep questioning within oneself. This usually relates to how someone sees themselves and their purpose within the world. A person who is experiencing an existential crisis may try to make sense of some grand or difficult-to-answer questions, such as if their life has any purpose or if life itself has any inherent meaning at all. Although it is healthy to question one's life and work, existential crises can take a negative turn. This is not always the case, but it may occur if the person is unable to find an answer to these challenging questions. An existential crisis may also occur after long bouts of negative emotions, feelings of isolation, or other stressors, such as depression or anxiety. Feeling down or going through a period of anxiety and negativity are also normal. However, when these emotions or struggles build up and have no resolution, a person may fall into despair about themselves, their value, or their purpose in the world. When asking questions from this negative headspace, there may only seem to be negative answers, and this can be harmful for a person's mental health. Origins of the term The term "existential crisis" has its roots in existentialism, which is a school of philosophy. Existentialism focuses heavily on the meaning and purpose of existence, both from an overall and individual perspective. The core idea behind existentialism is that the world is inherently meaningless, and that it is down to the individual to create their own sense of meaning and purpose. Philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche have both published works that scholars consider to be existentialist. It was Jean-Paul Sartre who eventually popularized the term "existentialism" in the 1940s. It was not until years later that psychologists would define the scenario as an existential crisis. Types of existential crisis In the simplest terms, an existential crisis refers to facing the crisis of one's own existence. However, this is a very broad umbrella term. There are many types of questions that may cause an existential crisis, and a person may face one of many different issues. The sections below look at the types of existential crisis a person may experience. Meaning Perhaps the central question surrounding an existential crisis is whether or not a person's life, or life itself, has any preexisting meaning. A meaningless life is not appealing to many, so humans will tend to create a meaning if they cannot find one. Historically, this meaning came from religion, but it may now come from such things as family, work, passion and enjoyment, or travel. The basic idea is that a person must find their own meaning because there is no inherent meaning in the life that precedes them. However, if through this questioning a person cannot find a sense of meaning, they may have deep feelings of existential anxiety. Emotions and existence Some people may try to block out or avoid feelings that they struggle with, such as suffering or anger, thinking that this will allow them to only experience feelings they want to enjoy, such as happiness or tranquillity. This may lead to some people not giving validity to all of their emotions, which may, in turn, lead to a false happiness. This could make a person feel out of touch with their emotions. If this state breaks down, it may lead to a type of questioning that could cause an existential crisis. Authenticity Some people may experience feelings of inauthenticity that could lead to an existential crisis. For example, a person may feel that they are not being true to themselves, or that they are not being authentic to who they are. They may feel that they are not acting authentically in various situations. Questioning this may lead to a breakdown of the various definitions a person has given themselves, which may cause great anxiety, a crisis of identity, and eventually one of existence. Death and the limitations of mortality Anyone can experience an existential crisis. However, some forms of questioning and crisis may go hand-in-hand with certain life events. For example, as a person gets older, they may struggle to come to terms with their own mortality. Finding the first gray hair or seeing age lines and wrinkles in the mirror can make a person very aware of the aging process and the fact that their life will one day come to an end. An existential crisis based on death and mortality is not uncommon in people who receive news of a life threatening illness. They may ask themselves if they have truly accomplished anything in life. They may also become truly aware of death and the anxiety of facing the end of their life. The unknown aspects of death, such as the mystery of what awaits people afterward, can also trigger deep feelings of anxiety and fear in some people. This can also lead to an existential crisis. Connectedness and isolation Connectedness and isolation may seem to be polar opposites, but they exist on more of a sliding scale in humans. Humans are inherently social creatures and need to form connections with others to meet some of their most basic needs. However, humans also need times of isolation to engage with themselves and develop certainty in their own ideals. Having either too much isolation or too much connectedness may lead to a crisis of sorts. Without isolation, for example, a person may lose aspects of themselves to the group. On the other hand, a loss of connectedness — due to the loss of a loved one, a broken relationship, or feeling ostracized from a group — may also cause someone to question these connections and how they relate to their own existence. Freedom Freedom is a common aspect of existential crises. Being an individual means having the freedom to make one's own choices. However, the flip side of this is that it also means being responsible for the outcome of those choices. This can lead to an uncertainty about taking any action for fear that it may be the wrong action or lead to undesirable consequences. This type of crisis can trigger anxiety not only about choice, but also in relation to how these choices shape life and existence as a whole. Risks and complications As one article in the Archives of Internal Medicine explains, existential crises are common in people who face advanced or progressive illnesses. Existential crises may also have links to other events in life, such as: turning a culturally significant age, such as 40 or 50 losing a loved one going through a tragic or traumatizing experience experiencing a change in relationships, such as getting married or divorced Read about the differences between situational and clinical depression here. There may also be a link between an existential crisis and certain mental health conditions, including: anxiety depression borderline personality disorder obsessive-compulsive disorder However, this does not necessarily mean that one causes the other. Overcoming an existential crisis Experiencing an existential crisis does not automatically mean that a person has a mental health issue. In fact, it can be a very positive thing. Questioning one's life and purpose is healthy. It can help provide direction and lead to better fulfilment in oneself. The following sections provide some simple tips that may help a person positively overcome an existential crisis. Keep a gratitude journal Rather than having one large, meaningful experience that gives life purpose, most people have a series of small but significant experiences that make up their life. Keeping a gratitude journal can be a great way to identify these moments. A person can add these small and meaningful events to their journal as they happen. Looking back on this journal later may help remind a person of the things they enjoy about life, as well as the positive experiences and interactions they have that collectively give their life meaning. Do not give in to pessimism When a person finds themselves in existential chaos, it can be easy to let the negative thoughts take over. However, this may give rise to even deeper feelings of negativity. A person should try to acknowledge any pessimistic ideas but then replace them with their optimistic counterparts. This may help control the inner dialogue a person has or at least make the self-talk more neutral. Look for smaller answers Part of the weight of an existential crisis is in trying to find a single, all-encompassing answer to a question that may be too large or complex to answer in such a way. Trying to find grand answers to these big questions can cause even more anxiety, leading to deeper feelings of worry and despair. Instead, it could be much easier to break these very large questions into smaller chunks. Then, work to find answers to these smaller questions. For instance, instead of asking whether or not a person has done anything with their life as a whole, they should ask themselves how they have impacted the world around them in the past month. This may reveal the small but positive actions a person has performed, such as having conversations of support with friends or colleagues. These positives may otherwise go unnoticed when looking at the large, overarching questions of life. Talk it out Talking to oneself is helpful, but it may lead to similar conclusions each time. Having a person or group to talk to, such as a friend or trusted loved one, may help a person see the crisis from a different perspective. This can give them more options and possibilities to explore. A study in the Indian Journal of Palliative CareTrusted Source notes the importance of discussion groups for people with cancer who are facing existential dilemmas. Having discussions with their peers about these topics can help such people face challenges and learn, possibly even finding the answers together. When to see a doctor Although questioning oneself and the world is healthy, there are times when it is best to see a doctor or a mental health specialist. Some people can overcome an existential crisis on their own, but anyone whose existential crisis seems to lead them toward depression and anxiety should see a mental health specialist. If an existential crisis leads to suicidal ideation, seek immediate help. Suicide prevention If you know someone at immediate risk of self-harm, suicide, or hurting another person: Ask the tough question: "Are you considering suicide?" Listen to the person without judgment. Call 911 or the local emergency number, or text TALK to 741741 to communicate with a trained crisis counselor. Stay with the person until professional help arrives. Try to remove any weapons, medications, or other potentially harmful objects. If you or someone you know is having thoughts of suicide, a prevention hotline can help. The 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline is available 24 hours a day at 988. During a crisis, people who are hard of hearing can use their preferred relay service or dial 711 then 988. Click here for more links and local resources. Summary Anyone can experience an existential crisis. It is normal and healthy to ask oneself big questions about life and meaning. However, these large questions will not usually have simple answers, and they will vary widely from one person to the next. For this reason, there is generally no easy way to resolve an existential crisis but by navigating through it. There are times when a person may get past their existential dilemma without help, and generally, an existential crisis does not require medical intervention. However, if existential questioning does lead to more serious mental health concerns, such as depression or anxiety, a person should see a doctor or a mental health professional for advice and treatment. (Source: medicalnewstoday)

What is intermittent fasting?

meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting and non-fasting over a given period (Source: quizlet)

What is an identity crisis?

when you are worried about who you are (ie: middle schoolers don't know what they want, who they are, they are very susceptible to peer pressure)

Could orange juice be an aphrodisiac?

It's probably not an aphrodisiac per se, but people given high doses of vitamin C reported having sex more frequently: BACKGROUND: Ascorbic acid (AA) modulates catecholaminergic activity, decreases stress reactivity, approach anxiety and prolactin release, improves vascular function, and increases oxytocin release. These processes are relevant to sexual behavior and mood. METHODS: In this randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled 14 day trial of sustained-release AA (42 healthy young adults; 3000 mg/day Cetebe) and placebo (39 healthy young adults), subjects with partners recorded penile-vaginal intercourse (FSI), noncoital partner sex, and masturbation in daily diaries, and also completed the Beck Depression Inventory before and after the trial. RESULTS: The AA group reported greater FSI (but, as hypothesized, not other sexual behavior) frequency, an effect most prominent in subjects not cohabiting with their sexual partner, and in women. The AA but not placebo group also experienced a decrease in Beck Depression scores. CONCLUSIONS: AA appears to increase FSI, and the differential benefit to noncohabitants suggests that a central activation or disinhibition, rather than peripheral mechanism may be responsible. Source: "High-dose ascorbic acid increases intercourse frequency and improves mood: a randomized controlled clinical trial." from Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Aug 15;52(4):371-4. Much like the numerous studies showing exercise to improve sex, it makes me wonder how much of this is just due to an lack of decent nutrition and activity in the first place. (Source: Business Insider)

What's to know about sleepwalking?

What Is Sleepwalking? Sleepwalking is a disorder that causes you to get up and walk while you're asleep. Your doctor might call it somnambulism. It usually happens when you're going from a deep stage of sleep to a lighter stage or coming awake. You can't respond while you're sleepwalking and usually don't remember it. In some cases, you may talk and not make sense. Sleepwalking mostly happens to children, usually between the ages of 4 and 8. But adults can do it, too. When there's a sleepwalker in the house, it's important to create a safe environment. Lock doors and windows, move sharp objects, and install gates at the top of stairs. Consult a sleep specialist if you or a loved one is having frequent episodes of sleepwalking, injuring themselves, or showing violent behavior. Sleepwalking Symptoms A sleepwalker might: Walk quietly around their room Run or try to "escape" Have open eyes and a glassy stare Be slow to respond to questions, or not respond at all Have no memory of sleepwalking Be embarrassed if they wake up during an episode Sleepwalking Causes and Risk Factors Several things can lead to sleepwalking. It can run in your family. Identical twins are more likely to sleepwalk. If you have a parent, brother, or sister who sleepwalks, you're 10 times more likely to do it than someone from a family with no sleepwalkers. Some studies suggest that children who sleepwalk may have been more restless sleepers when they were ages 4 to 5, and more restless with more frequent awakenings during the first year of life. You might also sleepwalk if you're: Sleep-deprived On a chaotic sleep schedule Stressed Drunk Taking drugs such as sedative-hypnotics (which help you relax or sleep), neuroleptics (used to treat psychosis), stimulants (which boost activity), and antihistamines (used to treat allergy symptoms) Medical conditions linked to sleepwalking include: Heart rhythm problems Fever Heartburn Nighttime asthma Nighttime seizures Obstructive sleep apnea (when you briefly stop breathing during sleep) Restless legs syndrome Psychiatric disorders like posttraumatic stress disorder, panic attacks, or dissociative states, such as multiple personality disorder Sleepwalking Diagnosis Sleepwalking is usually simple to diagnose. Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. They might need to do some tests to find out whether a medical condition is making you sleepwalk. These tests might include: Physical exam Sleep study (polysomnography). You'll spend the night in a sleep lab, where workers will record things like your heart rate, brain waves, and movements while you sleep. EEG. This is rare. If your doctor suspects that a serious condition is making you sleepwalk, you might need a test that measures your brain activity. Sleepwalking Treatment Medical treatment for sleepwalking usually isn't necessary. It's usually a sign of lack of sleep, intense emotional problems, stress, or fever. As these conditions resolve, sleepwalking stops. Changing a few lifestyle habits might help you stop sleepwalking. Stick to a sleep schedule and have a relaxing bedtime routine. If you drink or use drugs, stop. If you take medication, ask your doctor whether it might play a role. Your treatment also may include hypnosis or medications like antidepressants or sedatives. In most children, sleepwalking disappears at puberty. but it can last into adulthood or may even begin in adulthood. (Source: WebMD)

Why do we argue?

1) To justify our thoughts and actions. 2) To solve problems and make decisions.

What are some ways to stop crying?

10 Ways to Stop Crying Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Erica Cirino — Updated on September 28, 2018 How to stop crying Dealing with stress Moving forward Overview People often cry at funerals, during sad movies, and when listening to sad songs. But other people may find themselves crying while having heated conversations with others, confronting someone they're angry with, or talking about something important. This kind of crying can cause embarrassment and confusion. The good news is that with time, you can learn how to control it. You should also ask yourself if your crying really is a problem. Sometimes, through our tears we release emotions that are penned up and need to be expressed. There are times when crying can help you to actually feel better. How can I stop crying? If you cry a lot, you may feel self-conscious. It may feel like people are taking you less seriously when they see you cry, or you may feel weak (which isn't really true). But if you cry a lot, it may mean you're having difficulty dealing with your stress. Or you might feel helpless when stuck in certain situations or talking to certain people. Or, according to researchTrusted Source, you might be stressed out by, or have trouble reading, people's facial expressions. Learning how to control your stress can sometimes help you better control your tears. Here are some tips to help you stop crying quickly: Tilt your head up slightly to prevent tears from falling. The tears will collect at the bottom of your eyelids so they don't run down your face. This can stop the flow of tears and redirect your focus. Pinch yourself on the skin between your thumb and pointer finger — the pain might distract you from crying. Tense up your muscles, which can make your body and brain feel more confident and in-control, according to scientists. Make a neutral face, which can calm the person you're talking to and make it less likely they'll put on an expression that triggers your tears. ScientistsTrusted Source have found that neutral faces trigger less brain activity than facial expressions exhibiting specific emotions. Physically step back from a stressful situation, such as a heated conversation. Focus on controlling your breathing. Consciously attempt to take in deep breaths and slowly exhale. This may help you to feel more calm, reduce your overall feelings of stress, and decrease your chances of starting (or continuing) crying. Blink rapidly if you've already started crying to help clear away tears so they don't roll down your face. Do not blink if you feel like you might cry, this can prevent tears from falling. Change your thoughts and frame of mind. If you feel stressed out and like you will start crying, divert your attention from your worries and tears, and instead think of something else — a happy moment, a funny scene from a movie, or something you're proud of — that will distract you. What can I do about my crying? Crying is something that everyone does. But if you feel like you're crying too much, you might be too easily overwhelmed by stress, or you may have another issue going on, such as a depressive disorder. You can begin by focusing on reducing the stress in your life to reduce your crying. You can get a handle on your stress by taking these steps to identify, confront, and deal with the stress in your life: Identify what is causing your stress (and your crying): Is it a personal issue, your environment, the people around you, or something else? Reduce the number of things you commit to. Overscheduling is a major cause of stress in many people's lives. Look at your calendar and think about what activities, obligations, or events you could cut out to help reduce your overall stress. Stay on top of your obligations. Tight deadlines and procrastination can increase stress. Prevent stress by staying on top of your work and setting more realistic goals for yourself if you feel pressed for time when trying to complete projects. Ask for help when you need it. Determine which people in your life — friends, family, and coworkers —you can call on for help coping with your stress. Find a hobby. Enjoyable activities such as art, music, or volunteering can help reduce your overall stress level. Noncompetitive activities such as reading, fishing, or gardening are often the best at relieving stress. Use relaxation techniques. Deep breathing, stretching, visualizing a peaceful scene, and repeating a mantra can help calm your brain and body when you feel stressed. Make sure you get enough sleep. A lack of sleep can make it more likely that your emotions will get the better of you when you're stressed. Most adults require seven to nine hours of sleep per night. If you're having trouble dealing with your stress, or you find yourself crying all the time, you might be dealing with a mental health condition such as major depression or bipolar disorder. These are serious mental health conditions that require medical treatment. If you're concerned, see your mental healthcare provider right away for help. Moving forward Crying is a natural response to emotional situations. But some people cry more than others, and crying excessively can be uncomfortable. However, there are many things you can do to decrease the likelihood that you will start or continue crying. And there are things you can do at home to reduce the likelihood that you'll start crying the next time you encounter a stressful situation. You should also know when to reach out to your doctor for help. Next time you feel like you're going to cry, or if you've started to tear up, remember that there are things you can do to stop your crying. Use these tips and confront the stressful situations in your life knowing you don't have to cry, and if you start, you can control it. You don't have to let your tears hold you back from being taken seriously or expressing your needs during difficult conversations. (Source: healthline)

What are some signs I have toxic parents?

4 Signs You Are the Child of a Toxic Parent Ways to manage the relationship to preserve your emotional health. Managing toxic people in your life is very different based on your relationship to the individual. For example, if you have a toxic friend or are dating someone who is toxic, it is possible to restrict, limit, or cease your interactions with that individual to remove yourself from the negative impact they have on your life. However, when the toxic individuals are your parents or the parents of your spouse or partner, the options for simply eliminating the relationship are often not realistic or possible. In these types of situations, and in particular with toxic parents, finding effective ways to manage the relationship to preserve your emotional health is a critical consideration. Some of the common signs of a toxic parent or parents include: Highly negatively reactive. Toxic parents are emotionally out of control. They tend to dramatize even minor issues and see any possible slight as a reason to become hostile, angry, verbally abusive, or destructive. Lack of empathy. The toxic person or parent is not able to empathize with others. Instead, everything is about them and their needs, and they fail to see how anything they do could be seen by others as disruptive, harmful, or hurtful. Extremely controlling. The most toxic the individual, the more they want to control everything and everyone in their vicinity. This means over-parenting and making unreasonable demands even on adult children. Highly critical. The toxic parent cannot or will not see the achievements of their children, regardless of how accomplished the child is or becomes as an adult. They are constantly putting down people around them while making themselves out to be exceptional, gifted, or talented. Blaming everyone else. The disharmony, disagreements, hostility, and family breakdown caused by the toxic parent is always the fault of someone else. These parents cannot take responsibility for any problems, but blame the rest of the family and twist or manipulate how they see these events. How to Handle Toxic Parents The first and most important factor for adult children of toxic parents to realize is that they can only control their behaviors, they do not have the ability to change or control the behaviors their parent or parents choose to use. Recognizing and accepting that the parent is toxic and is not willing to change allows you to have the freedom to consider your own needs. You have the ability to define the relationship to meet your emotional needs and to avoid subjecting yourself to negatively, hostility, and toxicity in the attempt to "fix" the problem. Boundaries. Setting boundaries or limits and clearly defining what you will accept and what you will not accept is crucial. Be clear in defining these boundaries, and limit contact with your parents to keep your time together positive and healthy. Control the location. Setting the location for your interactions with the toxic parent is also a way to limit problem behaviors. Meeting in a public space allows you to leave if they do not respect your boundaries, and it also creates a neutral place where you are less likely to fall into old patterns of behavior, a common issue if you meet in the family home. Self-care. Be kind to yourself. You do not need to spend every holiday or special event with your parents. Instead, spend time with people that are positive, make you feel great about yourself, and that encourage you to continue to be the wonderful person you are. Talking to a therapist or counselor can also be instrumental in helping understand the impact toxic parents have had on your life and developing effective management strategies for the relationship going forward. (Source: Psychology Today)

Are there foods that boost your libido?

7 Aphrodisiac Foods That Boost Your Libido By Alina Petre, MS, RD (NL) — Medically reviewed by Amy Richter, RD, Nutrition — Updated on October 14, 2020 An aphrodisiac is a food or drug that arouses sexual instinct, brings on desire, or increases sexual pleasure or performance. A myriad of pharmaceutical drugs are available and marketed specifically for their libido-boosting effects. However, some individuals prefer natural alternatives, as they're generally safer and tend to have fewer side effects. It's worth noting that many aphrodisiacs do not have the backing of scientific evidence, and some natural products may have negative effects. If you're thinking of trying a supplement, talk to your doctor first. This article reviews 7 science-backed aphrodisiacs that may boost your libido. 1. Maca Maca is a sweet root vegetable with several health benefits. In South America, people commonly use it to boost fertility, and its nickname is "the Peruvian Viagra." It grows mainly in the mountains of central Peru and is related to cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, cauliflower, kale, and cabbage (1Trusted Source). Animal studies found increases in libido and erectile function in rodents after consuming maca. Four other studies suggest it may boost libido in humans, too (2Trusted Source, 3Trusted Source, 4Trusted Source, 5Trusted Source, 6Trusted Source). One small study has indicated that maca may help reduce the loss of libido that commonly occurs as a side effect of certain antidepressant drugs (7Trusted Source). Most studies provided 1.5-3.5 grams of maca per day for 2-12 weeks (8Trusted Source). Participants generally tolerated these intakes well and experienced few side effects. However, more studies are needed to determine safe dosages and long-term effects. SUMMARY Maca is a sweet root vegetable that may help boost libido. 2. Tribulus Tribulus terrestris, also known as bindii, is an annual plant that grows in dry climates. Producers of supplements often claim that it can boost libido. Studies have suggested that it may raise testosterone levels in some animals, but science hasn't proved that it can increase testosterone levels or fertility in humans (8, 9). Limited evidence suggests it may help boost sexual function and desire in males and females (10, 11, 12). SUMMARY The Tribulus terrestris plant may boost sexual function, but more research is needed. 3. Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo biloba is an herbal supplement derived from one of the oldest species of trees — the Ginkgo biloba tree. Traditional Chinese medicine uses it to treat many ailments, including depression and poor sexual function. Ginkgo biloba is said to act as an aphrodisiac by helping relax blood vessels and increase blood flow (13Trusted Source). Nevertheless, studies have produced mixed results. In 1998, for example, a small study reported that ginkgo biloba reduced the loss of libido that antidepressant use caused in around 84% of participants. Both male and female participants said they experienced increased desire, excitement and ability to orgasm after consuming 60-240 mg of the supplement daily, although effects seemed stronger in female participants. However, this was a low-quality study, and its findings may not be reliable (14Trusted Source). A more rigorous follow-up study was published in 2004. This study found no improvements in a similar group of participants who took ginkgo biloba (15Trusted Source). Ginkgo biloba is generally well tolerated, but it may act as a blood thinner. Thus, if you're taking blood-thinning medications, make sure to check with your healthcare provider before taking ginkgo biloba (16Trusted Source). SUMMARY Ginkgo biloba may have aphrodisiac effects, but study results are inconsistent. The herb may also interact with blood thinners, so consult your healthcare provider before using it. 4. Red ginseng Ginseng is another popular herb in Chinese medicine. One particular type — red ginseng — is commonly used to treat a variety of ailments in men and women, including low libido and sexual function (9Trusted Source). Several studies have observed that red ginseng is more effective than a placebo at improving erectile function (17Trusted Source, 18Trusted Source). Also, one small study found that red ginseng may improve sexual arousal during menopause (19Trusted Source). However, these results are not universal, and some experts question the strength of these studies. They warn that more research is needed before making strong conclusions (20Trusted Source, 21Trusted Source). Most studies had participants take 1.8-3 grams of red ginseng daily for 4-12 weeks (17Trusted Source). People generally tolerate ginseng well, but it may interfere with blood-thinning medications and the treatment of hormone-sensitive cancers (22Trusted Source). In some cases, ginseng may also cause headaches, constipation, or minor stomach upset (17Trusted Source). SUMMARY Red ginseng is a popular herb that may help boost sex drive and erectile function in men and sexual arousal in women. However, stronger studies are needed to confirm these effects. 5. Fenugreek Fenugreek is an annual plant cultivated worldwide. Its seeds are most commonly used in South Asian dishes, but it's also popular in Ayurvedic medicine as an anti-inflammatory and libido-boosting treatment. And perhaps this is for good reason — this herb appears to contain compounds that the body can use to make sex hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone (23Trusted Source). In one small study, men who took 600 mg of fenugreek extract per day for 6 weeks reported experiencing increased sexual arousal and more orgasms. However, this supplement also contained 17 mg magnesium, 15 mg zinc, and 5 mg pyridoxine, which could have contributed to the results. Zinc is a nutrient that plays a key role in male fertility (24Trusted Source, 25Trusted Source). Similarly, a small study investigated the effects of a daily dose of 600 mg of fenugreek extract in women who had reported having a low sex drive. Study results showed a significant increase in sexual desire and arousal in the fenugreek group by the end of the 8-week study, compared to the placebo group (26Trusted Source). Fenugreek is generally well tolerated, but it can interact with blood-thinning medication and may cause minor stomach upset (27Trusted Source). Moreover, due to its influence on sex hormones, fenugreek may also interfere with the treatment of hormone-sensitive cancers (9Trusted Source). SUMMARY Fenugreek may help boost sexual desire and arousal in both men and women. Individuals taking blood-thinning medication should avoid it. 6. Pistachio nuts People have been eating pistachio nuts since 6,000 B.C. They have nutritional value and are rich in protein, fiber, and healthy fats (28Trusted Source). Pistachios may have a variety of health benefits, including helping lower blood pressure, manage weight, and reduce the risk of heart disease (29Trusted Source, 30Trusted Source, 31Trusted Source). They may also help reduce symptoms of erectile dysfunction. In one small study, males who consumed 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of pistachio nuts per day for 3 weeks experienced increased blood flow to the penis and firmer erections (32Trusted Source). Experts have suggested that these effects may be due to the ability of pistachios to improve blood cholesterol and stimulate better blood flow throughout the body. However, this study did not use a placebo group, which makes it difficult to interpret the results. More studies are needed before strong conclusions can be made. SUMMARY Pistachio nuts appear to increase blood flow, contributing to firmer erections. However, more studies are needed before strong conclusions can be made. 7. Saffron Saffron is a spice derived from the Crocus sativus flower. It's native to Southwest Asia and one of the most expensive spices by weight. This spice is often used as an alternative remedy to help treat depression, reduce stress, and enhance mood (33Trusted Source). What's more, saffron is also popular for its potential aphrodisiac properties, especially in individuals taking antidepressants. One study observed that a group of men who took 30 mg of saffron per day for 4 weeks experienced greater improvements in erectile function than men given a placebo (34Trusted Source). A follow-up study in women reported that those in the saffron group experienced higher levels of arousal and increased lubrication, compared to those in the placebo group (35Trusted Source). Nevertheless, studies on saffron's aphrodisiac properties in individuals without depression yield inconsistent results (36Trusted Source, 37Trusted Source). SUMMARY Saffron may help increase sex drive in individuals taking antidepressant medications. However, results in other groups remain mixed. Well-known aphrodisiac foods that are not backed by strong scientific evidence Several other foods are touted to have aphrodisiac properties, but there's very little scientific evidence to support these claims. Here are some popular examples: Chocolate: Compounds in cacao are often touted to have an aphrodisiac effect, particularly in women. However, studies provide little evidence to support this belief (38Trusted Source). Oysters: While one study reports that they may have some libido-boosting effects in rats, no studies exist to support the libido-enhancing properties of oysters in humans (9Trusted Source, 39). Chasteberry: Studies suggest that this fruit may influence hormone levels and reduce premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms in women. However, there's no evidence that it offers any libido-boosting benefits (40Trusted Source, 41Trusted Source). Honey: It has allegedly been used for centuries to bring romance into marriages. One variety called "mad honey" is even marketed as a sexual stimulant. Yet, no studies support this, and it may contain dangerous toxins (9Trusted Source, 42Trusted Source, 43Trusted Source). Epimedium: Also known as horny goat weed, it's popular in traditional Chinese medicine for treating ailments like erectile dysfunction. Cell and animal studies provide some early support for this use, but human studies are needed (44Trusted Source, 45Trusted Source). Hot chilies: According to popular belief, capsaicin, the compound that gives hot chilies their spiciness, stimulates nerve endings on the tongue, causing the release of sex-drive-boosting chemicals. However, no studies support this belief. Alcohol: Alcohol may act as an aphrodisiac by helping both men and women relax and get in the mood. However, a high alcohol intake can reduce arousal and sexual function, so moderation is key (46Trusted Source, 47Trusted Source). SUMMARY The supplements listed above are often said to help increase sexual desire. However, there's currently limited scientific evidence to support their use as aphrodisiacs. The bottom line When it comes to boosting sex drive, the list of foods with potential aphrodisiac properties is very long. However, only a small proportion of these supposed aphrodisiacs are actually backed by science. If you're interested in giving the science-backed options a try, you may want to start with small amounts and increase the dosage based on your personal tolerance. Also, it's important to note that natural aphrodisiacs may interact with some medications. If you're currently taking medication, make sure to check with your healthcare provider before giving these foods and herbs a try. (Source: healthline)

What are some insidious signs of emotional abuse?

7 insidious signs that you've been emotionally abused by a parent, partner, or someone else close to you Emotional abuse can take the form of gaslighting, which is when someone makes you doubt your reality. An abuser may also isolate you from your loved ones in order to maintain control of your life. Abusers can express extreme jealousy and unpredictable anger that manifest as yelling. Emotional abuse isn't always easy to spot, but it can be just as harmful as physical abuse and lead to mental health conditions such as depression and low self-esteem. Any relationship can become abusive, including with a partner, family member, friend, or in a workplace. There are several important signs to look for, like gaslighting and extreme jealousy, that may mean you're in an abusive relationship, Here are seven signs of emotional abuse and how you can get help. 1. Gaslighting "Gaslighting is a common tactic in emotionally abusive relationships," says Payal Patel, LMFT, a marriage and family therapist in private practice. Gaslighters deny that events have happened to make their victims doubt themselves and question their own perception of reality. This helps the gaslighter maintain control, because their word becomes more powerful than the victim's own beliefs or experience. According to Patel, some common gaslighting phrases that abusers may use are: "You're crazy for thinking that." This is a way to make the victim question their own sanity and put more trust in the abuser's opinion. "You're making a big deal out of nothing." An abuser may say this to downplay their own abusive behavior and discourage the victim from telling others about it. "I never said that." This is a way for an abuser to avoid accountability for their words or actions and make the victim doubt their own memory. 2. Isolating you from loved ones Abusers often isolate their victims in order to control them more easily, says JaQuinda Jackson, EdD, LPC, a licensed therapist in private practice. They may do this by limiting your contact with supportive people like friends and family and convince you that they are the only person who cares about you, says Jackson. Some signs that your partner is isolating you include: They discourage you from seeing friends or family. They restrict your ability to go out by withholding money or a vehicle. They become angry or make you feel guilty after you see loved ones. They insist on going everywhere with you. "Isolation keeps the victim dependent on the abuser," says Mindy Mechanic, PhD, a psychologist who specializes in trauma and interpersonal violence. When a victim is isolated, they don't have support from loved ones that could help them recognize the abuse and leave the relationship. 3. Using insulting language An emotionally abusive person may use language like insults and name-calling to attack your self-worth. The insults often target your competence, attractiveness, and value as a person, says Mechanic. For example, an abuser may say things like: "No one else will ever love you, except me." "You're too stupid to earn a degree." or "You'll never land a job." "You need to lose weight." or "You need a nose job." "Such tactics wear down a victim's self-esteem, sense of self-worth, and value," Mechanic says. Victims often stay in emotionally abusive relationships because they believe what they have been told, Jackson says. 4. Yelling "Yelling can actually be one of the first signs of emotional abuse," Patel says, and it shows up in all types of relationships. Being yelled at by your partner, parent, or boss can be an indicator of an abusive relationship — especially if the yelling is very loud, aggressive, or the person is up close to your face. Yelling works as an abusive tactic because it can create an unequal power dynamic between two people. "The person whose voice is essentially louder has more power and can instill fear in their victim by elevating their voice," Patel says. The abuser can then harness that fear to control their victim. 5. Shifting the blame Abusers will often dodge accountability and blame other people for their abusive behavior. In many cases, the blame falls on the victim. For example, an abusive partner or parent may convince you that the abuse is your fault and there are things you could do to prevent it. "It keeps them trapped, believing that it is possible to stop their partner's abuse by changing themselves," Mechanic says. In reality, emotional abuse is often unpredictable and may be based more on the abuser's mental state than the victim's behavior. An abuser may make you believe you can prevent the abuse with efforts like: Losing weight Not arguing back Keeping the kids quiet Returning home quickly from errands 6. Acting extremely jealous "Jealousy is common in relationships, but there's healthy and unhealthy levels," Patel says. Most people feel jealous at some point in a relationship, but when it leads to intense anger or controlling behavior, this can be a warning sign of emotional abuse. Jealousy often stems from feeling insecure, but abusers may develop more extreme jealousy when they feel like they don't have power or control over you, says Patel. Some controlling behaviors to look out for are: Constantly accusing you of cheating Monitoring your calls, texts, or emails Controlling your appearance, including what you wear Calling you excessively while you're at work or with friends 7. Outbursts of unpredictable anger "Unpredictable anger can be terrifying, and it can be thought of as a form of intimidation," says Mechanic. A family member, spouse, or boss may be calm one moment, but then show their anger by: Glaring at you Punching a wall Pounding their fist on a surface Breaking household items All of these actions can signal a potential threat or danger, Mechanic says, even if the abuser doesn't hurt you physically. "Unpredictable anger is a sign of emotional abuse in that it leaves their partner on edge and unsure of what is to come," Jackson says. Some signs that you're on edge include: Feeling hypervigilant Being afraid to make even small mistakes Fidgety behaviors Being extremely careful in what you say to your partner Insider's takeaway Emotional abuse may not leave physical scars, but it can still be incredibly harmful, Jackson says. There are several warning signs, like isolation and unpredictable anger, which suggest you may be in an abusive relationship with a partner, friend, family member, or boss. If you can relate to any of these signs, you can get help or guidance by calling the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233. You may also want to seek a therapist to help you navigate through an abusive relationship. "Trust your gut feeling, if something doesn't seem right, it probably isn't," Patel says. (Source: Business Insider)

Are aphrodisiacs legitimate?

Aphrodisiacs: Where is the evidence? By Yella Hewings-Martin, Ph.D. on January 15, 2018 — Fact checked by Jasmin Collier The quest for sexual satisfaction is as old as civilization itself. Can 21st-century medicine unravel the secret? Despite good-quality clinical studies, the holy grail of aphrodisiacs remains to be found. For many couples, a happy sex life is key for long-term happiness. But sexual dysfunction and loss of interest in sex are common issues, affecting sexual happiness and relationship satisfaction. In 2015, a panel of experts reviewed scientific studies investigating sexual dysfunction in men and women. Writing in The Journal of Sexual Medicine, they conclude that "[...] that the most frequent sexual dysfunctions for women are desire and arousal dysfunctions. In addition, there is a large proportion of women who experience multiple sexual dysfunctions." "For men," they add, "premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction are the most common sexual dysfunctions." Are aphrodisiacs the answer to getting our sex lives back on track? What are aphrodisiacs? According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), "[A]ny product that bears labeling claims that it will arouse or increase sexual desire, or that it will improve sexual performance, is an aphrodisiac drug product." Bold claims have been made about many potential aphrodisiacs, which range from commonly used spices and exotic plant extracts to animal organs and ground insects. Many of these are steeped in history and long-held cultural beliefs, but little scientific evidence actually exists to show that they have the desired effects. Some products, such as yohimbine — which is extracted from the bark of the West African Yohimbe tree — have been linked with severe health risks, such as heart attacks and seizures, accordingTrusted Source to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Luckily, we are slowly emerging from the dark ages of aphrodisiac research, with the number of good-quality studies — aiming to get to the bottom of which compounds are safe and how they work — steadily increasing. Ginkgo and ginseng In a review of the scientific evidence underpinning natural aphrodisiacs, Dr. Elizabeth West, from the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of California at Irvine, and Dr. Michael Krychman, from the Southern California Center for Sexual Health and Survivorship Medicine in Newport Beach, explain that "while the data are still limited, ginkgo, ginseng, maca, and Tribulus have promising data behind them." Ginkgo has been shown to increase blood flow to the peripheral organs, including the genitals. While one study showed an improvement in sexual function in both men and women, these findings were not supported in another study, according to Drs. West and Krychman. Ginkgo is well-tolerated by most people, but it can cause risk of excessive bleeding, they caution. Several double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical studies support the notion that ginseng is effective for erectile dysfunction, and — to a lesser studied degree — can improve sexual arousal in menopausal women. As with ginkgo, there may be side effects, which include minor gastrointestinal symptoms. Those with hormone-sensitive cancers should avoid using ginseng. Maca and Tribulus terrestris According to Drs. West and Krychman, "Research in rodents has shown that maca [an Andean root vegetable] effectively enhanced libido and improved erectile function after supplementation." Although three clinical studies showed improvement in sexual function in women and men, another trial did not. Tribulus terrestris, which is a plant traditionally used in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine, contains a compound that is converted to dehydroepiandrosterone, a natural steroid hormone. "A rodent study showed increased sperm production after Tribulus supplementation," say Drs. West and Krychman. Sexual satisfaction in the women taking Tribulus terrestrial was improved in several studies — includingTrusted Source a 2017 trial — while semen qualityTrusted Source and erectile dysfunctionTrusted Source in men also saw a boost. Not 'recognized as safe and effective' Despite the increase in good-quality clinical studies, the FDA caution that "[t]here is a lack of adequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness of any [...] ingredients [...] for OTC [over-the-counter] use as an aphrodisiac." They issue a further warning: "Based on evidence currently available, any OTC drug product containing ingredients for use as an aphrodisiac cannot be generally recognized as safe and effective." So, before you rush off to stock up on any purported aphrodisiac, it might be worth bearing this warning in mind. Talking to your healthcare provider, rather than taking matters into your own hands, could be a safer option altogether. (Source: Medical News Today)

How do I recognize emotional abuse?

How to Recognize the Signs of Emotional Abuse Medically reviewed by Jacquelyn Johnson, PsyD. — By Ann Pietrangelo and Crystal Raypole — Updated on January 28, 2022 What is emotional abuse? You might be familiar with many of the obvious signs of emotional abuse and manipulation. But when you're in an abusive situation, it's easy to miss the subtle early signs that build up to a a persistent undercurrent of abusive behavior. Emotional abuse involves attempts to frighten, control, or isolate you. This type of abuse doesn't involve physical violence, though it might involve threats of violence directed toward you or your loved ones. It's characterized by a person's words, actions, and the consistency of these behaviors. Abuse may start gradually, but it happens again and again. People of any age or gender can abuse or experience abuse. And abuse doesn't just happen in the context of romantic relationships. The person abusing you could be your spouse or romantic partner — but they might also be your business partner, parent, caretaker, or even your adult child. Regardless, you don't deserve the abuse, and it's definitely not your fault. Continue reading to learn how to recognize the signs of emotional abuse and get some guidance on what to do next. Humiliation, negating, and criticizing Someone abusing you may use different tactics to undermine your self-esteem. Examples include: Name-calling and derogatory nicknames. They'll blatantly call you "stupid," "a loser," or use other insults. Maybe they use terms of "endearment" that actually highlight things you're sensitive about — "my little nail biter" or "my chubby pumpkin" — and ignore your requests to stop. Character assassination. This usually involves the word "always." You're always late, wrong, screwing up, disagreeable, and so on. They might say these things to you, or use them to describe your behavior to others. Yelling. Screaming, yelling, and swearing can intimidate you and make you feel small and inconsequential. Maybe they never hit you, but they do pound their fist, throw things, or damage property. Patronizing. They belittle you by saying things like, "I know you try, but this is just beyond the scope of your brain." Public embarrassment. They pick fights, share your secrets, or make fun of your shortcomings in public. Dismissiveness. You share something important to you and they reply with, "What? Who cares about that?" Body language like eye rolling, smirking, head shaking, and sighing help convey the same message. "Joking." When you express discomfort with something they've said, they snap back, "Can't you take a joke? Grow up." You're left feeling foolish and wondering whether you are, in fact, too sensitive. Insulting your appearance. As you head out, they stop you at the door. "You're wearing that ridiculous outfit? No wonder you can't get a date." Or they constantly say you're lucky they chose you, since they could find someone so much more attractive. Belittling your accomplishments. They brush off your achievements, saying they don't matter, or claim responsibility for your successes. Putting down your interests. They suggest your hobby is a waste of time. "You'll never be any good at the piano, so why do you keep trying?" Really, they'd rather you not participate in activities without them. Pushing your buttons. Once they find something that annoys you or makes you uncomfortable, they begin to mention it every chance they get, ignoring your requests that they stop. Control and shame Abusive behavior relates to the desire to maintain power and control. Someone abusing you might attempt to manipulate you into doing what they want you to do, often by making you feel ashamed of your inadequacies. They may try to control you by: Making threats. They imply — or say outright — that they'll fire you or report you for being an unfit parent. They might even say something like, "There's no telling what I might do," to keep things vague and leave you afraid. Monitoring your whereabouts. They want to know where you are, always, and insist you respond to calls or texts immediately. They might show up at your work or school, just to check you did actually go there. Spying on you digitally. They demand your passwords, or insist you go password-free, and regularly check your internet history, emails, texts, and call log. Gaslighting. Someone abusing you may deny that specific events, arguments, or agreements ever happened. This tactic can leave you questioning your own memory, not to mention your mental health and well-being. Making all the decisions. This might involve closing a joint bank account and canceling doctor's appointments. They may insist you withdraw from school and resign from work — or do so on your behalf. Or maybe they tell you what to wear, what to eat (and how much), or which friends you can spend time with. Controlling your access to finances. They keep bank accounts in their name and make you ask for money. They also expect you to keep your receipts and account for every penny you spend. Emotional blackmailing. Someone using this tactic will attempt to get you to do things by manipulating your feelings. They might use tricky questions to "test" you, take on the role of victim, or try to guilt-trip you. Lecturing you constantly. After you make a mistake, no matter how minor, they catalog all of your errors with a long monologue. They describe all the ways you've fallen short and make it clear they consider you beneath them. Giving direct orders. From, "I don't care what happened. You stay here until you get that client back, or you're fired," to "Stop taking the pill," they expect you to do everything they say without question. Having frequent outbursts. They told you to cancel that outing with your friend, or put the car in the garage, but you didn't. So, they become enraged, angrily shouting about how inconsiderate and uncooperative you are. Feigning helplessness. They say they don't know how to do something, hoping you'll simply do it yourself instead of taking the time to explain it. Unpredictability. They explode for no clear reason, then suddenly shower you with affection. Or maybe their mood shifts from upbeat to dark and angry with little warning, leaving you never sure what to expect. Walking out. A partner or parent might leave a social event suddenly, so you have no way home. A supervisor might exit during a discussion about your assignment, so your questions remain unresolved. Stonewalling you. During a disagreement or conflict, they shut down, refusing to respond to your attempts to communicate. Accusing, blaming, and denial People who abuse others often try to create a hierarchy that puts them at the top and you at the bottom. Examples might include: Jealousy. They accuse you of flirting or cheating, or say you'd spend all your time with them if you truly loved them. Using guilt. They might try to guilt-trip you into doing something by saying things like, "You owe me this. Look at all I've done for you," in an attempt to get their way. Unrealistic expectations. They expect you to do what they want, when they want you to do it. They think you should always prioritize their needs, do things according to their standards — and you absolutely shouldn't hang out with your friends or family if there's any chance they might need you. Goading and blaming. People who manipulate and abuse typically know just how to upset you. But once you do get upset, they pin the blame back on you — after all, it's your fault for being so sensitive and incompetent. Denying the abuse. When you express concerns about their behavior, they might deny it, seemingly bewildered at the very thought. They may even suggest you're the one with anger and control issues, or say they only get angry because you're such a difficult person. Trivializing. When you explain how much something they said or did upset you and hurt your feelings, they accuse you of overreacting or misunderstanding the situation. Blaming you for their problems. When things go wrong, they always blame you. If only you'd been a more loving child, a more supportive partner, or a better parent, they might say, their life would be fantastic. Destroying and denying. They might throw your phone down to break it, "lose" your car keys, or destroy other important possessions, then deny it or say it happened accidentally. Emotional neglect and isolation Someone abusing you will generally try to get you to prioritize their needs and neglect your own. Often, they'll also make an effort to isolate you by coming between you and your supportive loved ones — a step which, of course, leaves you more dependent on them. Tactics they might use include: Dehumanizing you. They'll intentionally look away when you're talking or stare at something else when speaking to you in an effort to make you feel unimportant. Keeping you from socializing. Whenever you have plans to go out, they come up with a distraction or beg you not to go. Invalidating you. They might suggest or say straight out that your needs, boundaries, and desires don't matter to them. Trying to come between you and your family. They'll tell family members you don't want to see them or make excuses why you can't attend family functions. Later, they might tell you that your loved ones don't care about you or think there's something wrong with you. Using the silent treatment. They might ignore your attempts at conversation in person, via text, or over the phone. Withholding affection. They won't touch you, even to hold your hand or pat you on the shoulder. They may refuse to have any intimate contact if you offend them, or they want you to do something you don't want to do. Shutting down communication. They might wave you off, change the subject, or simply ignore you when you want to talk about important concerns. Actively working to turn others against you. They might tell other people in your life, including co-workers, friends, and even your family, that you lie, have lost touch with reality, or have had an emotional breakdown. Denying support. When you need emotional support or help with a problem, they might call you needy, say the world can't stop and wait on your problems, or tell you to toughen up and fix it yourself. Interrupting. They might get in your face when you're in the middle of an activity and take away your phone or anything else in your hands to let you know your attention should be on them. Disputing your feelings. No matter what feeling or emotion you express, they might insist you shouldn't feel that way. For example, "You shouldn't be angry over that," or "What have you got to feel sad about?" How to deal with emotional abuse If you believe you're experiencing emotional abuse, trust your instincts. Abuse is never your fault, and you don't have to live with it If you fear immediate physical violence, get to a safe place if you can. You can also call 911 or your local emergency services for help. If you aren't in immediate danger and you need to talk or find some place to go, call the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 800-799-7233. This free, confidential 24/7 hotline can put you in touch with service providers and shelters across the United States. These tips offer a place to start: Don't try to fix them. You may want to help, but it's often difficult for abusive people to change their behavior without professional support. You can encourage them to work with a therapist, but they have to make the choice themselves. Avoid self-blame. Remember, you never deserve abuse, no matter what you've said or done. The only person responsible is the one engaging in abusive behavior. Prioritize your needs. Taking care of your physical and emotional needs can help you move forward to a place where you feel comfortable setting boundaries, reaching out for support, and leaving the abusive situation. Avoid engaging with them. Don't reply to their text messages, phone calls, or emails. If you can't avoid working or spending time with them, try to keep another person with you and limit your conversation to essential topics. Set personal boundaries. Decide how you'll avoid responding to manipulation or getting pulled into arguments. Express those limits to the person using abuse tactics and stick to them. You might say, for example, "If you call me names, I'll go home," or, "If you start teasing me in public, I'll leave." Build a support network. It might feel frightening to open up about what you've experienced, but reaching out to loved ones and a supportive therapist can go a long way toward helping you get the support you need to heal. Exit the relationship or circumstance. State clearly that the relationship is over and cut all ties, if possible. Block their number and social media accounts, and ignore attempts to reach out. Give yourself time to heal. Take space to focus on your needs and recovery. This might involve rediscovering your sense of self, creating a new self-care routine, and talking with a therapist who can offer guidance with recovery. Leaving an abusive relationship often proves more challenging if you're married, have children, or have shared assets. If that's your situation, a good next step involves seeking legal assistance. A domestic violence advocate or mental health professional can also help you develop an exit plan to leave the relationship safely. The following resources can also help you come up with a plan: DomesticShelters.org. Visit this website for educational information, a free hotline, and a searchable database of services in your area. Love Is Respect. This nonprofit organization offers teens and young adults a chance to chat online, call, or text with advocates. (Source: healthline)

How can I tell if I've been emotionally abused?

How to tell if you've been emotionally abused by your parents: 6 things parents do that are extremely harmful A parent may be physically or psychologically unable to care for their child, leading to emotional abuse that is unintentional but can still have long-lasting mental and physical damage for the child. Emotional abuse can manifest in many ways including intimidation and comparing you to others. Other types of emotional abuse, like neglect, may happen if the parent has a mental health condition. Parental emotional abuse can cause long-lasting damage to a child's mental and physical health. Emotional abuse is the most common form of child mistreatment. About 36% of the adult population reports experiencing emotional abuse during childhood, typically from parents or caregivers. Emotional abuse describes a pattern of behavior that damages your self-worth or sense of emotional safety, including constant criticism, threats, rejection, name-calling, or withholding of love and support. However, there's a big difference between having a normal argument with a parent and emotional abuse, says Lauren Kerwin, PhD, a licensed clinical psychologist in private practice. In a healthy argument, your parent can disagree with you while still allowing you to feel heard and respected. The situation can become abusive if your parent invalidates or discounts your feelings. "When a parent is chronically emotionally invalidating — by shaming, criticizing, insulting, or mocking their child — the child feels constantly judged and inadequate and ends up developing a whole host of negative beliefs about themselves," adds Kerwin. "Their shame can easily turn into borderline personality disorder (BPD), substance abuse, suicidal ideation, and other worrisome mental health issues." Note: Most perpetrators of emotional abuse are parents: about 53.7% are women, and 45.3% are men. Boys and girls experience similar rates of childhood abuse. Kerwin notes that emotional abuse tends to happen more in households where at least one parent has a mental health disorder or substance abuse issues. Remember: Emotional abuse doesn't only happen during childhood. People can experience it at any age and in the context of any kind of relationship, including with romantic partners. Regardless, the important thing to emphasize is that it's not your fault, and you don't deserve to be treated this way. Below, experts share some signs of parental emotional abuse to look out for, plus some guidance on how to cope. 1. They always come first It's important for parents to take care of themselves — after all, they can only properly care for their children if their own physical, mental, and emotional needs are met. Still, when a parent constantly prioritizes their needs above a child's, that can manifest into abuse over time, especially when the child is too young to have the resources to take care of themselves, says Tara Krueger, PsyD, national director of Family Therapy Services, Newport Healthcare. Some examples of this parental behavior include: Frequently leaving young children at home without a caretaker in order to go on dates. Guilt-tripping a child or teen into staying home with them instead of seeing friends because they're lonely. Ideally, a parent would make sure they have a babysitter in place before scheduling social plans or find another healthy way to deal with their loneliness like calling a friend rather than relying solely on their child for emotional support. People who have children at a young age may not be emotionally equipped for parenting and therefore may be more prone to emotionally abusing them. However, it could also be a sign of a personality disorder like narcissistic personality disorder, says Krueger. Kerwin also notes that a parent with autism can have trouble perceiving their child's needs and putting them first, and not even realize they're neglecting them in some way. 2. They isolate you Isolation is a form of emotional abuse often used to gain control by severing ties to other friends, family members, and loved ones, according to Krueger. "By cutting children off from others, it could prevent them from developing social skills and from reaching out for help," she says. According to Kerwin, some common signs your parent is trying to isolate you are: They actively try to discourage you from having relationships with other family members. They constantly come up with excuses as for why you can't see friends. They take direct actions to restrict your communication with other people. They arbitrarily and frequently lock you in your room for unpredictable amounts of time. Kerwin notes that abusive isolation is different from, say, grounding a teenager for a week as a consequence for engaging in harmful behavior like abusing substances at a party. Note: Kerwin says younger children — especially under the age of 3 — are more vulnerable to emotional abuse than older teens and adults — but anyone can experience it, including adults. 3. They intimidate you "Intimidation can be an extreme form of emotional abuse, as it causes the victim to feel powerless, hopeless, and scared," says Krueger. This behavior can take many different forms. A parent might have unpredictable emotional outbursts when you try to confront them about something, leaving you feeling unsafe to express your feelings and concerns. They might yell, scream, and swear at you, call you names, or even throw things when you disagree with them. According to Krueger, poor emotional regulation, a lack of empathy, and a high need for control can cause a parent to resort to intimidation. She adds that people with borderline personality disorder may use intimidation as a desperate attempt to keep their children from abandoning them — for example, by threatening to never speak to you again if you hang up the phone or leave the house. Emotional abuse like this can have ever-lasting effects on the child. For example, a 2021 study of university students found that of all the possible types of mistreatment, emotional abuse was associated with the highest incidence rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. 4. They withhold affection Emotional abuse can be harder to identify than physical abuse. Like, in some cases, it isn't marked by what a parent is doing but rather by what they're not doing. They may intentionally withhold affection as a means of influencing your behavior. According to Krueger, this can mean purposefully avoiding hugs, saying "I love you", and offering verbal praise. For example, when a parent gives you the cold shoulder after you tell them you can't come home for the holidays, or after you express an opinion that opposes theirs. This form of passive aggressive behavior sends the message that their love is conditional: only when you please them will they express their affection for you. Krueger says this kind of abuse can lead you to constantly seek out their approval in order to get the affection you need. "Adults who withhold affection may also have experienced abuse as a child," says Krueger. "This behavior may have been modeled for them and become a template for how to parent their own children." 5. They neglect you Neglect is one of the most common forms of child emotional abuse. When a parent fails to meet a child's basic needs — like food, clothing, sleep, hygiene, and medical attention — that's considered neglect, says Krueger. Important: The CDC estimates children living in poverty are five times more likely to experience abuse. However, just because a child is living in poverty doesn't mean the parents are guilty of neglect. Neglect occurs when the parent doesn't use the resources available to them to care for their child, and therefore jeopardizes their health or safety. Emotional neglect may entail: Failing to give caring or loving responses when a child is suffering or ignoring them and reaches out for support. Failing to provide psychological care for the child. Allowing the child to use alcohol and drugs. Neglect can be incredibly detrimental to your physical, mental, and emotional well-being. A 2015 review found that emotional abuse during childhood is linked to poor immune system response and overall health in adulthood. This abuse can also stunt the development of a child's brain, thus leading to psychological problems and potentially triggering to high-risk behaviors. That may help explain why children and teens who are abused by caregivers are also more likely to become involved in criminal activity. Very often, Krueger says parental neglect is a sign of a serious mental illness, like a mood disorder or substance use disorder, which compromises the parent's judgment or ability to meet their child's needs. In other words, a parent may simply be physically or psychologically unable to care for a child. 6. They compare you to others Comparison is a natural human instinct — in the same way that a child may notice how their parents are a lot stricter than their friends, a parent may notice that another couple's child is far more well-behaved. However, as soon as your parent begins verbalizing these comparisons out loud to you, it can soon become abusive. For example, they might say: "Why can't you be more like [friend's name]?" or "Your cousin doesn't have any trouble finishing their homework, I don't know why it's so hard for you." Or in households with more than one child, a parent may compare you to a sibling, says Kerwin. This can leave you feeling inferior to and even resentful of your brother or sister, increasing rivalry and damaging that relationship, as well. There's a good chance your parent isn't comparing you to others to deliberately hurt you, but rather, in an attempt to motivate you to behave in a particular way that's more pleasing to them. Regardless of the intention, though, it can, "create short-term impacts such as anger and embarrassment, and even long-term impacts including diminished self-esteem and lack of trust in others," says Krueger. A 2016 study found that emotional abuse is linked to a higher risk of many different kinds of mental disorders including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and substance use disorders. A healthier way to motivate you would be to simply express whatever change they'd like to see without measuring you against someone else. How to get help If you think you've been emotionally abused by your parents, remember that you are not alone — and there are a number of resources you can use to get help. Kerwin recommends that minors consider talking to a trusted adult — like a guidance counselor or teacher — about what they're experiencing at home. A trained staff member may be able to get the child additional support services, like a child or family psychologist, to ensure their safety and well-being. Krueger notes that crisis text lines can be a great option for adolescents, teens, and adults who have their own cell phones. Some hotlines you can reach out to include: National Domestic Violence Hotline: Call 1-800-799-SAFE or text "START" to 88788, or use the online chat feature for free and confidential support 24/7. Love Is Respect: Teens and young adults can call 1-866-331-9474, text "LOVEIS" to 22522, or use the online chat feature to seek advice and support from advocates. National Child Abuse Hotline: Call or text 1-800-422-4453 to report abuse and/or get assistance finding free help and support in your area. National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) Hotline: Call 1-800-950-NAMI, text "NAMI" to 741-741, or utilize the online chat feature on the NAMI website to connect with a trained crisis counselor. Also, if you're independent and able, Krueger highly recommends seeking a licensed therapist, who can help you work through any trauma caused by the abuse. "For adults who are still suffering the effects, therapy can assist in working through resentments and understanding how their current relationships may be impacted by unresolved pain from their past," she says. Insider's takeaway Remember: There's nothing you could ever do to deserve being emotionally abused — especially by a parent, who's supposed to protect you, nurture you, and provide a safe environment for you to express your needs. There are many potential reasons why a parent might resort to emotional abuse, including if they're dealing with mental health conditions, substance use problems, or they're not emotionally ready to be a parent. Regardless of the reason or what they're going through, this mistreatment is never your fault and can be extremely dangerous for your short and long-term mental and physical health. If any of the above signs sound familiar or you suspect that a parent may be abusing you, consider reaching out for help. Children might try talking with a trusted adult at school, while teens and adults can contact a therapist or domestic violence or crisis hotline. (Source: Business Insider)

How many phobias are there

Hundreds, probably. (Source: me)

What is the brain?

It's an organ in our heads that serves as the command center of the body. It receives information from the world, processes it, and then sends out a response.

How do I deal with toxic parents?

How to Deal With Toxic Parents Written by Janie McQueen Though she didn't yet know the term "toxic," Rashawnda James knew something was very off about her relationship with her mother when she was just 13 years old. "I realized that in the conversations at school that they were talking as though their parents were around a lot," she says. James's parent, a crack cocaine addict, wasn't. "There were times when I had to go search for my mother because I didn't know where she was," James says. "I felt responsible for my mom. Once I made that connection, I knew it was unhealthy." Common Toxic Traits Signs you might have a toxic parent include: They're self-centered. They don't think about your needs or feelings. They're emotional loose cannons. They overreact, or create drama. They overshare. They share improper info with you, like details about their intimate lives. They use you as their main source of emotional support. They seek control. They might use guilt and money to get you to do what they want. They're harshly critical. Nothing you do is ever good enough. They don't respect your good traits or achievements. They lack boundaries. They might show up unasked at your home, or attack your life choices. Now an Atlanta-based licensed therapist, author, and self-care expert, James can name her mother's toxic behaviors. These include manipulation and gaslighting, a technique that makes you question your ability to tell what's true or really happening. "As a child, I couldn't avoid my mother. I couldn't set boundaries," James says. "The lines were blurred. There was no filter." However, her mother managed to involve James in positive activities. "That became my safe haven," James says. She excelled at track and field. One organization offered free therapy when she was in 12th grade. "It literally changed my life," she says. That same counselor became her supervisor years later when James decided to become a therapist. Get Rid of Guilt "As adults, we have choices that we didn't have as children, and we're not required to always do what our parents want," says Sharon Martin, a licensed clinical social worker in San Jose, CA. She's the author of The CBT Workbook for Perfectionism and The Better Boundaries Workbook. If you were raised to respect your elders, obey your parents, and please them at all costs, setting boundaries can seem foreign. Martin urges her clients to challenge that mindset. "Remember your parents' inability to love, accept, and value you aren't your fault, and don't have to do with your shortcomings. "For example, consider whether you think it's wrong to set boundaries, ask to be treated with respect, prioritize your or your immediate family's needs above your parents', or limit how much time you spend with your parents," she says. "Would you tell a close friend that they're wrong to do these things in response to yelling, manipulation, lying, harsh criticism, smear campaigns, or threats?" ADVERTISEMENT Don't Try to Change Them A big "aha" moment for James was realizing she couldn't be the reason for her mom to stop doing drugs. "I became the golden child. I thought, if I do well, she would possibly stay clean. If I graduate from high school ... college... ." And on and on. "I had to start living my life, and let go of it," she says. "It's normal to want to please your parents, no matter your age," Martin says. "But be realistic about whether it's possible, and what your efforts are costing you emotionally, physically, mentally, financially, and spiritually." "The most harmful thing to do to yourself is to believe you can fix them," James agrees. "If you know that, you don't have to stay there and take what they're giving you. You can choose yourself. It releases you, when you don't have to fix something." Boundaries Are Key Fifteen years later, James's mother is clean. The two live 22 minutes from each other and talk about twice a day, though they did take a 2-year break. James stresses that while she chooses to carry on their relationship with her mom, you must do what's best for you. "It's taken me 10 years of me enforcing the boundaries," James says. "I say 'No, Mom. I can't give you money.' 'No Mom, I can't be this for you.' 'I can't go over there where those people make me uncomfortable, but you're free to come over here.'" "Just because she's my mother, her priorities don't have to outweigh mine," she adds. It helps that her mom has become more self-aware over time, and sometimes can catch herself in old patterns. No Need to Explain Have a short stock response to questions about why you're not in contact with your parents, i.e., "I'm not talking to my parents because they're emotionally abusive." This can help you remember why you've set limits, even if others don't get it. "When others judge or criticize your decision to limit contact or set other boundaries with your parents, it's usually because they assume you have emotionally healthy parents who treat you with respect," Martin says. "But you're limiting contact because your parents are treating you poorly. And your parents don't get a free pass to mistreat you simply because they're your parents." You still don't owe anyone a reason, though, Martin adds. "You have the right to say, 'I don't want to talk about it.'" Practice Self-Care Children of toxic parents might not be used to taking care of themselves, Martin says. "Use a mantra such as, 'Self-care isn't selfish,' or 'My needs matter,' or 'I'm an adult and have the right to make my own choices.'" James plans a self-care activity such as journaling or exercising after she spends time with her mother. "I love to journal. It's a great way to have an internal dialogue, to release my thoughts. I don't keep my thoughts inside and burden myself with that," she says. She also loves dance workouts to music from Miami, as Florida is her home state. Listening to gospel music is another way she keeps grounded. It helps me realize that my struggle isn't just my burden, she says. "It's a good reminder that my mom is not my responsibility. God can do more than what I could ever do for her." Set Up a Support System "A support system is essential," Martin says. She suggests support groups, or individual therapy with someone who works in narcissistic abuse, developmental trauma, or codependency. To find a therapist, call your insurance company or go online and get a list of providers. If you don't have insurance, affordable online options include Telehealth and BetterHelp. Change Your Story "At an early age, I saw what life was, and I made a commitment to myself not to repeat that cycle," James says. "I didn't have the road map or the blueprint, but since 12th grade, I've gained the tools to live in a more healthy and positive way." She's raising her three children with these in mind. For example, she doesn't overshare, as her own mother did. "I really try to maintain their innocence as much as possible," she says. "I don't burden my children with other people's problems. I allow them to see my emotions, because I want them to know a full spectrum. "I follow the principle that my bounds of happiness are not placed in others, places, or things. I can be anywhere, I can have anything, and still find joy. That's one of my superpowers!" (Source: WebMD)

How do I invest?

How to Invest in Stocks: A Beginner's Guide By CHAD LANGAGER Updated August 23, 2022 Reviewed by JULIUS MANSA Fact checked by YARILET PEREZ Investing is a time-tested way of putting your money to work for you, as you work to earn more of it. Legendary investor Warren Buffett defined investing as "forgoing consumption now in order to have the ability to consume more at a later date." 1 By investing your money regularly, you may be able to increase it many times over with time. That's why it's important to begin investing as early as possible and as soon as you have some money saved for that purpose. Furthermore, the stock market is a good place to start. Whether you have $1,000 set aside or can manage only an extra $25 a week, you can get started. Bear in mind that there's a lot that you can and should learn about investing in stocks to achieve financial success. However, right now, read on for the steps to begin the process. KEY TAKEAWAYS Investing is the act of committing money or capital to an endeavor with the expectation of obtaining additional income or profit. Unlike consuming, investing puts money to work so it can grow over time. However, investing also comes with the risk of losses. The stock market is a common way for investors, no matter their experience, to invest for a lifetime. Beginning investors can get help from expert advisors, leave their portfolio selection and management to robo-advisors, or take a DIY approach to investing in stocks. Steps to Get Started 1. Define Your Tolerance for Risk What's your tolerance for risk (the chance that you may lose money while investing)? Stocks are categorized in various ways, such as large capitalization stocks, small cap stocks, aggressive growth stocks, and value stocks. They all have different levels of risk. Once you determine your risk tolerance, you can set your investment sights on the stocks that complement it. 2. Decide on Your Investment Goals You should also determine your investment goals. When opening a brokerage account, an online broker such as Charles Schwab or Fidelity will ask you about your investment goals (and the aforementioned level of risk that you're willing to take). If you're just beginning your career, an investment goal could be to increase the amount of money in your account. If you're older, you may want to generate income as well as grow and protect your wealth. Your investment goals might include buying a house, funding your retirement, or saving for tuition. Goals can change over time. Just make sure that you define and review them periodically so that you can keep your focus on achieving them. 3. Determine Your Investing Style Some investors want to take an active hand in managing their investments, while others prefer to set it and forget it. Your preference may change, but decide on an approach to get started. If you're confident about your investing knowledge and capability, you could manage your investing and portfolio on your own. Traditional online brokers, like the two mentioned above, allow you to invest in stocks, bonds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), index funds, and mutual funds. An experienced broker or financial advisor can help you make your investment decisions, monitor your portfolio, and make changes to it. This is a good option for beginners who understand the importance of investing but may want an expert to help them do it. A robo-advisor is an automated, hands-off option that typically costs less than working with a broker or financial advisor. Once a robo-advisor program has your goals, risk tolerance level, and other details, it automatically invests for you. 4. Choose Your Investment Account Retirement plan at work: You can invest in various stock and bond mutual funds and target-date funds through a retirement plan at work, such as a 401(k), if your employer offers one. It may also offer the option of investing in the employer's company stock. Once you enroll in a plan, contributions are made automatically at a level you set. Employers may make matching contributions on your behalf. Your contributions are tax deductible and your account balance grows tax deferred. This is a great way to maximize your investing dollars with little effort. It can also instill in investors the discipline of regular investing. An IRA or taxable account at a brokerage: You can also start investing in stocks by opening an individual retirement account (even in addition to having a workplace plan). Or, you can go with a regular, taxable brokerage account. Normally, you'll have lots of options for investing in stocks. These could include individual stocks, stock mutual funds and exchange traded funds (ETFs), stock options. A robo-advisor account: As referenced above, this type of account takes your investment goals and creates a stock portfolio for you. 5. Learn to Diversify and Reduce Risk Diversification is an important investment concept to understand. In a nutshell, by investing in a range of assets, or diversifying, you reduce the risk that one investment's performance can severely hurt the return of your overall investment portfolio. You could think of it as financial jargon for not putting all of your eggs in one basket. It can be difficult to diversify when investing in individual stocks if your budget is limited. For example, with just $1,000, you may only be able to invest in one or two companies. This results in greater risk. This is where mutual funds and ETFs can help. Both types of funds tend to own a large number of stocks and other investments. This makes them a more diversified option than a single stock. Minimums to Open an Account Many financial institutions have minimum deposit requirements. In other words, they won't accept your account application unless you deposit a certain amount of money. It pays to shop around, and not just to find out minimum deposits. Check out our broker reviews (see below). Some firms don't require minimum deposits. Others may reduce costs, such as trading fees and account management fees if you have a balance above a certain threshold. Still others may offer a certain number of commission-free trades for opening an account. The Costs to Invest in Stocks Commissions and Fees As economists like to say, there's no free lunch. All brokers have to make money from their customers in one way or another. In most cases, your broker will charge a commission every time that you trade stocks, whether you buy or sell. Trading fees range from $2 per trade to as high as $10. Some brokers charge no trade commissions at all, but they make up for it with other fees. Depending on how often you trade, these fees can add up, affect your portfolio's return, and deplete the amount of money you have to invest. Here's an example: Imagine that you decide to buy one share of stock in each of five companies with your $1,000. Assuming a transaction fee of $10, you will incur $50 in trading costs which is equivalent to five percent of your $1,000. Should you sell these stocks, the round trip (the act of buying and then selling) would cost you a total of $100, or 10 percent of your initial deposit amount of $1,000. These costs alone can eat into your account balance before your investments even have a chance to earn a positive return. Mutual Fund Loads Mutual funds are professionally managed pools of investor funds that focus their investments in different markets. They have various fees that you should be aware of. One of these is the management expense ratio (MER). The MER is the fee paid by shareholders of a mutual fund (or ETF) and goes toward the expenses of running a fund. It's based on the total of a fund's assets under management. The MER can range from 0.05 percent to 2 percent annually. Bear in mind that, the higher the MER, the more it impacts the fund's overall return. You may also see sales charges called loads. These include front-end loads and back-end loads. Be sure you understand whether a fund carries a sales load prior to buying it. Check out your broker's list of no-load funds and no-transaction-fee funds to avoid these charges. For the beginning investor, mutual fund fees may be more palatable compared to the commissions charged when you buy individual stocks. Plus, you can invest less to get started with a fund than you'd probably pay to invest in individual stocks. By the way, investing small amounts consistently over time in a mutual fund can give you the benefits of dollar cost averaging (DCA) by reducing the impact of volatility. Online Brokers Brokers are either full-service or discount. Full-Service Brokers Full-service brokers, as the name implies, offer a full range of traditional brokerage services, including financial advice for college planning, retirement planning, estate planning, and for other life events and opportunities. This custom-tailored advice justifies the higher fees that they typically charge, compared to other brokers. These can include a percentage of your transactions, a percentage of your assets under management, and sometimes, a yearly membership fee. Minimum account sizes can start at $25,000. Discount Brokers Discount brokers used to be the exception but are now the norm. They offer you tools to select your investments and place your orders. Some also offer a set-it-and-forget-it robo-advisory service (more below). Many provide educational materials on their sites and mobile apps, which can be helpful for beginning investors. Some brokers have no (or very low) minimum deposit restrictions. However, they may have other requirements and fees. Be sure to check on both of these as you look for a brokerage account that meets your stock investing needs. Robo-Advisors After the 2008 financial crisis, a new breed of investment advisor was born: the robo-advisor. Jon Stein and Eli Broverman of Betterment are often credited as the first in the space. 2 3 Their mission was to use technology to lower costs for investors and streamline investment advice. Since Betterment launched, other robo-first companies have been founded. Established online brokers such as Charles Schwab have added robo-like advisory services. According to a report by Charles Schwab, 58% of Americans say they will use some sort of robo-advice by 2025. 4 If you want an algorithm to make investment decisions for you, including for tax-loss harvesting and rebalancing, a robo-advisor may be for you. What's more, the success of index investing has shown that if your goal is long-term wealth building, a robo-advisor may fit your style. Compare the Best Robo Advisors Company Category Investopedia Rating Account Minimum Fees Wealthfront Best Overall / Best Goal Planning 4.8 $500 0.25% for most accounts, no trading commission or fees for withdrawals, minimums, or transfers. 0.42%-0.46% for 529 plans Betterment Best Beginners / Best Cash Management 4.5 $0 0.25% (annual) for digital plan, 0.40% (annual) for the premium plan Interactive Advisors Best SRI / Best Portfolio Construction 4.2 $100 to $50,000 0.08-1.5% per year, depending on advisor and portfolio chosen M1 Finance Best Low Costs / Best Sophisticated Investors 4.2 $100 ($500 minimum for retirement accounts) 0% Personal Capital Best Portfolio Management 4.2 $100,000 0.89% to 0.49% Merrill Guided Investing Best Education 4.4 $1000 0.45% annually, of assets under management, assessed monthly. With advisor - 0.85% Discounts available for Bank of America Preferred Rewards participants E*TRADE Best Mobile 3.9 $500 0.30% If you plan to trade frequently, check out our list of brokers for cost-conscious traders. Stock Market Simulators People new to investing who wish to gain experience investing without risking their money in the process may find that a stock market simulator is a valuable tool. There are a wide variety of trading simulators available, including those with and without fees. Investopedia's simulator is entirely free to use. Stock market simulators offer users imaginary, virtual money to invest in a portfolio of stocks, options, ETFs, or other securities. These simulators typically track price movements of investments and, depending on the simulator, other notable considerations such as trading fees or dividend payouts. Investors make virtual trades as if they were investing with real money. Through this process, simulator users have the opportunity to learn about investing—and to experience the consequences of their virtual investment decisions—without putting their own money on the line. Some simulators even allow users to compete against other participants, providing an additional incentive to invest thoughtfully. What Is the Difference Between a Full-Service and a Discount Broker? Full-service brokers provide a broad array of financial services, including financial advice for retirement, healthcare, education, and more. They can also offer a host of investment products and educational resources. They have traditionally catered to high-net-worth individuals and often require significant investments. Discount brokers have much lower thresholds for access, but tend to offer a more streamlined set of services. Discount brokers allow users to place individual trades. They also offer educational tools. What Are the Risks of Investing? Investing is a commitment of resources now toward a future financial goal. There are many levels of risk, with certain asset classes and investment products inherently much riskier than others. All investing comes with some degree of risk. It is always possible that the value of your investment will not increase over time. For this reason, a key consideration for investors is how to manage their risk in order to achieve their financial goals, whether these goals are short- or long-term. How Do Commissions and Fees Work? Most brokers charge customers a commission for every trade. These fees can go up to about $10 per trade. Due to commission costs, investors generally find it prudent to limit the total number of trades that they make to avoid spending extra money on fees. Certain other types of investments, such as exchange-traded funds, carry fees in order to cover the costs of fund management. The Bottom Line If you're just starting out as an investor, it's possible to invest in stocks with a relatively small amount of money. You'll have to do your homework to determine your investment goals, your risk tolerance, and the costs associated with investing in stocks and mutual funds. You should also investigate various brokers to clarify the particular requirements of each and which may best fit your needs. Once you do, you'll be well positioned to take advantage of the substantial potential that stocks have to reward you financially throughout the years. SPONSORED What Makes This Investment a Suggested Inflation Hedge? In June 2022, U.S. inflation reached 9.1%, a 40-year high. As a result, many investors are increasing their allocations to inflation hedging assets. One such asset that is seeing record demand is fine art. During periods where inflation was over 3%, art historically showed a 13.5% rate of appreciation—beating stocks, and real estate. With Masterworks, it's easy for anyone to invest in art. Get started today with a special Investopedia link. (Source: Investopedia)

Who invented the printing press?

Johannes Gutenberg

When is St. Patrick's Day?

March 17th

How do I make smart investments?

Making Smart Investments: A Beginner's Guide by Matthew Blume Summary. If you make smart decisions and invest in the right places, you can reduce the risk factor, increase the reward factor, and generate meaningful returns. Here are a few questions to consider as you get started. Why should you invest? At a minimum, investing allows you to keep pace with cost-of-living increases created by inflation. At a maximum, the major benefit of a long-term investment strategy is the possibility of compounding interest, or growth earned on growth. How much should you save vs. invest? As a guideline, save 20% of your income to to build an emergency fund equal to roughly three to six months' worth of ordinary expenses. Invest additional funds that aren't being put toward specific near-term expenses. How do investments work? In the finance world, the market is a term used to describe the place where you can buy and sell shares of stocks, bonds, and other assets. You need to open an investment account, like a brokerage account, which you fund with cash that you can then use to buy stocks, bonds, and other investable assets. How do you make (or lose) money? In the market, you make or lose money depending on the purchase and sale price of whatever you buy. If you buy a stock at $10 and sell it at $15, you make $5. If you buy at $15 and sell at $10, you lose $5. Are you a saver or spender? If you went with the former, then you're in the majority. According to a 2019 Charles Schwab survey, around 59% of Americans said they considered themselves savers. Compare that to more recent findings, however, and you'll see that 63% of respondents in a similar demographic are currently living paycheck to paycheck. Clearly, there's a disconnect between the financial goals we are setting and the steps we are taking to realize them. Many of us are taught from a young age that saving is the most direct path to building wealth and achieving financial freedom. But this is a myth. While saving is key in the pursuit of both goals, making smart investments with your money makes them much more attainable. The fear that stops most people from investing is a reasonable one: financial loss as opposed to financial gain. When we work hard and are disciplined enough to forgo consumption and save, the idea of losing our hard-earned dollars understandably makes us uncomfortable. As a result, we tuck our money away in an FDIC-insured bank account. Here's the problem: The money we put into our accounts is almost guaranteed to lose value. The low interest rates that savings accounts offer can't even keep pace with inflation, meaning our money's purchasing power decreases the longer we save. There is some good news, though. If you make smart decisions and invest in the right places, you can reduce the risk factor, increase the reward factor, and generate meaningful returns without feeling like you'd be better off in Vegas. Here are a few questions to consider as you get started. Why should you invest? Saving versus investing is an oft-heard debate in financial circles. But they're two sides of the same coin. When building wealth, saving is an indispensable part of the financial toolbox — not because it produces wealth on its own, but because it provides the capital necessary to invest. At a minimum, investing allows you to keep pace with cost-of-living increases created by inflation. At a maximum, the major benefit of a long-term investment strategy is the possibility of compounding interest, or growth earned on growth. How much should you save vs. invest? Given that each investor enters the market because of unique circumstances, the best answer to how much you should save is "as much as possible." As a guideline, saving 20% of your income is the right starting place. More is always better, but I believe that 20% allows you to accumulate a meaningful amount of capital throughout your career. Initially, you'll want to allocate these savings to building an emergency fund equal to roughly three to six months' worth of ordinary expenses. Once you've socked away these emergency savings, invest additional funds that aren't being put toward specific near-term expenses. Invested wisely — and over a long period — this capital can multiply. How do investments work? Understanding the market: In the finance world, the market is a term used to describe the place where you can buy and sell shares of stocks, bonds, and other assets. To enter the market, don't use your bank account. You need to open an investment account, like a brokerage account, which you fund with cash that you can then use to buy stocks, bonds, and other investable assets. Big-name firms like Schwab or Fidelity will let you do this similarly to how you'd open a bank account. Stocks vs. bonds: Publicly traded companies use the market to raise money for their operations, growth, or expansion by issuing stocks (small pieces of ownership of the company) or bonds (debt). When a company issues bonds on the market, they are basically asking investors for loans to raise money for their organization. Investors buy the bonds, then the company pays them back, plus a percentage of interest, over time. Stocks, on the other hand, are small pieces of equity in a company. When a company goes from private to public, its stock can be publicly bought and sold on the market — meaning it is no longer privately owned. A stock price is generally reflective of the value of the company, but the actual price is determined by what market participants are willing to pay or accept on any given day. Stocks are considered riskier investments than bonds because of this price volatility. If bad news comes out about a company, people may want to pay less to buy shares than they did before, which will lower the stock price. If you bought the stock for a large sum of money, you risk losing that money if the stock price drops. Stocks are also riskier because when companies go bankrupt, bondholders receive their money back — stockholders have no such guarantee. Making (and losing) money: In the market, you make or lose money depending on the purchase and sale price of whatever you buy. If you buy a stock at $10 and sell it at $15, you make $5. If you buy at $15 and sell at $10, you lose $5. Gains and losses are only "realized" or counted when you make the sale of the asset — so the stock you bought at $10 could drop to $6, but you'll only "lose" the $4 if you sell the stock at $6. Maybe you wait a year and then sell the stock when it's up to $11, thereby gaining $1 per share. Are you investing reasonably? Now that you understand how investing works, it's time to think about where you want to put your money. As a rule of thumb, remember that the best risk an investor can take is a calculated one. But how can you be calculated? How can you distinguish a smart investment from a risky investment? Truthfully, "smart" and "risky" are relative to every investor. Your circumstances (e.g., age, amount of debt, family status) or risk tolerance can help you identify where you fall on the risk spectrum. In general, younger investors with many years before retirement should have riskier portfolios. That longer time horizon gives investors more years to weather the ups and downs of the market — and during their working years, investors are ideally just adding to their investment accounts rather than taking money out. Someone at or near retirement, however, is much more vulnerable to changes in the market. If you use an investment account to cover your living expenses, you could be forced to take that money out of the account during a downturn in the market, which would not only shrink your portfolio but also could ensure significant investment losses. A higher-risk portfolio would likely encompass a significant number of stocks and fewer (if any) bonds. As young investors grow older and need to reduce the risk in their portfolios, they should reduce their investment in stocks and increase their investment in bonds. The ebb and flow of life will influence your investments more than you may realize. Being realistic about your current financial prospects will keep you clearheaded about where to invest your money. Are you building wealth that lasts? Larger-than-average returns almost always require you to take larger-than-average risks, and there are no free lunches in investing. As you work to build wealth and secure your financial future, stay focused on three long-term investment musts: Build a "just in case" nest egg: Nearly one-quarter of Americans have no emergency savings. Don't let yourself get caught in that trap. Retirement savings accounts are critical savings vehicles, but tapping into them before retirement typically brings steep tax penalties. To prevent this from happening, build an emergency fund — as described earlier — that amounts to roughly three to six months of your living expenses. One of the most significant things you can do for your financial future is to make saving automatic — that is, have your bank automatically direct a portion of your paycheck into an account specifically for saving. This ensures you save consistently instead of forcing you to make an active choice to set money aside. This sum should stay somewhere with low risk like a bank account, and it should remain liquid (i.e., cash or something else that's always available to you) to ensure you can access it if you ever need it. Once you've established an emergency fund, invest future savings based on your risk tolerance. Steer savings in the right direction: Generally, you'll want to start by deciding what percentage of your assets you want to be in riskier assets (stocks/shares) and what percentage you want in safer assets (cash and bonds). This depends on your risk tolerance, as outlined above. Somebody young and working should be almost all in stocks, while somebody near retirement age should have a healthier allocation to bonds. If you're just starting to invest, I believe you should look at mutual funds or ETFs (i.e., a collection of stocks, bonds, and other investment vehicles) rather than individual stocks (i.e., ownership in only one company) because it will be easier to create a diversified account using funds if the account in question is small. Diversification (owning a variety of assets) is important because it lessens the chance that your whole portfolio will lose value in a market downturn. You'll want to find funds with solid track records and reasonable fees; plenty of popular press and dedicated research sites like Morningstar or Yahoo Finance will provide this information. When you're ready to start investing in individual stocks, you'll want to do the same kind of research on any companies you consider: Do they have good track records? Do they have good management? Is the stock price reasonable? Does it add diversification to your portfolio, or is it similar to what you already hold? Spend some time on this step to ensure you're making informed investment choices. Make variety a theme of your investments: Diversifying across your entire investment "portfolio" (i.e., all of the investments you hold) is critical to building wealth because it allows you to manage risk more effectively. Stocks are one of the most talked-about investments, but you wouldn't want to tie your entire financial future to the success of a single company — or even any broader market. Depending on your financial circumstances and risk tolerance, you might want to consider investing in private equity, venture capital, precious metals, commodities, and real estate, all of which are available on the market. All these investments can be effective means to achieve portfolio diversification and manage risk. Why? Because they rely on different underlying drivers. This means they generally operate in ways that are uncorrelated with each other and with more traditional investments like stocks and bonds, so they may be going up when stocks are going down. A well-constructed portfolio should include several different types of assets (meaning stocks, bonds, etc.) that do not move in tandem. This reduces the volatility of a portfolio without necessarily lowering its return potential. While these steps alone will not guarantee you complete financial independence, I believe they're a great starting point. They can help you amass savings, achieve portfolio diversification, and empower you to start building wealth for a better financial future. Editor's Note: The opinions expressed here are for general informational purposes only. It is important to do your own research and analysis before making any financial decisions. We recommend speaking to an independent advisor if you are unsure how to proceed. Author's note: This commentary is prepared by Matthew Blume of Pekin Hardy Strauss, Inc. (dba "Pekin Hardy Strauss Wealth Management," "Pekin Hardy") for informational purposes only and is not intended as an offer or solicitation for the purchase or sale of any security. The information contained herein is neither investment advice nor a legal opinion. The views expressed are those of the author as of the date of publication of this report and are subject to change at any time due to changes in market or economic conditions. Pekin Hardy Strauss Inc. cannot assure that the type of investments discussed herein will outperform any other investment strategy in the future. Although information has been obtained from and is based upon sources Pekin Hardy believes to be reliable, we do not guarantee their accuracy. There are no assurances that any predicted results will actually occur. MB Matthew Blume is a portfolio manager of private client accounts at Pekin Hardy Strauss Wealth Management. He also manages the firm's ESG research and shareholder advocacy efforts. He earned a B.S. in electrical engineering from Valparaiso University and an MBA from Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management. Matthew is a CFA charterholder. (Source: Harvard Business Review)

What's the difference between a memory lapse and dementia?

Memory Lapse or Dementia? 5 Clues to Help Tell the Difference Uh-oh. You can't find your keys. You forgot the name of your newest neighbor—again. And exactly where did you park your car at the mall, anyway? An occasional memory slip is normal, says Johns Hopkins geriatrician Sevil Yasar, M.D., Ph.D. But as you age, these "senior moments" may leave you wondering whether you're heading for dementia—the loss of memory and thinking skills severe enough to interfere with independent living, often due to Alzheimer's disease or other brain changes. "Stress, an extra-busy day, poor sleep and even some medications can interfere with making and recalling memories," Yasar says. "And we all have moments when a name or the title of a movie is right on the tip of the tongue, but those events are different from the kinds of lapses that may be warning signs for dementia." Most of the time, memory lapses are nothing to worry about. "But any time you're concerned about yourself or a loved one, it's worth talking with your doctor," Yasar says. So how can you tell the difference between simple slipups and something that may be more serious? The important thing to look for is persistent change in our ability to think and function. Below are five clues. Are you losing things and just can't figure out where they went? We all misplace things. And yes, on a busy morning we may even put the cornflakes box in the refrigerator if we're moving too fast. It's normal to put things in the wrong spot, and it's normal to catch the mistake or retrace our steps to find the keys sitting on top of today's stack of mail. What's not: Being unable to figure out where lost belongings might be, putting things in more and more unusual places and starting to suspect—without evidence—that people have stolen your missing possessions. Do you get lost in familiar places? Losing the way while driving, walking or taking public transportation to a new place is normal. So is getting so absorbed in your journey (or your thoughts) that you have to reorient yourself to figure out exactly where you are. What's not: "Driving or walking for a long time without realizing you're lost or completely forgetting where you are, and not asking for help in these situation could be a sign of dementia," Yasar says. You may also forget how you got to a new location, become easily disoriented in familiar places, or lose the ability to read a map or follow landmarks and traffic signs. Do you lose track of the time, date or season? Once in a while, we all forget what day of the week it is, but we usually remember or figure it out quickly. More troubling: not knowing what day it is, the time of day or how much time is passing—and not realizing that you've forgotten. Additionally, unable to remember appointments or even missing them despite putting it on the calendar or having received numerous reminders by family. These may be signs of dementia, according to Johns Hopkins experts. Are your conversations getting stalled? We all have to search for the right word from time to time. "And it's normal for this to happen more often as we get older," Yasar notes. What's not: extreme difficulty remembering words, calling things and people by the wrong words or names and withdrawing socially as a result. Having more and more trouble following, joining or continuing a conversation (you may stop talking mid-thought and not know what you were going to say next) or even following plot on TV may also be a red flag for dementia risk. Do memory slipups interfere with daily life? Forgetting the name of your neighbor's dog is normal. What's not: No longer being able to do everyday activities the way you used to, and you now need help of your family or professionals, "If you used to balance your bank accounts to the penny and now you've lost track of where your household money is going, bills have not been paid and as a result electricity or phone service has been turned off. Similarly, you feel lost and overwhelmed making, or even worse, being unable to make, Thanksgiving pumpkin pie with your favorite longtime recipe, it may be a sign of early brain changes," Yasar says. And one of the biggest concerns, from a doctor's point of view, is the issue with medication management, such as forgetting to take medications or taking them incorrectly. If you or a loved one are having issues managing medication correctly, it's time to reach out to your doctor. (Source: John Hopkins Medicine)

How common are phobias?

Overview - Phobias A phobia is an overwhelming and debilitating fear of an object, place, situation, feeling or animal. Phobias are more pronounced than fears. They develop when a person has an exaggerated or unrealistic sense of danger about a situation or object. If a phobia becomes very severe, a person may organise their life around avoiding the thing that's causing them anxiety. As well as restricting their day-to-day life, it can also cause a lot of distress. Phobia symptoms A phobia is a type of anxiety disorder. You may not experience any symptoms until you come into contact with the source of your phobia. But in some cases, even thinking about the source of a phobia can make a person feel anxious or panicky. This is known as anticipatory anxiety. Symptoms may include: unsteadiness, dizziness and lightheadedness nausea sweating increased heart rate or palpitations shortness of breath trembling or shaking an upset stomach If you do not come into contact with the source of your phobia very often, it may not affect your everyday life. But if you have a complex phobia, such as agoraphobia, leading a normal life may be very difficult. Types of phobia There are a wide variety of objects or situations that someone could develop a phobia about. But phobias can be divided into 2 main categories: specific or simple phobias complex phobias Specific or simple phobias Specific or simple phobias centre around a particular object, animal, situation or activity. They often develop during childhood or adolescence and may become less severe as you get older. Common examples of simple phobias include: animal phobias - such as dogs, spiders, snakes or rodents environmental phobias - such as heights, deep water and germs situational phobias - such as visiting the dentist or flying bodily phobias - such as blood, vomit or having injections sexual phobias - such as performance anxiety or the fear of getting a sexually transmitted infection (STI) Complex phobias Complex phobias tend to be more disabling than simple phobias. They usually develop during adulthood and are often associated with a deep-rooted fear or anxiety about a particular situation or circumstance. The 2 most common complex phobias are: agoraphobia social phobia Agoraphobia is often thought of as a fear of open spaces, but it's much more complex than this. Someone with agoraphobia will feel anxious about being in a place or situation where escaping may be difficult if they have a panic attack. The anxiety usually results in the person avoiding situations such as: being alone being in crowded places, such as busy restaurants or supermarkets travelling on public transport Social phobia, also known as social anxiety disorder, centres around feeling anxious in social situations. If you have a social phobia, you might be afraid of speaking in front of people for fear of embarrassing yourself and being humiliated in public. In severe cases, this can become debilitating and may prevent you carrying out everyday activities, such as eating out or meeting friends. What causes phobias? Phobias do not seem to have a single cause, but there are a number of associated factors. For example: a phobia may be associated with a particular incident or trauma a phobia may be a learned response that a person develops early in life from a parent or sibling (brother or sister) genetics may play a role - there's evidence to suggest that some people are born with a tendency to be more anxious than others Diagnosing phobias Phobias are not always formally diagnosed. Most people with a phobia are fully aware of the problem. A person will sometimes choose to live with a phobia, taking great care to avoid the object or situation they're afraid of. But if you have a phobia, continually trying to avoid what you're afraid of could make the situation worse. Ask a GP for help if you have a phobia. They may refer you to a specialist with expertise in behavioural therapy, such as a psychologist. You can refer yourself directly to an NHS psychological therapies service (IAPT) without a referral from a GP. Find an NHS psychological therapies service (IAPT) Treating phobias Most phobias can be treated successfully. Simple phobias can be treated through gradual exposure to the object, animal, place or situation that causes fear and anxiety. This is known as desensitisation or self-exposure therapy. You could try these methods with the help of a professional or as part of a self-help programme. Treating complex phobias often takes longer and involves talking therapies, such as: counselling psychotherapy cognitive behavioural therapy Medication may be prescribed to help with anxiety caused by certain phobias. Medicines that may be used include: antidepressants tranquillisers beta blockers How common are phobias? Phobias are a common type of anxiety disorder. They can affect anyone, regardless of age, sex and social background. Some of the most common phobias include: arachnophobia - fear of spiders claustrophobia - fear of confined spaces agoraphobia - fear of open spaces and public places social phobia - fear of social situations (Source: NHS)

What is the nhs?

The NHS stands for the National Health Service. It's a publicly funded health program in the UK that has a website which gets millions of visits (around 50 million) from users every month. (Source: NHS)

What should I know about the brain and creativity?

The Creative Brain Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D. Additional article information Abstract Our author's Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity Lab at Penn State uses brain imaging and behavioral experiments to examine how creative thinking works in different contexts and domains, from the arts to the sciences to everyday life. His article examines the part of the brain that directs creative thought and asks the million-dollar question: Can creativity be enhanced? When we think about creativity, the arts often come to mind. Most people would agree that writers, painters, and actors are all creative. This is what psychologists who study the subject refer to as Big-C creativity: publicly-recognizable, professional-level performance. But what about creativity on a smaller scale? This is what researchers refer to as little-c creativity, and it is something that we all possess and express in our daily lives, from inventing new recipes to performing a do-it-yourself project to thinking of clever jokes to entertain the kids. One way psychologists measure creative thinking is by asking people to think of uncommon uses for common objects, such as a cup or a cardboard box. Their responses can be analyzed on different dimensions, such as fluency (the total number of ideas) and originality. Surprisingly, many people struggle with this seemingly simple task, only suggesting uses that closely resemble the typical uses for the object. The same happens in other tests that demand ideas that go beyond what we already know (i.e., "thinking outside the box"). Such innovation tasks assess just one aspect of creativity. Many new tests are being developed that tap into other creative skills, from visuospatial abilities essential for design (like drawing) to scientific abilities important for innovation and discovery. But where do creative ideas come from, and what makes some people more creative than others? Contrary to romantic notions of a purely spontaneous process, increasing evidence from psychology and neuroscience experiments indicates that creativity requires cognitive effort—in part, to overcome the distraction and "stickiness" of prior knowledge (remember how people think of common uses when asked to devise of creative ones). In light of these findings, we can consider general creative thinking as a dynamic interplay between the brain's memory and control systems. Without memory, our minds would be a blank slate—not conducive to creativity, which requires knowledge and expertise. But without mental control, we wouldn't be able to push thinking in new directions and avoid getting stuck on what we already know. Creativity By Default Creative thinking is supported in part by our ability to imagine the future—our capacity to envision experiences that have not yet occurred. From planning dinner to envisioning an upcoming vacation, we routinely rely on our imaginations to picture what the future might look like. Interestingly, the same brain region that allows us to imagine a future is also involved in recalling the past: the hippocampus. A seahorse-shaped region embedded in the temporal lobe of the brain, the hippocampus plays an important role in piecing together details of experiences—people, places, objects, actions—both to accurately re-construct past events and to vividly construct possible future events. Early research with amnesiac patients provided clear evidence for the role of the hippocampus in remembering and imagining, finding that patients with damage to this area had trouble not only recalling the past but also imagining the future. Since then, researchers have used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study how the brain remembers and imagines. Strikingly, some of the same brain regions activate when we recall past experiences and imagine future experiences. Important among them is a large set of cortical regions collectively known as called the default network. This network got its name from early brain imaging studies that found that the areas it connects—medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, bilateral inferior parietal lobes, and medial temporal lobes—tend to activate "by default" when people are simply relaxing in a brain scanner without a cognitive task to do. When left to our own devices, we tend to engage in all sorts of spontaneous thinking—sometimes referred to as mind-wandering—much of which involves recalling recent experiences and imagining future ones. The engagement of the hippocampus and default network in memory and imagination is consistent with a popular theory of episodic memory known as the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis, which posits that both memory and imagination involve flexible recombination of episodic details, such as people, places, and events that we've encountered. On the one hand, remembering a past experience seems to require that we reconstruct that experience: piecing together the relevant people, places, and things that comprised the event—not simply pressing play like a video recorder. Likewise, imagining a future experience apparently requires that we construct that experience based on what has happened in the past. The flexible nature of the episodic system seems to be particularly beneficial for creative thinking, which also requires connecting information in new and meaningful ways. In a recent study, we explored further whether the same brain regions support memory, imagination, and creative thinking. We presented research participants with a series of object cue words (e.g., cup) and asked them to use the cue words to either 1) remember a personal past experience, 2) imagine a possible future experience, or 3) think of creative uses for the object. This design allowed us to determine which brain regions were common and unique to episodic (remembering and imagining) and creative thinking. We found that memory, imagination, and creative thinking all activated the bilateral hippocampus. This finding builds on other recent work on memory and creativity using episodic specificity induction, a procedure in which participants are trained to recall episodic memories in a high degree of detail. These studies found that episodic specificity induction (which strongly engages the default network) can improve creative divergent thinking: after the induction (they were instructed to recall in detail a recently-watched video), participants produced significantly more ideas, and these ideas were significantly more variable in their topics. A subsequent fMRI study found that the episodic induction process boosted activity in the left anterior hippocampus, linking creative performance to heightened activity in a brain region strongly associated with episodic memory. Together, these findings provide clear evidence that the hippocampus—as part of the medial temporal lobe subsystem of the default network—supports the generation of creative ideas: more proof that the same brain region that supports our ability to remember also supports our ability to imagine and create. Directing Creative Thought A controversial question in creativity research concerns the phenomenon of cognitive control: our capacity to regulate the contents of our minds. Does creative thinking happen spontaneously, or can we deliberately direct the process? On the one hand, relaxing the filter on our brains by letting our minds wander—a process governed by the hippocampus and default network—can allow new ideas to come to mind that might not have otherwise. On the other hand, serendipity and spontaneity alone do not guarantee either novelty or usefulness: we often need to redirect our thought processes away from what we already know and think hard about whether our ideas will actually work. This highlights two key elements of the creative thought process: idea generation and idea evaluation. Cognitive neuroscience has begun to provide insight into these two sides of creativity. For example, one fMRI study asked visual artists to generate and evaluate ideas for a book cover based on short written descriptions. During idea generation, activation of the hippocampus and default network increased, presumably reflecting engagement of the episodic system. During idea evaluation, where artists were asked to critique their drawings, they again activated hippocampal and default regions, and also frontal brain regions associated with cognitive control, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Most interestingly, the analysis also showed increased communication (i.e., functional connectivity) between these regions during idea evaluation, suggesting cooperation between the spontaneous/generative aspects of the default network and the deliberate/evaluative aspects of the control network. These networks typically work in a complementary fashion: when one activates, the other tends to deactivate. When we let our minds wander, for example, we engage the default network, without needing to focus our attention through our control networks; conversely, when we try to focus our attention on a given task, we need our control network to work efficiently, without distraction from the mind-wandering default network. The study with visual artists, along with subsequent findings with poets and others, suggests that creative thinking involves increased communication between brain networks that usually work separately. In a recent study, we explored whether this brain connectivity pattern may provide insight into individual differences in creative thinking, i.e., what makes some people more creative than others? One possibility is that creative people can more readily co-activate the default and control networks to solve creative problems. We recruited a large sample of participants, mostly undergraduate and graduate students and asked them to complete the creative uses task during fMRI. We recorded their ideas while they were in the scanner and later scored them for creative quality, allowing us to link each person's brain patterns to the quality of their ideas. We found that, as expected, people varied widely in their performance on this task. Some consistently came up with common uses for objects, such as saying a brick could be used for building something, while others devised decidedly more innovative responses, e.g. a brick could be ground up and used as a filtering substance. To analyze the data, we used a machine learning method called connectome-based predictive modeling (CPM). CPM allows researchers to characterize individual differences in such behavioral traits as personality and intelligence, by identifying functional connections in the brain that reliably predict these traits in new participants who were not used to build the models. In our study, CPM was used to estimate creative thinking ability based on brain connectivity patterns during the creative uses task. Our analysis showed stronger functional connections between the default, control, and salience networks (a network involved in switching between the default and control networks) in highly creative people: the brain connectivity pattern reliably predicted the creativity score. Importantly, the association generalized to three other samples of participants: individuals with stronger functional connections between these networks tended to produce more original ideas. Boosting Creativity Psychology and neuroscience have made encouraging progress in our understanding of how the creative brain works. As summarized above, we now know that creative thinking involves the interplay of the brain's default and executive control networks, and that these connections allow us to spontaneously generate ideas and critically evaluate them, respectively. And we are learning about how our memory systems contribute: the same networks that we use to recall the past also allow us to imagine future experiences and think creatively. Yet several important questions remain. One of the most important concerns whether creativity can be enhanced—and if so, how? Research findings thus far suggest that neuroscience tools can be used to predict the ability to think creatively, based on the strength of their brain network connections. But we do not yet know whether these connections can be strengthened to improve creative thinking. Longitudinal studies are needed. Just as the efficacy of cognitive or brain training programs in improving intelligence has been critically questioned, skepticism should be applied to interventions that claim to boost creativity. While it remains unclear whether creativity can be improved in the long-term (i.e, trait creativity) some strategies may boost short-term (i.e. state) creativity. Given what we've learned about the neuroscience of creativity, it seems possible that harnessing the flexible and generative potential of the default network may provide a short-term boost. For example, when we are stuck on a problem— a phenomenon known as fixation or impasse—taking a break to let our minds wander may loosen things up and help us find a creative solution. Another potentially useful strategy involves priming the episodic system. The episodic induction process mentioned earlier—thinking about a past experience with as much detail as possible—has been shown to temporarily boost the number of ideas people generate on a creative thinking task. Until rigorous science on creativity training has been conducted, there are a few things that may modestly boost creativity in a more sustained way. For one, we can pick up a creative hobby, like painting or learning a musical instrument. One study that trained students how to play music reported gains in their musical creativity over time. But whether such gains transfer to make people generally more creative is not yet known. (This is where cognitive "brain training" programs fall short: people tend to get better on specific training tasks, but this improvement doesn't generalize to other tasks.) Until research has clarified whether cognitive abilities can actually be improved through neuroscience-based intervention, old-fashioned arts education might be our best bet. Footnotes Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of psychology at The Pennsylvania State University, where he directs the Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity Lab. His lab studies the psychology and neuroscience of creativity, using brain imaging and behavioral experiments to examine how creative thinking works in different contexts and domains, from the arts, to the sciences, to everyday life. His research has been supported by grants from the John Templeton Foundation and the National Science Foundation. He received his Ph.D. at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and completed postdoctoral training at Harvard University. Article information Cerebrum. 2020 Jan-Feb; 2020: cer-02-20. Published online 2020 Jan 1. PMCID: PMC7075500 PMID: 32206175 Roger E. Beaty, Ph.D. Copyright 2020 The Dana Foundation All Rights Reserved Articles from Cerebrum: the Dana Forum on Brain Science are provided here courtesy of Dana Foundation (Source: NationaltiTute of Health)

How do you argue?

The Proper Way to Argue The purposes and pitfalls of arguing. Systematically refraining from getting angry can build up frustration that eventually expresses itself in a way that seems like an overreaction. The purpose of an argument is for both people to express clearly how they feel about whatever is being disputed. Trying to dominate or "out-shout" the other is a bad way of arguing. Arguments are not undesirable. All the way up and down the animal kingdom, animals argue. They bark, bellow, growl, and spit at each other. They are attempting to influence the other animal, who is often of the same species. "Stay away," they are saying, or "stop doing that," or "give me that." Even birds, who seem to be twittering cheerfully in the morning, are, in fact, twittering angrily at other birds of the same species, warning them to stay off their territory. And the noise they make works. Studies suggest that the bird that twitters loudest (usually the bird that was there first) ends up with the territory. Arguments are a way of settling disputes without anyone getting injured. Human beings argue, but not always so effectively. Dealing with anger Some time ago, I treated a woman who had joined an organization of former psychiatric patients. This organization was helpful in some ways, but they promoted an idea with which I disagreed strongly. They treated anger as if it were an unwanted and undesirable emotion. When the patients got angry at something, they were told to count to 10, until the feeling went away. It was as if they thought anger, which is a universal reaction to frustrating circumstances, was unhealthy. The effect of this program on my patient was to render her speechless much of the time, and impotent. She spoke in a monotone. She even moved slowly. She seemed wooden and distant. When she was among her family, she was largely ignored by them. Provoked, she did not raise her voice. She became increasingly distressed as her two children and her husband carried on conversations around her without speaking or listening to her. Finally, one morning at breakfast, when she found she could not squeeze one carefully modulated word into the conversation, she kicked the table over. They did not understand why she was angry. Whatever the reason, It seemed to them she was overreacting. They did not realize she was reacting to frustrations that had gone on for some time. Something similar, although perhaps not so dramatic, occurs whenever anyone systematically refrains from getting angry. People say. "It's not worth fighting about" or "I didn't want to make things worse." There are, of course, times—at work, for example—when someone cannot afford to get angry. And there are other times—getting cut off on a highway, for instance—when it is not appropriate to get angry because there is no one there to try to influence. I do not recommend making obscene gestures to strangers on a highway. But if a family member or a friend systematically does something to make a person angry, and the angry person does not express that feeling, sooner or later that angry person will blow up over some seemingly small thing, and the other person will not understand why. The purpose of an argument People enter into small and large arguments all the time. It is inevitable that a husband and wife, for instance, argue from time to time. The purpose of the argument is to express clearly how they feel about whatever is being disputed. If someone is vaguely annoyed, he/she should sound vaguely annoyed. If he/she is enraged, that person should sound enraged. Whenever someone always speaks in a monotone or is always shouting, for that matter, the other person will not know exactly how his/her partner really feels. Everyone should have a graded response. A spouse in a good relationship is likely to compromise or give in during an argument in which that person's partner feels very strongly about the matter. The next time around, the partner who gives in is more likely to get his/her way. A big argument is when both partners feel strongly about a matter. It is not reasonable for someone to expect another person at the end of an argument to say, "I see now that you are right." Arguments do not end that way. The purpose of the argument is not to get one's way, but to express clearly how one feels. In a good relationship, even big arguments are set aside within a few minutes. And life goes on. Bad ways of arguing These are bad ways of arguing: One person tries to dominate the other. This has nothing to do with saying how strongly someone feels about something; it has to do with establishing who is the boss. No one should try to out-shout the other. Naturally, resentment is built into and comes out of this kind of argument. Name-calling. No one in a family should call another family member a name. Insulting someone is not part of a good argument. Certainly, no one should spit on a spouse! (I have come across three such cases.) No one should physically threaten someone else, or scare somebody by seeming to be out of control, let's say, by punching a wall, or throwing things. People should not bring up the past, or attack the other person's character, or compare the other person to some other disliked member of the family. "You're just like your mother." No one should refuse to do something he has agreed previously to do. Nagging is undesirable. If the partner knows how the spouse feels, that is all that is necessary, even if the outcome of a particular argument seems unsatisfactory. Finally, no one should sulk. Sulking is designed to punish the other person. People who sulk tend to sulk repeatedly. A spouse will go through different stages over the years. First, he/she will try to find out what is bothering the other person and usually try to sort the argument out. After a while, the partner is inclined just to let the sulker stew for a while. Finally, most spouses get to the point where they do not know what is bothering their spouse, and they do not much care. The same rules apply more or less to other people who are not married, and even, with some limitations, to arguments with kids. (Source: Psychology Today)

Why should we argue?

Why We Should Argue What an argument is, what it isn't, and how you can rethink engaging in one. When most people think of the word "argument," they might think of phrases like "heated exchange," or "fight" (verbal, that is). However, this is not an accurate interpretation of the word. Quite recently, a friend of mine had an argument with his wife about some topic at a small gathering of immediate family and when his mother-in-law cut in to demand that no fighting should take place under her roof, both he and his wife turned to her and responded that they were not fighting at all. They simply disagreed with each other's perspectives and were arguing to convey their rationale. Some of you may read this as a rather cringy experience, arguing at a family gathering. But such a perspective only further exemplifies the generally biased view of "arguing." If anything, I think the ability for spouses to engage each other in conversation this way is really healthy. Argumentation—as this man and his wife were conducting—is a vital tool in the decision-making process, particularly if the subject is one about which both participants care. It's not about conflict, it's about presenting ideas and either accepting or rejecting them. Fundamentally, an argument is a network of premises presented in a manner that facilitates inference of some claim (Dwyer, 2011). Ideally, this network should be structured logically, according to various rules of argumentation (rules that can be adhered to or violated, thus, influencing the strength of the argument; e.g., sound vs. flawed). In turn, argumentation is "a verbal and social activity of reason aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint...by putting forward a constellation of propositions intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint" (van Eemeren et al., 1996, p. 5). In argumentation, one must engage the argument for purposes of identifying, analysing, and evaluating the logical relationships amongst the propositions presented (Walton, 2006). When asked to describe an argument as simply as possible, I generally present it as any piece of text or dialogue inclusive of words like "but," "because," "however," "therefore," etc. When people note that you might be hard-pressed to find any page of text that doesn't include one of those words, I nod in agreement so as to reinforce the commonality of argumentation in our day-to-day lives. We engage arguments all of the time, across a variety of different forms: for example, a TV commercial provides a one-sided argument for why you should purchase some breakfast cereal, an editorial in the newspaper pushes an argument for a policy change, a two-sided argument at work determines which pitch is best to present to your potential client, or a two-sided argument with your spouse could be about how best to potty-train your toddler. Though argumentation often takes the shape of disagreement (and yes, sometimes they do get heated), it is ultimately engaged to convey a viewpoint. Sometimes, this is done in a persuasive manner to sway an individual, and other times this is done to facilitate enhanced decision-making. Essentially, argumentation (if conducted appropriately) leads to results. Unfortunately, some arguments simply end in stalemates because neither side is open to amending their perspective and some people simply avoid engaging arguments with others because of a biased view of the process as conflict. This is a shame if "results" are what's desired. From a critical thinking standpoint, argumentation is necessary when we want to draw conclusions about topics we care about. So, greater efforts need to be made to purge argument and argumentation of this connotation of being some kind of heated conflict. We need to stop fearing debate and both recognise and embrace the activity as a useful tool for learning new information and becoming better thinkers. We also need to embrace the notion that we might be wrong in our thinking and that using argumentation is a great way of checking and correcting potentially fallacious thinking, but that's a topic for another day. (Source: Psychology Today)

Do aphrodisiacs work?

Yes and no. Research shows that for the most part, the power of aphrodisiacs is all in our head — but the placebo effect can go a long way. (Cleveland clinic)

Can dogs eat white rice?

Yes, dogs can eat rice. In fact, rice is a common ingredient in many dog foods. (Source: Petco)

Can dogs eat white rice?

Yes, dogs can eat rice. In fact, rice is a common ingredient in some dog foods. Many pet owners feed white rice to their sick dog. One of the reasons white rice is the chosen grain for a dog with an upset stomach is that it's easy to digest, quick to prepare, and low in fiber. (Source: Petco and akc.org)

What's an encyclopedic definition of soul?

In many religious and philosophical systems, the word "soul" denotes the inner essence of a being comprising its locus of sapience (self-awareness) and metaphysical identity. Souls are usually described as immortal (surviving death in an afterlife) and incorporeal (without bodily form); however, some consider souls to have a material component, and have even tried to establish the mass (or weight) of the soul. Additionally, while souls are often described as immortal they are not necessarily eternal or indestructible, as is commonly assumed.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Philosophical Perspectives 4 Religious views 4.1 Bahá'í beliefs 4.2 Chinese beliefs 4.3 Christian beliefs 4.4 Hindu beliefs 4.5 Islamic beliefs 4.6 Jain beliefs 4.7 Jewish beliefs 4.8 Sikh beliefs 4.9 Sundry beliefs 5 Contrary Ideas 5.1 Buddhist beliefs 5.2 Atheism and scientific skepticism 6 Origin of the Soul 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links 10 Credits freestar Throughout history, the belief in the existence of a soul has been a common feature in most of the world's religions and cultures,[2] although some major religions (notably Buddhism) reject the notion of an eternal soul.[3] Those not belonging to an organized religion still often believe in the existence of souls although some cultures posit more than one soul in each person (see below). The metaphysical concept of a soul is often linked with ideas such as reincarnation, heaven, and hell. The word "soul" can also refer to a type of modern music (see Soul Music). Etymology The modern English word soul derives from the Old English sáwol, sáwel, which itself comes from the Old High German sêula, sêla. The Germanic word is a translation of the Greek psychē (ψυχή- "life, spirit, consciousness") by missionaries such as Ulfila, apostle to the Goths (fourth century C.E.). Definition There is no universal agreement on the nature, origin, or purpose of the soul although there is much consensus that life, as we know it, does involve some deeper animating force inherent in all living beings (or at least in humans). In fact, the concept of an intrinsic life-force in all organisms has been a pervasive cross-cultural human belief.[4] Many preliterate cultures embraced notions of animism and shamanism postulating early ideas of the soul. Over time, philosophical reflection on the nature of the soul/spirit, and their relationship to the material world became more refined and sophisticated. In particular, the ancient Greeks and Hindu philosophers, for example, eventually distinguished different aspects of the soul, or alternatively, asserted the non-dualism of the cosmic soul. Greek philosophers used many words for soul such as thymos, ker/kardie, phren/phrenes, menos, noos, and psyche.[5] Eventually, the Greeks differentiated between soul and spirit (psychē and pneuma respectively) and suggested that "aliveness" and the soul were conceptually linked. However, it is not entirely clear that a single being had only one soul, as is often believed today. In fact, several ancient cultures such as the Egyptians and the Chinese posited that individual beings comprised of different souls (or had different elements in their soul). For instance, Egyptian mythology taught that an individual was made up of various elements, some physical and some spiritual, the Ren (name), the Bâ (personality), the Ka (vital spark), the Sheut (shadow), and the Jb (heart). Chinese tradition suggests that every individual has two types of soul called hun and po. Daoism considers there are ten elements to the soul: three hun and seven po. It is also debated whether both animals and humans have souls, or only humans. In some systems of thought, souls are restricted to human beings while in other systems, souls encompass all life forms. These questions are often related to larger issues of creation and the relationship of the Creator to the created. Consequently, the definition of a soul is not as straightforward as it may seem for it is confounded by issues of whether their is one soul or many, whether souls are pre-existent or created, and whether they are unified or separated, as well as their relationship to a divine being. For these reasons, it is impossible to come up with a universally recognized definition of a soul, although in popular spirituality souls are generally perceived to be the inner essence of a person that survives death and is essentially spiritual, although these views many not accord with scriptural teachings. Philosophical Perspectives Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth. Among Western philosophers, the ancient Greeks provided much insight into the nature of the soul. Two paradigmatic viewpoints were articulated by the philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Plato, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, considered the soul as the essence of a person, which is an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being. As our bodies die the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies. For Plato, the soul comprises three parts, each having a function in a balanced and peaceful life: 1. the logos (superego, mind, nous, or reason). The logos corresponds to the charioteer, directing the balanced horses of appetite and spirit. It allows for logic to prevail, and for the optimisation of balance 2. the thymos (emotion, ego, or spiritedness). The thymos comprises our emotional motive (ego), that which drives us to acts of bravery and glory. If left unchecked, it leads to hubris—the most fatal of all flaws in the Greek view. 3. the pathos (appetitive, id, or carnal). The pathos equates to the appetite (id) that drives humankind to seek out its basic bodily needs. When the passion controls us, it drives us to hedonism in all forms. In the Ancient Greek view, this is the basal and most feral state. Although Aristotle agreed with Plato that the soul is the core essence of a being, he argued against its having a separate existence. Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not consider the soul as some kind of separate, ghostly occupant of the body. According to him, the soul is an actuality of a living body, and thus it cannot be immortal.[6] Aristotle describes this concept of the soul in many of his works such as the De Anima. He believed that there were four parts, or powers, of the soul: the calculative part, the scientific part on the rational side used for making decisions and the desiderative part and the vegetative part on the irrational side responsible for identifying our needs. Pre-Pythagorean belief was that the soul had no life when it departed from the body, and retired into Hades with no hope of returning to a body.[7] Religious views An alphabetical survey of some religious views on the soul is provided below: Bahá'í beliefs The principle figure of the Bahá'í Faith, known as Bahá'u'lláh, taught that individuals have no existence previous to their life here on earth. A human being spends nine months in the womb in preparation for entry into this physical life. During that nine-month period, the fetus acquires the physical tools (e.g., eyes, limbs, and so forth) necessary for existence in this world. He said that similarly, this physical world is like a womb for entry into the spiritual world.[8] Our time here is thus a period of preparation during which we are to acquire the spiritual and intellectual tools necessary for life in the next world. The crucial difference is that, whereas physical development in the mother's womb is involuntary, spiritual and intellectual development in this world depends strictly on conscious individual effort.[8] The soul's evolution is always towards God and away from the material world. Chinese beliefs The ancient Chinese believed that every person's soul consisted of at least two distinct parts: p'o and hun. The p'o is the visible personality indissolubly attached to the body, while the hun was its more ethereal complement also interpenetrating the body, but not of necessity tied to it. The hun in its wanderings may be either visible or invisible; if the former, it appears in the guise of its original body, which actually may be far away lying in a trance-like state tenanted by the p'o. Furthermore, the body is duplicated under these conditions, but also the garments that clothe it. Should the hun stay away permanently, death results. Most Daoist schools believe that every individual has more than one soul (or the soul can be separated into different parts) and these souls are constantly transforming themselves. Some believe there are at least three souls for every person: one soul coming from one's father, one from one's mother, and one primordial soul. An important part of spiritual practice for some Taoist schools is to harmonize/integrate those three souls. Some other schools believe there are ten souls for each person: three from heaven, seven from earth. Christian beliefs Some Christians regard the soul as the immortal essence of a human - the seat or locus of human will, understanding, and personality - and that after death, God either rewards or punishes the soul. (Different groups dispute whether this reward/punishment depends upon doing good deeds, or merely upon believing in God and in Jesus.) Other Christians reject the idea of the immortality of the soul, citing the Apostles Creed's reference to the "resurrection of the body" (the Greek word for body is soma, which implies the whole person, not sarx, the term for flesh or corpse). They consider the soul to be the life force, which ends in death and is restored in the resurrection. In this theory, the soul goes to "sleep" at the time of death, and stays in this quiescent state until the last judgment. However, other Christians that believe the soul will be destroyed in hell, instead of suffering eternally.[9] One of the main issues is whether the body and soul are separate or there is unity, and whether they remain so after death. In popular thinking, it is often presumed that the soul survives death separate from the body but scriptural analysis suggests that the resurrected person involves both body and soul together and unified. Seventh-Day Adventists believe that the main definition of the term "Soul" is a combination of Spirit (breath of life) and body, defying the view that the soul has a consciousness or sentient existence of its own. They affirm this through Genesis 2:7 "And (God) breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul." Yet, other passages from the Bible seem to contradict this view. For example, "Be merciful to me, O Lord, for I am in distress; my eyes grow weak with sorrow, my soul and my body with grief." The soul and body are noted as separate. Psalm 63:1 "O God, you are my God, earnestly I seek you; my soul thirsts for you, my body longs for you, in a dry and weary land where there is no water." Here the body and soul are noted as separate again. Micah 6:7 "Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, with ten thousand rivers of oil? Shall I offer my firstborn for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul?" Once again, the soul and body are noted separate. Augustine, one of the most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as "a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body." The apostle Paul said that the "body wars against" the soul, and that "I buffet my body," to keep it under control. Saint Thomas Aquinas understood the soul as the first principle, or act, of the body. However, his epistemological theory required that, since the intellectual soul is capable of knowing all material things, and since in order to know a material thing there must be no material thing within it, the soul was definitely not corporeal. Therefore, the soul had an operation separate from the body and therefore could subsist without the body. Furthermore, since the rational soul of human beings was subsistent and was not made up of matter and form, it could not be destroyed in any natural process. The full argument for the immortality of the soul and Thomas's elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the Summa Theologica. The present Catechism of the Catholic Church defines the soul as "the innermost aspect of man, that which is of greatest value in him, that by which he is most especially in God's image: 'soul' signifies the spiritual principle in man." The soul is the center of the human will, intellect (or mind), and imagination (or memory), and the source of all free human acts, although good acts are aided by God's grace. At the moment of death, the soul goes either to Purgatory, Heaven, or Hell. Purgatory is a place of atonement for sins that one goes through to pay the temporal punishment for post-baptismal sins that have not been atoned for by sufferings during one's earthly life. This is distinct from the atonement for the eternal punishment due to sin which was affected by Christ's suffering and death. Eastern Orthodox views are very similar to Catholic views while Protestants generally believe both in the soul's existence but do not generally believe in Purgatory. Hindu beliefs In Hinduism, several Sanskrit words are used to denote the "soul" within living beings. These words include "Jiva" (individual soul), "Atman" (intrinsic divine essence), and "Purusha" (spirit), among others. Hinduism contains many variant beliefs on the origin, purpose, and fate of the soul. For example, Advaita (non-dualism) accords the soul union with Brahman (the Absolute) in eventuality or in pre-existing fact. Dvaita (dualism) rejects this position, instead identifying the soul as a different and incompatible substance. The Bhagavad Gita, one of the most significant Hindu scriptures, refers to the spiritual body or soul as Purusha (see also Sankhya philosophy). The Purusha is part and parcel of God, is unchanging (is never born and never dies), is indestructible, and, though essentially indivisible, can be described as having three characteristics: (i)' 'Sat (truth or existence), (ii) Chit (consciousness or knowledge), and (iii) Ananda (bliss). Islamic beliefs The Qur'an does not explain much about the concept of the soul. However, the following information can be inferred. According to the Holy Qur'an (Sura 15 verse 29), the creation of man involves Allah or an Angel of Allah "breathing" a soul into man. This intangible part of an individual's existence is "pure" at birth and has the potential of growing and achieving nearness to God if the person leads a righteous life. At death the person's soul transitions to an eternal afterlife of bliss, peace and unending spiritual growth (Qur'an 66:8, 39:20). This transition can be pleasant (Heaven) or unpleasant (Hell) depending on the degree to which a person has developed or destroyed his or her soul during life (Qur'an 91:7-10). Thus, it is generally believed that all living beings are comprised of two aspects during their existence: the physical (being the body) and the non-physical (being the soul). The non-physical aspect, namely the soul, includes his/her feelings and emotions, thoughts, conscious and sub-conscious desires and objectives. While the body and its physical actions are said to serve as a "reflection" of one's soul, whether it is good or evil, thus confirming the extent of such intentions. Jain beliefs According to Jainism, Soul (jiva) exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. Every being - be it a human or a plant or a bacterium - has a soul and has a capacity to experience pain and pleasure. The soul (Jiva) is differentiated from non-soul or non-living reality (ajiva) that includes matter, time, space, principle of motion and principle of rest. As realization of the soul and its salvation are the highest objective to be attained, most of the Jaina texts deal with various aspects of the soul (i.e., its qualities, attributes, bondage, interaction with other elements, salvation etc.). The soul is described as being without taste, color and cannot be perceived by the five senses. Consciousness is its chief attribute. To know the soul is to be free of any gender and not bound by any dimensions of shape and size. Hence the soul, according to Jainism, is indestructible and permanent from the point of view of substance. It is temporary and ever changing from the point of view of its modes. The soul continuously undergoes modifications as per the karma it attracts and hence reincarnates in the following four states of existence - 1) as a Demi-God in Heaven, or 2) as a tormented soul in Hell, or 3) as a Human being on Continents, or 4) as an Animal, or a Plant, or as a Micro-organism. The soul will remain in bondage until it attains liberation. The liberated soul, which is formless and incorporeal in nature, is said to experience infinite knowledge, omniscience, infinite power and infinite bliss after liberation. Even after liberation and attainment of Godhood, the soul does not merge into any entity (as in other philosophies), but maintains its individuality. Jewish beliefs According to the Hebrew Bible, the origin of the soul is described in the Book of Genesis, which states "the Lord God formed man from the dust of the earth. He blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being" (Genesis 2:7 New JPS). In other books of the Tanakh, Rachel's death in Genesis 35:18 equates with her soul (Hebrew nephesh) departing. Later, when Elijah prays in 1 Kings 17:21 for the return of a widow's boy to life, he entreats, "O Lord my God, I pray you, let this child's nephesh come into him again." Thus, death in the Torah meant that something called nephesh (or "soul") became separated from the body, and life could return when this soul returned. Classical rabbinic literature provided various commentaries on the Torah, which elucidated the nature of the soul. For example, Saadia Gaon, in his Emunoth ve-Deoth 6:3, held that the soul comprises that part of a person's mind that constitutes physical desire, emotion, and thought. Maimonides, in his The Guide to the Perplexed, viewed the soul through the lens of neo-Aristotelian philosophy, as a person's developed intellect. Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) saw the soul as having three elements: the nephesh, ru'ah, and neshamah. A common way of explaining these three parts follows: Nephesh - The part that is alive and signifies that which is vital in man: it feels hunger, hates, loves, loathes, weeps, and most importantly, can die (can depart from the body, but can sometimes come back in again). The nephesh is in all humans and enters the body at birth when the body first takes a breath. Animals also have a nephesh (they breathe), but plants do not. It is the source of one's physical and psychological nature.[10] The next two parts of the soul are not implanted at birth, but are slowly created over time; their development depends on the actions and beliefs of the individual. They are said to only fully exist in people awakened spiritually: Ruach - the middle soul, or spirit. It contains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguish between good and evil. In modern parlance, it equates to psyche or ego-personality. Neshamah - the higher soul, Higher Self or super-soul. This distinguishes man from all other life forms. It relates to the intellect, and allows man to enjoy and benefit from the afterlife. This part of the soul is provided both to Jew and non-Jew alike at birth. It allows one to have some awareness of the existence and presence of God. In the Zohar, after death, the Nefesh disintegrates, Ruach is sent to a sort of intermediate zone where it is submitted to purification and enters in "temporary paradise," while Neshamah returns to the source, the world of Platonic ideas, where it enjoys "the kiss of the beloved." Supposedly after resurrection, Ruach and Neshamah, soul and spirit re-unite in a permanently transmuted state of being. The Raaya Meheimna, a Kabbalistic tractate always published with the Zohar, posits two more parts of the human soul, the chayyah and yehidah. Gershom Scholem wrote that these "were considered to represent the sublimest levels of intuitive cognition, and to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals": Chayyah - The part of the soul that allows one to have an awareness of the divine life force itself. Yehidah - the highest plane of the soul, in which one can achieve as full a union with God as is possible. Sikh beliefs Sikhism considers the atma (soul) to be part of Universal Soul, which is God (Parmatma). The Sikh holy book known as the "Guru Granth Sahib" contains various hymns that affirm the loving relationship between atma and God: "God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God."[11] "The soul is divine; divine is the soul. Worship Him with love."[12] "The soul is the Lord, and the Lord is the soul; contemplating the Shabad, the Lord is found."[13] Sundry beliefs The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) believe that the soul is the union of a spirit, which was previously created by God, and a body, which is formed by physical conception later. Jehovah's Witnesses view the Hebrew word NePHeSH in its literal concrete meaning of "breath," making a person who is animated by the spirit of God into a living BREATHER, rather than a body containing an invisible entity such as the majority concept of Soul. Spirit is seen to be anything powerful and invisible symbolized by the Hebrew word RuaCH which has the literal meaning of wind. Thus Soul is used by them to mean a person rather than an invisible core entity associated with a spirit or a force, which leaves the body at or after death. (Gen.2:7; Ezek.18:4, KJV). When a person dies his Soul leaves him meaning that he has stopped breathing and his fate for any future existence rests solely with God who they believe has the power to re-create the whole person and restore their existence. This is in line with their belief that Hell represents the grave and the possibility of eternal death for unbelievers rather than eternal torment. Contrary Ideas Buddhist beliefs Buddhism teaches that all things are impermanent, in a constant state of flux; all is transient, and no abiding state exists by itself. This applies to humanity, as much as to anything else in the cosmos; thus, there is no unchanging and abiding self. Our sense of "I" or "me" is simply a sense, belonging to the ever-changing entity, that (conventionally speaking) is us, our body, and mind. This expresses in essence the Buddhist principle of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman). Buddhist teaching holds that the delusion of a permanent, abiding self is one of the main root causes for human conflict. They add that understanding of anatta (or "not-self or no soul") provides an accurate description of the human condition, and that this understanding allows us to go beyond our mundane desires. Buddhists can speak in conventional terms of the "self" as a matter of convenience, but only under the conviction that ultimately we are changing entities. In death, the body and mind disintegrate; if the disintegrating mind is still in the grip of delusion, it will cause the continuity of the consciousness to bounce back an arising mind to an awaiting being, that is, a fetus developing the ability to harbor consciousness. However, some scholars have noted a curious development in Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, stemming from the Cittamatra and Vijnanavada schools in India: although this school of thought denies the permanent personal selfhood, it affirms concepts such as Buddha-nature, Tathagatagarbha, Rigpa, or "original nature." Matsumoto argues that these concepts constitute a non- or trans-personal self, and almost equate in meaning to the Hindu concept of Atman, although they differ in that Buddha-nature does not incarnate. Atheism and scientific skepticism Atheists do not usually accept the existence of a soul. Modern skeptics often cite phenomena such as brain lesions[14] and Alzheimer's disease as supposed evidence that one's personality is material and contrary to the philosophy of an immortal, unified soul. Science and medicine seek naturalistic accounts of the observable natural world. This stance is known as methodological naturalism.[15] From this perspective, for the soul to exist it would have to manifest as a form of energy mediated by a force. However, only four forces have been experimentally confirmed to exist (strong interaction, weak interaction, electromagnetism and gravitation). The only force which operates relevantly at the human scale is electromagnetism. This force is understood and described by Quantum Electrodynamics and Special Relativity. Any additional force acting upon humans or emanating from the mind would be detected in laboratories as an aberration of the predictable behavior of electromagnetism. Much of scientific study relating to the soul has been involved in investigating the soul as a human belief or as concept that shapes cognition and understanding of the world (see Memetics), rather than as an entity in and of itself. When modern scientists speak of the soul outside of this cultural and psychological context, it is generally as a poetic synonym for mind. Francis Crick's book The Astonishing Hypothesis, for example, has the subtitle, "The scientific search for the soul."[16] Crick holds the position that one can learn everything knowable about the human soul by studying the workings of the human brain. Depending on one's belief regarding the relationship between the soul and the mind, then, the findings of neuroscience may be relevant to one's understanding of the soul. Nevertheless, in recent decades, much research has been done in near-death experiences, which are held by many as evidence for the existence of a soul and afterlife. Researchers, most notably Ian Stevenson and Brian Weiss have studied reports of children talking about past-life experiences.[17] Any evidence that these experiences were in fact real would require a change in scientific understanding of the mind or would support some notions of the soul. Did you know? Researchers tried to weigh the soul by weighing patients who were dying Text in the article During the late nineteenth and first half twentieth century, researchers attempted to weigh people who were known to be dying, and record their weight accurately at the time of death. As an example, Dr. Duncan MacDougall, in the early 1900s, sought to measure the weight purportedly lost by a human body when the soul departed the body upon death. MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material and measurable. These experiments are widely considered to have had little if any scientific merit: MacDougall's results were flawed because the methodology used to harvest them was suspect, the sample size far too small, and the ability to measure changes in weight imprecise. For this reason, credence should not be given to the idea his experiments proved something, let alone that they measured the weight of the soul as 21 grams. His postulations on this topic are a curiosity, but nothing more.[18] Origin of the Soul The origin of the soul has provided a sometimes vexing question in Christianity; the major theories put forward include creationism, traducianism and pre-existence. According to creationism, each individual soul is created directly by God, either at the moment of conception, or some later time (identical twins arise several cell divisions after conception, but no one would deny that they have whole souls). According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the pre-existence theory the soul exists before the moment of conception. According to the Roman Catholic Church, every human being receives a soul at the moment of conception, and has rights and dignity equal to persons of further development, including the right to life. Thus, the Catholic Church teaches the creationist view of the origin of the soul: "The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 382). Notes ↑ Philosophically, the concepts of immortality and eternalism are often confounded: Eternalism of the soul implies the pre-existence of the soul before birth; however, some systems teach that a soul is created at birth (or at conception) and becomes immortal thereafter. ↑ In his book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, biologist E. O. Wilson took note that sociology has identified belief in a soul as one of the universal human cultural elements. ↑ See the Anatman article. ↑ Of course, the tradition of skepticism has been an equally ancient belied found in all cultures, and co-existing with the belief in a soul. ↑ David B. Claus, Toward the Soul: An Inquiry into the Meaning of ψυχή before Plato. (London: Yale University Press, 1981) cf. Jan Bremmer, The Early Greek Concept of the Soul (Princeton University Press, 1983, ISBN 978-0691101903). ↑ There is on-going debate about Aristotle's views regarding the immortality of the human soul; however, Aristotle makes it clear towards the end of his De Anima that he does believe that the intellect, which he considers to be a part of the soul, is eternal and separable from the body. ↑ Erwin Rohde, Psyche: the Cult Of Souls And Belief In Immortality Among The Greeks (Routledge, 2000, ISBN 978-04152256321928). ↑ Jump up to: 8.0 8.1 Gleanings From the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. Bahai Reference Library. Retrieved October 28, 2017. ↑ See, for example, the Bible verse: "Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell." (Matthew 10:28) ↑ Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology (Harper & Row Publishers, 1965). ↑ Guru Granth Sahib M 1, 1153. ↑ Guru Granth Sahib M 4, 1325. ↑ Guru Granth Sahib M 1, 1030. ↑ For instance, Broca's aphasia ↑ Lawrence Lerner, Methodological Naturalism vs Ontological or Philosophical Naturalism Retrieved October 28, 2017. ↑ Francis Crick, Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul (Scribner, 1995). ↑ Ian Stevenson, Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of Birthmarks and Birth Defects (Praeger Publishers, 1997) and Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation: Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged (University Press of Virginia, 1980). ↑ Weight of the Soul Sonpes.com. Retrieved October 28, 2017. ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees Batchelor, Stephen. Buddhism Without Belief. Riverhead Trade, 1998. ISBN 978-1573226561 Bremmer, Jan. The Early Greek Concept of the Soul. Princeton University Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0691101903 Claus, David B. Toward the Soul: An Inquiry into the Meaning of ψυχή before Plato. London: Yale University Press, 1981. Cornford, Francis, M. Greek Religious Thought. Ams Pr Inc, 1979. ISBN 978-0404017347 Crick, Francis. Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul. Scribner, 1995. ISBN 978-0684801582 McGraw, John J. Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul. Aegis Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0974764504 Milbourne, Christopher. Search for the Soul. Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers, 1979. ISBN 978-0690017601 Rohde, Erwin. Psyche: the Cult Of Souls And Belief In Immortality Among The Greeks. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 978-0415225632 Stevenson, Ian. Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of Birthmarks and Birth Defects. Praeger Publishers, 1997. ISBN 978-0275952839 Stevenson, Ian. Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation: Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. University Press of Virginia, 1980. ISBN 978-0813908724 Swinburne, Richard. The Evolution of the Soul. Oxford University Press, 1997 ISBN 978-0198236986 von Rad, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1965. Wilson, Edward O. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage, 1999. ISBN 067976867X External links All links retrieved November 16, 2019. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul Credits New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Soul history The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: History of "Soul" Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. Categories: Philosophy and religionReligion Privacy policy About New World Encyclopedia Disclaimers Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Copyright Logo Powered by MediaWiki

Is our brain selfish?

The selfish brain: competition for energy resources Abstract Although the brain constitutes only 2% of the body mass, its metabolism accounts for 50% of total body glucose utilization. This delicate situation is aggravated by the fact that the brain depends on glucose as energy substrate. Thus, the contour of a major problem becomes evident: how can the brain maintain constant fluxes of large amounts of glucose to itself in the presence of powerful competitors as fat and muscle tissue. Activity of cortical neurons generates an "energy on demand" signal which eventually mediates the uptake of glucose from brain capillaries. Because energy stores in the circulation (equivalent to ca. 5 g glucose) are also limited, a second signal is required termed "energy on request"; this signal is responsible for the activation of allocation processes. The term "allocation" refers to the activation of the "behavior control column" by an input from the hippocampus-amygdala system. As far as eating behavior is concerned the behavior control column consists of the ventral medial hypothalamus (VMH) and periventricular nucleus (PVN). The PVN represents the central nucleus of the brain's stress systems, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Activation of the sympatico-adrenal system inhibits glucose uptake by peripheral tissues by inhibiting insulin release and inducing insulin resistance and increases hepatic glucose production. With an inadequate "energy on request" signal neuroglucopenia would be the consequence. A decrease in brain glucose can activate glucose-sensitive neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) with the release of orexigenic peptides which stimulate food intake. If the energy supply of the brain depends on activation of the LH rather than on increased allocation to the brain, an increase in body weight is evitable. An increase in fat mass will generate feedback signals as leptin and insulin, which activate the arcuate nucleus. Activation of arcuate nucleus in turn will stimulate the activity of the PVN in a way similar to the activation by the hippocampus-amydala system. The activity of PVN is influenced by the hippocampal outflow which in turn is the consequence of a balance of low-affinity and high-affinity glucocorticoid receptors. This set-point can permanently be displaced by extreme stress situations, by starvation, exercise, hormones, drugs or by endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Disorders in the "energy on request" process will influence the allocation of energy and in so doing alter the body mass of the organism. In this "selfish brain theory" the neocortex and the limbic system play a central role in the pathogenesis of diseases, such as anorexia nervosa, obesity and diabetes mellitus type II. From these considerations it appears that the primary disturbance in obesity is a displacement of the hippocampal set-point of the system. The resulting permanent activation of the feedback system must result in a likewise permanent activation of the sympatico-adrenal system, which induces insulin resistance, hypertension and the other components of the metabolic syndrome. Available therapies for treatment of the metabolic syndrome (blockade of alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors, insulin and insulin secretagogues) interfere with mechanisms, which must be considered compensatory. This explains why these therapies are disappointing in the long run. New therapeutic strategies based on the "selfish brain theory" will be discussed. (Source: National Institute of Health)

Why are some people creative?

Neuroscientists are finding that certain regions within our brain can determine our creativity.

What is the brutal truth about relationships?

1. 80% of People in Relationships Are Settling Out of Scarcity Statistics back this up. The majority of people who are currently in relationships are NOT in the relationship because they love the other person. They're in it because they're too scared to be alone and figure things out by themselves. They're more happy to check the box "in a relationship" than they are happy about the quality of that relationship. I need to be blunt - If you aren't absolutely THRILLED about your partner, where the relationship is going and your life together, then you're absolutely settling. This isn't to say that relationships don't take work or that you don't go through periods of stress together... But most people simply don't love their partner the way they claim to. They're simply terrified of being alone. 2. You Are Not Your Partners Psychotherapist! If your partner doesn't love themselves, handle their own problems and care for themselves (especially if you do) the relationship is severely imbalanced which will lead to an eventual break up. The longer this persists inside the relationship the nastier the break up. It is not your job to fix your partner, neither it is your partners job to fix you. It's about two whole people falling in love, supporting each other and sharing a beautiful life together. 3. You WILL Fall Out of Love This isn't my opinon, it's a scientific fact. This is how the brain works. After the initial phase of lust and attraction (typically 18-36 months) your brain will literally stop producing feel good and bonding hormones for a while to make sure that you see your partner for who they really are. If you ignored the red flags in the beginning (which 90% of people do) because of the "love chemicals" then you will be left with a partner that you cannot stand and find yourself arguing over the littlest things like cleaning the dishes. People are more picky about what they will wear on their wedding day than they are the actual person they are marrying. I encourage you to be picky... very picky when selecting a partner, so after 3 years you are still excited about your partner because you chose wisely. 4. It Probably Won't Last (Especially If You're Younger than 30) This is just a statistical reality. This doesn't mean that it can't last if you're both mature, whole, and loving. But chances are it won't last. You don't have enough experience to know what you want and more importantly don't want in a partner. As much as you can read about this stuff it takes real experience, pain and mistakes to figure these things out. Take the lessons learned and apply them to make the next one better. 5. Your Partner Probably Won't Change that Much If you're in a relationship waiting for your partner to change, then you're waiting for something that will never happen. Your partner will change, but not in ways that you can control and at their own pace. Some people get into a relationship with the future version of this person, so you're left constantly frustrated until they become who you are projecting that person to be "one day" if ever. If you've fallen in love with someone's potential, then you are basically in love with an imaginary person and not living in reality. 6 . You or Your Partner Will Die and Leave the Other Person Alone Every relationship will end in either a break up or through death. Sucks doesn't it? Unless you and your partner die together, one of you will die first and leave the other person heartbroken, in deep sorrow and alone. Accepting this fact will make the moments you do have with this person more sacred and enjoyable since "this too shall pass". 7. The Grass is Greener Where It's Watered... Screw Your Fence If you're in a relationship and you believe that the grass is greener on the other side, that you need a new partner to make you happy, you're wrong. The grass is greenest where it's watered. Yes, you need to make sure you selected the right partner to begin with most importantly. But even then, people will leave relationships because they think their partner is the problem even though they are the ones who aren't investing in a relationship. The grass isn't greener on the other side of the fence, it's greener where you water it. You could have the perfect business model and product but if you don't spend time on it and "water" it then it will always fail. You don't need to create a new business you need to nurture the business you have. If you're in a toxic relationship right now, you don't need another relationship. You need to work on yourself so that you can attract the right partner. If the relationship has gone stale, you don't need another person to make you happy. You need to invest in your existing relationship to try and bring the excitement back. Screw your fence! 8. You Don't Need a Relationship to Be Happy (And you're screwed if you do) Plain and simple. If you think you need another person to "complete" you or make you happy, then you've already lost. Also it's not fair to whoever you are projecting this responsibility onto. Learn to be happy by yourself or you'll never be happy with another person. End of story. Hope this helps you on your journey. Stay Grounded, Andrew Learn more about my work, life's mission and how I can coach you by visiting my Quora profile here (source: Quora)

What is intuition?

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. So why do we have intuition? How do we use it? Have you ever had a moment where you felt as though something wasn't right? Perhaps stepping into a parking lot late at night, or feeling negative around someone without knowing why? And if you've experienced this before, have you shrugged it off, dismissing it as illogical nonsense? As a culture, we have learned to believe that rationality is what should prevail when making decisions about anything from crucial business mergers to what to eat for lunch. But what of that "inner voice," that gut feeling, that little something instinctual from within that tells us how we feel beneath those layers of logic? This is how I define instinct and intuition: • Instinct is our innate inclination toward a particular behavior (as opposed to a learned response). • A gut feeling—or a hunch—is a sensation that appears quickly in consciousness (noticeable enough to be acted on if one chooses to) without us being fully aware of the underlying reasons for its occurrence. • Intuition is a process that gives us the ability to know something directly without analytic reasoning, bridging the gap between the conscious and nonconscious parts of our mind, and also between instinct and reason. In essence, we need both instinct and reason to make the best possible decisions for ourselves, our businesses, and our families. Unfortunately, many of us—even when we experience success using this lesser-acknowledged part of us—are uncomfortable with the idea of using our instincts as a guidance tool. We are embarrassed to say that we follow hunches, we mistrust the sometimes-cryptic messages that our instincts send to us, and consequently we diminish our capacity to leverage the power of our own instincts when we need them most. Our discomfort with the idea of relying on our instincts is based on millennia of cultural prejudice. Think of the common phrase, ''We are not like animals.'' It tells us that the assumed difference between humans and animals is humans' ability to reason with our instinctual impulses, and the unspoken message is that reason is a higher and better quality to possess. The thing is, not only are we like animals, we are animals. However, we are animals with the distinct advantage of having both instinct and reason at our disposal. So we don't actually have to reject either morality or instinct; rather, we have the capacity to honor and call upon both. We don't have to reject scientific logic in order to benefit from instinct. We can honor and call upon all of these tools, and we can seek balance. How do we include intuition into our everyday life? Since we've spent so long ignoring or dismissing this aspect of the self, how do we now successfully re-integrate it into our practical decisions? The answer is simple: dialogue it. The conscious is an expert at logic and will use it relentlessly. Conversely, the unconscious mind searches through the past, present, and future and connects with hunches and feelings in a nonlinear way. Its process is cryptic to the logical mind, as it defies the conventional laws of time and space. For example: You: What should I wear today? Your Unconscious: Red. You: Red what? Your Unconscious: I don't know, just something red. You: Why? Your Unconscious: Feels good. You: But I have an interview today; isn't red too aggressive? Your Unconscious: You're missing the point. You: What's the point? Your Unconscious: You like red. It makes you feel happy. You: What has happiness got to do with this? Your Unconscious: Everything. You: How? Your Unconscious: You'll see; just trust me on this. And perhaps in doing this, because you simply feel good, you exude more confidence at your interview, and you receive the job based on this. Perhaps your interviewer loves red, and enjoys that you were bold enough to not wear black. Perhaps the color is what makes you stand out from so many others. Who knows? The point is, you listened to your instincts and made your decision, including intuition and benefitting from it, without worrying about the logical reasons why. But let's not stop there. Here are three ways to listen to that internal voice and allow its guidance into your everyday life: 1 - Keep a Journal. Writing your thoughts and feelings down on paper—even if you think you have little to say—helps the nonconscious mind open up. You may find you're writing words and phrases that don't make sense to you, or stir emotional responses rather than intellectual responses. When this happens... 2 - Turn Off Your Inner Critic. Oftentimes we rationalize away those voices within. This time, listen without judgment. Allow the inner dialogues to happen without fear or ridicule. 3 - Find a Solitary Place. A place where you can allow emotions to flow freely is an imperative part of finding and retaining the building blocks of intuition. Here you may also want to create an emotional connection to an object, a color, a piece of music or literature—anything that will allow feelings to stir that are solely from within. These three exercises will aid you in creating a new, deeper relationship with the self, help clarify that inner voice, and allow you to bring your true instinctual awareness back into your rational everyday life. (Source: psychology today)

What are normal hormone levels in females?

Normal Testosterone and Estrogen Levels in Women Written by Debra Fulghum Bruce, PhD Medically Reviewed by Jennifer Robinson, MD on May 04, 2022 It may surprise you to know that men don't have a monopoly on testosterone. Testosterone belongs to a class of male hormones called androgens. But women also have testosterone. The ovaries produce both testosterone and estrogen. Relatively small quantities of testosterone are released into your bloodstream by the ovaries and adrenal glands. In addition to being produced by the ovaries, estrogen is also produced by the body's fat tissue. These sex hormones are involved in the growth, maintenance, and repair of reproductive tissues. But that's not all. They also influence other body tissues and bone mass. What are hormones? A hormone is a chemical substance. It's secreted by one tissue and travels by way of body fluids to affect another tissue in your body. In essence, hormones are "chemical messengers." Many hormones, especially those affecting growth and behavior, are significant to both men and women. The amount and levels of hormones change daily. The sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone, are secreted in short bursts -- pulses -- which vary from hour to hour and even minute to minute. Hormone release varies between night and day and from one stage of the menstrual cycle to another. What is estrogen? Estrogen is an entire class of related hormones that includes estriol, estradiol, and estrone. Estriol is made from the placenta. It's produced during pregnancy. Estradiol is the primary sex hormone of childbearing women. It is formed from developing ovarian follicles. Estradiol is responsible for female characteristics and sexual functioning. Also, estradiol is important to women's bone health. Estradiol contributes to most gynecologic problems, including endometriosis and fibroids and even female cancers. Estrone is widespread throughout the body. It is the main estrogen present after menopause. Why do estrogen levels fall? There are many reasons why estrogen levels fall, including: Hypogonadism Hypopituitarism Pregnancy failure (estriol) Perimenopause and menopause (estradiol) Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) Anorexia nervosa (eating disorder) Extreme exercise or training Drugs that block estrogen include clomiphene, which tricks the body into thinking it has decreased levels of estrogen. Also, women experience low levels of estrogen immediately after childbirth and also during breastfeeding. Why are athletes at risk for low levels of estrogen? Women with low body fat often do not produce sufficient amounts of sex hormones. This can be a problem for women such as athletes, models, and gymnasts. It can also be a problem for women with eating disorders. These women can experience a cessation of menstruation, known as amenorrhea. They may also develop osteoporosis -- thin bones -- and fractures as well as other conditions more common in older women after menopause. Do estrogen levels fall at menopause? Yes. Estrogen levels fall at menopause. This is a natural transition for all women between ages 40 and 55. The decline in estrogen can happen abruptly in younger women whose ovaries are removed, resulting in so-called surgical menopause. Perimenopause is the period of transition before menopause. The first natural decline in estrogen levels starts during this phase. Other physiological changes also start. Women going through perimenopause may experience weight gain along with other menopause symptoms. For instance, there may be irregular menstrual periods, hot flashes, and vaginal dryness. On average, menopause occurs at age 51. When it does, a woman's body produces less estrogen and progesterone. The drop of estrogen levels at menopause can cause uncomfortable symptoms, including: Hot flashes Night sweats Vaginal dryness or itching Loss of libido or sex drive Some women experience moodiness. That may or may not be related to the loss of estrogen. Lower levels of estrogen may also increase a woman's risk for heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis and fractures. Why do estrogen levels rise? During puberty, it's normal for levels of estrogen to rise. That's because this hormone fuels changes in a young girl's body. For example, it plays a role in the development of breasts, a more mature curved figure, fuller hips, and pubic and underarm hair. In addition, high levels of estrogen are seen in women who are extremely overweight. Estrogen levels rise during a healthy pregnancy, and increased estrogen levels may be seen with tumors of the ovaries, testes, or adrenal glands. Some drugs, such as steroid medications, ampicillin, estrogen-containing drugs, phenothiazines, and tetracyclines can increase estrogen levels. What happens when testosterone levels rise or fall? If your body produces too much testosterone, you may have irregular or absent menstrual periods. You may also have more body hair than the average woman. Some women with high testosterone levels develop frontal balding. Other possible effects include acne, an enlarged clitoris, increased muscle mass, and deepening of voice. High levels of testosterone can also lead to infertility and are commonly seen in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). PCOS is an endocrine condition that is sometimes seen in women of childbearing age who have difficulty getting pregnant. Women with PCOS have symptoms similar to those produced by high testosterone levels. They include: Obesity An apple-shaped body Excessive or thinning hair Acne Menstrual irregularity PCOS is associated with: Higher levels of circulating male hormones Insulin resistance Carbohydrate intolerance -- conditions that make you prone to gaining weight Low levels of HDL -- ''good'' -- cholesterol Elevated triglycerides High LDL -- ''bad'' -- cholesterol Obesity High blood pressure As women with PCOS age, the presence of these risk factors increases their risk for heart disease. By the time of menopause, women have experienced a decline in testosterone since their 20's that does not decrease further." That decline may be correlated to a reduced libido. Some findings indicate that testosterone replacement therapy may benefit sexual function in certain perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Testosterone replacement is unadvised in women with breast or uterine cancer. It also may increase the chances of cardiovascular disease or liver disease. So, experts are cautious about recommendations. How do I know if my hormone levels are too high or too low? Your doctor can do a physical examination and assess your health situation and symptoms to determine if further laboratory tests are needed to check hormone levels. Those tests may be important if you have a health condition such as PCOS or have stopped menstruating because of excessive athletic training or anorexia nervosa. If the tests show abnormal levels of hormones, your doctor can prescribe effective treatment. (Source: WebMD)

What are all the amendments?

List of the 27 Amendments Resources related to "List of the 27 Amendments": Overview of Bill of Rights When was the Bill of Rights ratified? Is the Bill of Rights part of the constitution? Free PDF of the Bill of Rights What Is The Constitutional Amendment Process? The following is a list of the 27 constitutional amendments. Twenty-five of these constitutional amendments are currently active. The two amendments of the constitution that are inactive are the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) and the 21st Amendment (Repeal of Prohibition). The First 10 Amendments to the Constitution What are the first 10 amendments called? The first 10 of these amendments are known as the Bill of Rights and relate to personal and individual rights. The Bill of Rights was ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures on December 15, 1791. Over 11,000 additional constitutional amendments have been proposed, with approximately 200 proposed for the amendment process a year. For a proposed constitutional amendment to be passed is a very complicated process. What Are the First 27 Amendments of the Constitution? The 1st Amendment The 1st Amendment is about Freedom of speech. The notion that the government will not interfere with the ability of the people, the press, or religious groups to express their views or to protest in favor of them. The 2nd Amendment The 2nd Amendment is about the right to bear arms. In the modern world, the continued right to own firearms and protect property according to the law. The 3rd Amendment The 3rd Amendment is a law stating that citizens do not have to house soldiers in wartime or peacetime if they do not consent to do so. The 4th Amendment The 4th Amendment is about the right of the people of the United States to feel secure in their homes and possessions without fear of "unreasonable searches and seizures." This relates to modern law concerning the need for a warrant to search property. The 5th Amendment The 5th Amendment is commonly known as the double jeopardy law. Those tried and acquitted for a crime cannot be tried again for that same crime. Also, the accused cannot be asked to be a witness against themselves. The 6th Amendment The 6th Amendment is about the right of all citizens of the United States to a speedy and fair public trial. This also means an impartial jury and the right to a defense counsel and witnesses in their favor. It also infers the concept of innocent until proven guilty. The 7th Amendment The 7th Amendment gives the right for any claimant to take a matter to court and trial by jury when the value in question exceeds $20. The 8th Amendment The 8th Amendment is a ban on extreme punishments for crimes, focusing on those that are "cruel and unusual" and on excessive fines or bail. The 9th Amendment The 9th Amendment clarifies that United States citizens have far more rights than those currently listed and that their absence doesn't diminish their importance. The 10th Amendment The 10th Amendment attempts to separate federal and state law, where the federal government only has the powers assigned to it via the United States Constitution. The states have power over everything else. The 11th Amendment The 11th Amendment is the notion that the right for citizens to sue a state only applies to residents in that state. In other words, Texans can't sue the State of New Mexico. It was ratified on February 7, 1795. The 12th Amendment The 12th Amendment is a complex amendment that lays out all the laws for how Presidents and Vice Presidents progress through the nomination and election process. It goes into who is allowed to vote and qualified electors and delegates. Also, the requirements for becoming president. It was ratified on June 15, 1804. The 13th Amendment The 13th Amendment is about the abolition of slavery. The promise that slavery, or "involuntary servitude," would exist no longer within the United States. The exception here is on the conviction of a crime. This amendment was ratified on December 6, 1865. The 14th Amendment The 14th Amendment is the assertion that all those born or naturalized within the United States are citizens of the United States. Furthermore, the promise that no state will enforce any law that will damage these privileges in any way. This is also known as the Equal Protection Clause and was ratified on July 9, 1868. The 15th Amendment The 15th Amendment stipulates that any citizen of the United States has the right to vote, regardless of their race and color of their skin. This constitutional amendment also mentions those with a "previous condition of servitude," which grants the right to former slaves. It was ratified on February 3, 1870. The 16th Amendment The 16th Amendment is a law that allowed Congress to start collecting income tax, with the promise that this would not be based on the state's population. It was ratified on February 3, 1913. The 17th Amendment The 17th Amendment lays out the terms for electing senators. This gave power to the people of the US to choose their representatives and laid out the terms of office. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified on April 8, 1913. The 18th Amendment The Eighteenth Amendment is also known as the Prohibition Law. This prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of "intoxicating liquors." This essentially meant a ban on alcohol and led to the Prohibition Era of bootleg alcohol sales and consumption. The 18th Amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919 but subsequently repealed by the 21st Amendment. The 19th Amendment The 19th Amendment is about the right for any citizen of the United States to vote, regardless of their biological sex. Essentially, this was the moment women joined male citizens and were granted the right to vote in the United States. This amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920. The 20th Amendment The 20th Amendment to the United States Constitution is the decision that all presidential terms, and those of vice presidents, will end at noon on January 20th. In addition to this, it was decided that the date of the start of a term in the Senate would move to January 3rd. The Twentieth Amendment was ratified on January 23, 1933. The 21st Amendment The 21st Amendment is the motion to repeal the 18th Amendment, the Prohibition Law, and allow for the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol. It was ratified on December 5, 1933 due to the inability to enforce the law. Instead, individual states gained the right to police alcohol-related laws themselves. The 22nd Amendment The 22nd Amendment is the notion that no president should be eligible for election into office for more than two terms. Furthermore, anyone promoted to president for two years or more of a term cannot be elected for more than one additional term. The amendment was proposed in 1947, following FDR's term from 1933 to 1945, and ratified on February 27, 1951. The 23rd Amendment The 23rd Amendment ensures that Washington, D.C. had electors in the Electoral College, but only as many as the state with the lowest number. This would ensure that voters there had better representation in future elections. The amendment was ratified on March 29, 1961. The 24th Amendment The 24th Amendment is about the right of any citizen of the United States to vote for candidates in any election for Presidential, Senate, or Congress representatives, even if they have missed a tax payment. This could mean a poll tax payment or any other tax. This amendment was ratified on January 23, 1964. The 25th Amendment The 25th Amendment says that the vice president will take office and take over the role of president if the president is removed from office, resigns, or dies. This was proposed in 1965 after Lyndon Johnson took over the presidency following the assassination of John F. Kennedy. It was ratified on February 10, 1967. The 26th Amendment The 26th Amendment is about the voting rights of all American citizens over 18. Before this, the voting age had been 21. There is also mention of being able to do so without fear of having their vote denied because of their age. The amendment was ratified on July 1, 1971. The 27th Amendment The 27th Amendment submits that any changes to the salary of those in Congress should not take effect until the next election of representatives. Unsurprisingly, given the nature of this bill, this took a long time to reach ratification. It was proposed in 1789 and ratified on May 7, 1992. 27 Amendments of the Constitution The above are 27 amendments that have become part of the United States Constitution. There are approximately 10,000 amendments that have been rejected and never ratified. When Was Each of the 27 Amendments to the Constitution Ratified? The ratification dates for each of the 27 Amendments to the United States Constitution are as follows: First 10 Amendments (Bill of Rights) - December 15, 1791 11th Amendment - February 7, 1795 12th Amendment - June 15, 1804 13th Amendment - December 6, 1865 14th Amendment - July 9, 1868 15th Amendment - February 3, 1870 16th Amendment - February 3, 1913 17th Amendment - April 8, 1913 18th Amendment - January 16, 1919 19th Amendment - August 18, 1920 20th Amendment - January 23, 1933 21st Amendment - December 5, 1933 22nd Amendment - February 27, 1951 23rd Amendment - March 29, 1961 24th Amendment - January 23, 1964 25th Amendment - February 10, 1967 26th Amendment - July 1, 1971 27th Amendment - May 7, 1992 (Source: ConstitutionUS.com)

What are some ways to Stop Thinking About Someone for Good?

Over the course of your life, you'll probably meet a person or two who sparks some intense emotions. Maybe you love someone who doesn't feel the same way — or someone who loves you, but caused you great pain. Deep dislike can also fuel rumination, so you might even get stuck on thoughts of someone you just can't stand. In either scenario, you'd rather not think of them at all, so you resolve to banish those unwanted memories and move on. As you may have noticed, though, trying to suppress certain thoughts often only brings them back in full force, leaving you overwhelmed and frustrated. This doesn't mean you're doomed to think about that person forever. The 12 strategies below can help you refresh your focus. Figure out why If you've tried and failed to move your thoughts away from someone, ask yourself why. Delving unflinchingly into this question can help you get some insight on why you're still stuck on them and perhaps lead to some resolution. Say you had an intense crush on a classmate but never got the chance to ask them out. Now, you spend a lot of time imagining yourself making this conversation happen. It's pretty common to fixate on unrealized hopes, but what if you could still connect, perhaps through social media or a mutual friend who helps you get in touch? Maybe your crush says no. Or maybe they say yes, and the date's a total flop. Either way, a clear outcome can help you turn the page on those thoughts and move forward. Focus on the facts It's not uncommon to build people up as extremes, especially when time has faded the more realistic memories. People have more nuance to them than right and wrong or good and bad, but memory biases can increase your chances of remembering wonderful or terrible things over more normal, everyday traits or events. These exaggerated perceptions can take over your mental space pretty easily, making it even harder to let go. You can combat them by gently nudging your memories back toward the realm of strict facts. Say you can't let go of an ex. Instead of thinking, "They were so perfect. I'll never find anyone else like them," ask yourself what made them so fantastic. Laying out specific things that drew you to someone can help you realize it might not be all that difficult to find others with similar characteristics. Find some evidence to support or refute idealized impressions, like: "They never let me down," "They always knew just what to say," or "They're so horrible. All they want to do is make me miserable." When you take the time to sift through your memories, you'll likely identify a few that shift your perspective to a more realistic shade of gray. Look at the situation objectively. If you can't escape the suspicion that your co-worker is out to get you, challenge yourself to find other explanations for their behavior. Maybe they're having a tough time. Perhaps they treat everyone with a similar sharpness. Stepping back from an emotional view can help you avoid taking someone's behavior personally, which can make it easier to shrug off. Accept instead of reject When you can't seem to stop thinking about someone, try turning toward those thoughts instead of away. That might sound completely illogical, but this technique can really work. Those thoughts might keep returning because you haven't yet accepted the reality of the situation. Unrequited love, humiliation, unjust treatment, plain old spite — any of these can cause plenty of distress, which you reject to protect yourself. You can't push pain away forever, though, and when you finally allow yourself to confront it, you might be unpleasantly surprised by its intensity. Shoving the thoughts in a mental box and hiding the key can make them seem forbidden, off-limits. Accepting them, and the circumstances around them, can help you navigate distress more productively. Opening the box and letting your thoughts loose reduces their urgent need for acknowledgment. Meditation is one helpful way to practice exploring and accepting unwanted thoughts. A regular meditation practice can teach you to sit with thoughts and let them pass as you observe them with compassion and curiosity. Write it down Not everyone finds meditation helpful, so if it doesn't work for you, don't sweat it. Other methods can help you begin exploring and accepting thoughts of someone in order to finally get them off your mind. Journaling is one such approach. Many people associate journaling with their teenage years, but a journal can have benefits at any stage in life. Journals offers private space to vent frustrations and come to terms with difficult emotions. It might even feel a little easier to identify potential reasons behind persistent thoughts in writing. Many people find journaling cathartic. The relief that comes with writing down difficult thoughts can almost make you feel as if you've set those thoughts down in a place where they no longer burden you so heavily. Find a positive distraction Distraction can help you manage any kind of emotional distress, as long as you use it correctly. When you're trying to find temporary relief from unpleasant or upsetting thoughts, distraction can be a great tool. Distraction can also come in handy when you can't do anything to change the circumstances troubling you. It shouldn't replace acceptance and self-exploration, though. To properly resolve recurring thoughts, you'll typically need to address them at their roots. In short, as long as you don't use distraction to deny emotions and experiences, it may work as a good short-term coping strategy. It can help to try focused distraction or redirecting your thoughts to something specific, instead of simply letting your mind wander where it will. A few helpful distractions to try: Pick up a book. Put on some music. Watch a favorite movie. Talk to a friend. Head out for a walk or jog. Work on self-discovery Whether you want to take your mind off your last love interest or a toxic friend's betrayal, it can help to refocus on one very important person: yourself. Some dedicated self-exploration can distract you from thoughts of whoever you want to stop thinking about. It can also help you get back in touch with your hobbies, personal interests, and other things you find meaningful. You know, those things that so often fall by the wayside when you get wrapped up in thoughts of someone else. Self-discovery can yield even greater rewards when you're trying to move on from thoughts of an ex or crush who didn't feel the same way. The more you reconnect with yourself, the more you might notice key ways they don't quite meet your needs or align with the future you envision. Prioritize meeting your own needs Believing you need someone makes it much harder to let go. If you convince yourself you can't carry on without them, it can become a real struggle to take healthy steps toward achieving your goals alone. Try asking yourself: What need did they fulfill? Could I fulfill that on my own? If not, how can I meet that need? Your answers can help you begin to identify a clearer path forward. Remember, nobody can fulfill all of your needs, though friends and partners provide important emotional support. Keep a healthy distance Creating some space between yourself and the other person can help you redirect thoughts more successfully. Out of sight, out of mind, as the saying goes. When you can't avoid them completely, these strategies can help: Temporarily unfollow or hide social media profiles, and avoid visiting their pages. If you belong to the same friend group, limit your hangouts for the immediate future. COVID-19 distancing guidelines provide a fantastic, honest excuse, since it's much safer to limit interaction for now. Avoid texting, calling, and otherwise maintaining regular contact. Stay in the here and now Mindfulness, or your awareness of the present, can improve well-being in a number of ways. Staying present in your daily life can strengthen your relationships with others. It can also boost self-awareness and have a positive impact on mental health. When you live mindfully, you're more in tune with each passing moment, so it becomes easier to stop cycling thoughts and return your attention to what you actually want to concentrate on. Since your mental energy is caught up in each moment as it happens, it's less likely to drift off toward what could have been. Living mindfully is often as simple as: using your five senses grounding yourself when your attention wanders focusing your breathing Find more mindfulness tips here. Give it time Waiting is often both the easiest and hardest thing to do. Sure, you don't have to do anything besides live each day of your life. Still, time does seem to pass much more slowly when you want something specific to happen. You might scoff at the idea that your pain and the intensity of your thoughts will someday diminish, but time generally does do the trick. A day will eventually come when you have to actually expend effort to recall that person you can't stop thinking about now. Try to forgive It's all too easy to get trapped in distress when someone wrongs you. Maybe you go over the injustice again and again, fixate on the pain of betrayal, and think of all things you could do to balance the scales. Yet retracing this path generally only fuels more misery, while forgiveness offers a more reliable route toward healing. Here's one thing not everyone realizes about forgiveness: It's for you, more than anyone else. Forgiveness helps you let go of the wrongs you've clutched close to your chest so you can move forward with a lighter heart. It becomes easier to forgive when you remember everyone makes mistakes, and many of these mistakes have no bad intentions behind them. Talk to a therapist If the strategies above haven't helped you stop thinking about the person, professional support is a good next step. A therapist can't give you a spotless mind of eternal sunshine, but they can offer compassionate guidance as you explore reasons why you can't move on. In therapy, you can learn productive ways to challenge unwanted thoughts and break their hold, along with mindfulness practices and other helpful coping skills. Struggling to forgive someone? A therapist can help with that, too. The bottom line The mind can be a tricky place. It doesn't always respond in the way you'd like, and sometimes it seems to have, well, a mind of its own. This can feel particularly frustrating when thoughts of someone you want to forget pop up as fast as you push them down. Other people can affect you deeply, for better or for worse. When they let you down, it's easy to fixate on what might have been, but accepting what is can help you set aside those wonderings and regain your peace of mind. (Source: healthline)

What can I learn about somnambulism (sleepwalking)?

Sleep Walking Definition Sleepwalking is a disorder that occurs when people walk or do other activity while they are still asleep. Alternative Names Walking during sleep; Somnambulism Causes The normal sleep cycle has stages, from light drowsiness to deep sleep. During the stage called rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, the eyes move quickly and vivid dreaming is most common. Each night, people go through several cycles of non-REM and REM sleep. Sleepwalking (somnambulism) most often occurs during deep, non-REM sleep (called N3 sleep) early in the night. Sleepwalking is much more common in children and young adults than in older adults. This is because as people age, they have less N3 sleep. Sleepwalking tends to run in families. Fatigue, lack of sleep, and anxiety are all associated with sleepwalking. In adults, sleepwalking may occur due to: Alcohol, sedatives, or other medicines, such as some sleeping pills Medical conditions, such as seizures Mental disorders In older adults, sleepwalking may be a symptom of a medical problem that causes decreased mental function neurocognitive disorder. Symptoms When people sleepwalk, they may sit up and look as though they are awake when they are actually asleep. They may get up and walk around. Or they do complex activities such as moving furniture, going to the bathroom, and dressing or undressing. Some people even drive a car while they are asleep. The episode can be very brief (a few seconds or minutes) or it can last for 30 minutes or longer. Most episodes last for less than 10 minutes. If they are not disturbed, sleepwalkers will go back to sleep. But they may fall asleep in a different or even unusual place. Symptoms of sleepwalking include: Acting confused or disoriented when the person wakes up Aggressive behavior when woken up by someone else Having a blank look on the face Opening eyes during sleep Not remembering the sleep walking episode when they wake up Performing detailed activity of any type during sleep Sitting up and appearing awake during sleep Talking during sleep and saying things that do not make sense Walking during sleep Exams and Tests Usually, examinations and testing are not needed. If the sleepwalking occurs often, the health care provider may do an exam or tests to rule out other disorders (such as seizures). If the person has a history of emotional problems, they also may need to have a mental health evaluation to look for causes such as excessive anxiety or stress. Treatment Most people do not need specific treatment for sleepwalking. In some cases, medicines such as short-acting tranquilizers are helpful in reducing sleepwalking episodes. However, some of these medicines can also cause sleep walking. Some people mistakenly believe that a sleepwalker should not be awakened. It is not dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker, although it is common for the person to be confused or disoriented for a short time when they wake up. Another misconception is that a person cannot be injured while sleepwalking. Sleepwalkers are commonly injured when they trip and lose their balance. Safety measures may be needed to prevent injury. This may include moving objects such as electrical cords or furniture to reduce the chance of tripping and falling. Stairways may need to be blocked with a gate. Outlook (Prognosis) Sleepwalking usually decreases as children get older. It usually does not indicate a serious disorder, although it can be a symptom of other disorders. It is unusual for sleepwalkers to perform activities that are dangerous. But precautions should be taken to prevent injuries such as falling down stairs or climbing out of a window. When to Contact a Medical Professional You probably do not need to visit your provider. Discuss your condition with your provider if: You also have other symptoms Sleepwalking is frequent or persistent You do dangerous activities (such as driving) while sleepwalking Prevention Sleepwalking may be prevented by the following: Do not use alcohol or anti-depressant medicines if you sleepwalk. Avoid sleep deprivation, and try to prevent insomnia, because these can trigger sleepwalking. Avoid or minimize stress, anxiety, and conflict, which can worsen the condition. References Avidan AY. Non-rapid eye movement parasomnias: clinical spectrum, diagnostic features, and management. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017:chap 102. Avidan AY. Sleep and its disorders. In: Jankovic J, Mazziotta JC, Pomeroy SL, Newman NJ, eds. Bradley's and Daroff's Neurology in Clinical Practice. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2022:chap 101. (Source: Penn medicine)

How do you know you have a close friendship with someone?

How can I define, allow, develop, and honor the special friendships that nourish me? Who is the person you feel closest to, the one you call to share cheers with when your child gets a college acceptance or tears when your work project is sent back to the drawing board? When the dog breaks a leg and you need to go to the vet, who do you ask to accompany you? When your parents unexpectedly give you tickets for a show you have been yearning to see, what faces pop into your mind as favorite companions? What cues unconsciously place a person on your radar for constant monitoring when he or she becomes ill? Who comes to mind when you need a ride to a medical procedure and are forced to ask for help? Whose birth date will you never forget, no matter how many years go by? Where did these people come from? Family can yield friends. Many of us look first for close relationships in our own history or where we live. Family. A spouse. Perhaps a relative who has died. (Even though it was thirty-two years ago now, I still occasionally hold conversations in my head with my deceased husband). Children can be close, some more than others, and some more or less after they are grown and have their own adult lives. You can feel close to a child's spouse and any grandchildren he or she may have—again, some closer than others, or close in different ways. But family or residential ties don't automatically make people close to one another, nor does a lack of conflict. Relationships can be casual or cordial, but definitely not "close". Think of the great-aunt you dutifully visit once a year or the sibling or other relative who treats your home like a hotel. "Family by choice" includes close friends, the people you can call in the middle of the night. Those whose faces or voices come to mind when you hear a song, see a photo, remember a particularly emotional moment. With whom you celebrate the good or commiserate the sad or disappointing. With whom you clocked a period of significant personal growth or history and, having shared those moments of transition or crisis, have chosen to continue to keep in touch, to follow one another's life at close range. The people who appear in your dreams at night, at least the happier ones. Other routes to closeness. Close friendships can develop out of repeated contact, a perceived similarity, or a mysterious connection that brings people from two different worlds together and compels them to enter each other's life. They can last for an hour, a day, or a lifetime. They reflect "perceived partner responsiveness." Their presence makes your life different, reminding you of where you are at the moment, who you have been, or want to be. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry said "A goal without a plan is just a wish." A close person is the person with whom you can share a goal, create and test a plan, and observe with wonder as the trajectory unfolds. Definitions. Why do we label people "close"? Sharing. Close friends are people with whom we share more than information. More even than an interest, activity, or even passion, although the friendship may have begun with that similarity. Sharing probably includes companionship, someone you like to spend real time with. Supporting, whether the resources provided are financial, logistical, emotional or social. Inspiration or at least appreciation of each other's growth. Comforting. Being there when times are challenging. Being generous. People in close relationships give to one another. Knowledge. Insight. Laughter. Possessions. Time. Respect for differences. Close friends are trustworthy, reliable, and forgiven when they are human, fallible. They are valued not only for what they bring to the table but for who they are in their own right, for what they bring to the world. Confiding. Perhaps they are people you can confide in and whose confidences you, in turn, hold. A relationship in which you can speak the unspeakable and feel heard and perhaps even understood. Someone with whom secrets can be put into words and brought to the light of day where they can be examined, perhaps updated and revised, or foolish beliefs confronted. Life can be filled with lost opportunities for close relationships. The neighbor you wished you had known when you listened to others describe her at her funeral. The person whom you sat next to in a class or with whom you played on the same team or stretched at the same yoga studio but never did get to know. And then there is the dark side of close relationships, which rears its head when trust is breached, a confidence or agreement betrayed. Or when the support that is needed is beyond what can be provided, and the one in need feels disappointed by the one with finite material or emotional resources, at least at a particular moment in his or her life. Or when unvoiced expectations lead to misunderstanding of what time, energy or affection is truly available in any specific instance or over time. When two people grow in different directions and the lingering basis of the bonds, usually family or history, no longer suffice to provide a well of sustenance to those involved. When the balance of giving and receiving becomes too burdensome to either party and a new way of being with one another cannot be created. The possibility of losing a close relationship can be so frightening, so ridden with potential sadness, that some people avoid them altogether. They miss the joys and other benefits that they can bring. Ten Characteristics of Close Relationships They can last an hour, a day, a lifetime. They can appear in your life to teach you, to help you, to love you, to support you, to inspire you, to comfort you, to bring you joy, or to test you. They can begin in family, which is not chosen, or in a relationship that is, They can develop through sharing important growth or trauma; pursuing an interest or activity or passion; enjoying the attraction, validation, or comfort of a perceived similarity; through the intrigue of respected differences; or in the magnetism that mysteriously draws people towards one another. They can bring moments that evoke the full spectrum of emotion, thus expanding and deepening our human repertoire. They can place demands on you that help you use your resources well, help you grow, or overwhelm you. They come with expectations, that can sometimes be negotiated. They can be interrupted or ended by disappointment, unresolved conflict, betrayal, growing distance in the interest or activity or similarity that initially brought you together, or just by two people developing in different directions. Their benefits can include providing help, a confidant, a second pair of ears for hearing anxiety-provoking information, companionship, being able to use meaningful parts of the self to serve another person. Without maintenance, they deteriorate. Like everything else, attention is required to avoid the need for repairs—always more costly in time, money and energy—and sometimes not even possible. They hold up a mirror so that we can see and develop ourselves more broadly, more deeply. On the other side of the mirror, they allow us to act as agents for inspiration, for growth. The foundation of a close relationship is trust; its lifeline is forgiveness when the other disappoints. Close relationships can usually — but not always — brave assaults from disapproving relatives, jealous others, differences in perspectives, physical distance, and disappointment. The track record that renders someone a "safe harbor" in times of trouble or a cheerleader in times of joy earns him or her a place in your heart worth occasional sacrifice and enduring honor. Wise words from a Linda Worster song, "That's All", bear remembering: "I just love you because you are you." Reis HT, Clark MS, Holmes JG. Perceived partner responsiveness as an organizing construct in the study of intimacy and closeness. In: Mashek DJ, Aron AP, editors. Handbook of closeness and intimacy. Mahwah, NJ: US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers; 2004. pp. 201-225 Copyright 2016 Roni Beth Tower (Source: Psychology Today)

Can mindfulness make us selfish?

How mindfulness could make you selfish By David Robson 16th August 2021 Mindfulness may have many benefits - but the latest research shows it can also make some people more selfish. Mindfulness is said to do many things for our psyche: it can increase our self-control, sharpen our concentration, extend our working memory and boost our mental flexibility. With practice, we should become less emotionally reactive - allowing us to deal with our problems more calmly. One 'benefit' that you might not expect to gain, however, is heightened egotism. Yet a recent study suggests that, in some contexts, practicing mindfulness really can exaggerate some people's selfish tendencies. With their increased inward focus, they seem to forget about others, and are less willing to help those in need. This finding, alone, should not be a cause for you to cease meditating, if you do find it useful in other ways. But it adds to a growing body of research suggesting that mindfulness training can have undesirable side effects as well as potential benefits - and many psychologists now believe that the potentially negative consequences of certain meditative practices should be advertised alongside the hype. The 'me' in meditation The study comes from Michael Poulin, an associate professor in psychology at the State University of New York at Buffalo, who wanted to investigate whether the effects of mindfulness might depend on its cultural context and the existing values of the people who are practicing it. He was particularly interested in the ways people think about themselves - their "self-construal". Some people take a more independent viewpoint, focused on personal characteristics. If they are asked to describe themselves, they might emphasise their intelligence or their sense of humour. People with an interdependent view, on the other hand, tend to think of themselves in terms of their relations to others. If they are asked to describe themselves, they might say that they are a "daughter" or "father" or "college freshman" - things that emphasise social roles or group membership. Within any population, there will be a mix of both attitudes, but on average interdependence is higher in Asian countries like China and India - where Buddhism originated - whereas people in the US, UK and Europe tend to be more independent-minded. Mindfulness comes with many potential benefits - but for the independent-minded, a selfishness boost could be an unexpected side-effect (Credit: Getty) To see whether this would influence the effects of mindfulness in the West, Poulin invited 366 college students into the lab and first gave them a questionnaire measuring their independence or interdependence. Half were then asked to perform a meditation focused on the sensation of breathing. The control group were given a "sham" meditation that involved sitting and letting their mind wander for 15 minutes. The exercise may have been relaxing, but it wasn't designed to increase their mindfulness. Next came a test of pro-social behaviour, in which the students were told about a new project to help fund a charity for the homeless. They were then given the opportunity to stuff envelopes with marketing material advertising the scheme, which would be sent to the university's alumni - but they were told there was no obligation to do so, if they wished to leave early. Sure enough, Poulin found that the effects of the meditation depended on people's existing attitudes. If they were already interdependent, then the people who took the mindfulness exercise were willing to spend much more time on the charitable task; overall, they stuffed about 17% more envelopes than the control group. If they were independent-minded, however, the exact opposite occurred - the mindfulness had made them even more self-centred, so they were less willing to help the homeless. Overall, they stuffed around 15% fewer envelopes than the control group. To be sure the finding was robust, Poulin's team conducted a second experiment, in which the participants were first given a short text written either in the first-person singular (I), or first-person plural (we). As they read the text, they had to click on all the pronouns - a simple task known to prime either independent or interdependent thinking. They then completed the meditation tasks and, to test their pro-sociality, were asked whether they wanted to devote time to chat online with potential donors for the homelessness charity. Once again, the mindfulness exercise exaggerated the effects of their self-perception, driving increased altruism among the interdependent-minded, and decreased altruism among the more independent-minded. Given that many Americans score highly on measures of the independent self-construal, that's a lot of mindfulness practitioners who may be affected. 'McMindfulness' The finding provides new material for critics of the mindfulness movement. Ronald Purser, a professor of management at San Francisco State University, has been chief among them. In his book McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality, published in 2019, he described the ways that the ancient practices have become divorced from the original Buddhist teachings. Mindfulness has become a stripped-down, DIY, self-help technique - Ronald Purser "Mindfulness practice was intended to lead to the clear insight that despite appearing separate, all phenomena - including our sense of self - are, in their true nature, relative and interdependent," he tells me. In many of its new incarnations in the West, however, it is marketed as a tool to boost productivity and performance. "Mindfulness has become a stripped-down, DIY, self-help technique," says Purser - another tool to get ahead of others. He was not surprised by Poulin's findings - anecdotally, he had heard of similar effects. Thomas Joiner, a professor of psychology at Florida State University and author of Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism, is similarly emphatic. He says that the Buddhist practices have been "perverted" into "a self-focused, self-glorification mechanism". Like Purser, he believes that Poulin's paper helps to show the consequences of this. "I think it makes my case that when you take genuine mindfulness and drop it into certain context, a monstrosity can result." The Middle Way It is fair to say that Purser's and Joiner's views on mindfulness fall at the more extreme end of the spectrum; in general, psychologists studying mindfulness remain optimistic about the practice's potential to improve wellbeing in many areas of life. There does, however, seem to be increasing concern that some the benefits have been overhyped, and that the potential downsides have been under-investigated. Some studies suggest that mindfulness can heighten anxiety and trigger panic attacks in certain people, for example - a danger that is not often mentioned in the many books, apps and courses promoting the practice. We need much more transparency about these less-desirable side-effects - including its potential to increase selfish behaviour. "I absolutely think that those who promote or practise mindfulness should be aware of this potential issue," says Poulin. There are many different mindfulness techniques, and research shows that some may increase compassion (Credit: Getty) We also need greater research into the many kinds of mindfulness techniques. Mindful breathing, which Poulin used in his experiment, is the most popular mindfulness exercise, and if you have only a superficial interest in the field, it may be the only technique you know. But there are many others, each of which may help to develop a particular set of skills. Tania Singer, the director of the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany, has provided some of the strongest evidence for the diverse effects of the different techniques with a detailed nine-month trial. Over many sessions, the participants completed exercises aimed at improving "presence", such as mindful breathing, as well as techniques such as "loving kindness meditation", which involved deliberately thinking about our sense of connection with others - including close friends and complete strangers. They also took part in pair work aimed at "mindful listening", in which each person had to pay particular attention to another's descriptions of emotional situations. All the while, Singer tracked the effects with detailed questionnaires, including measures of compassion - which increased significantly following the loving-kindness meditation and pair work. Intriguingly, these exercises also seemed to produce the biggest reduction in people's stress responses. "You learn not just to listen empathically; you learn to open up your own vulnerability." This allowed the participants to recognise the "shared humanity" of positive and negative feelings, she says - a mindset that subsequently helped them to better cope with stressful situations in the rest of their life. Poulin agrees that these other mindfulness techniques may counteract the effects he had observed, for people who follow a comprehensive programme. He is more concerned about overly simplistic courses that market mindfulness as a simple way to gain a brain boost. "With the rise of apps and the use of mindfulness within corporations to increase productivity, for example, sometimes the moral dimension of mindfulness is lacking," he says. Any time we try to change our mental function, it has the potential to create widespread consequences for our behaviour - and we should be cautious of any product or service that claims to offer a "quick fix". It is time, in other words, to be a bit more mindful about the way we use mindfulness. David Robson is the author of The Intelligence Trap: Why Smart People Make Dumb Mistakes. His next book is The Expectation Effect: How Your Mindset Can Change Your World, to be published in early 2022. He is @d_a_robson on Twitter. (Source: BBC)

Can science back up intuition?

Whether you call it a "gut feeling," an "inner voice" or a "sixth sense," intuition can play a real part in people's decision making, a new study suggests. For the first time, researchers devised a technique to measure intuition. After using this method, they found evidence that people can use their intuition to make faster, more accurate and more confident decisions, according to the findings, published online in April in the journal Psychological Science. The study shows that intuition does, indeed, exist and that researchers can measure it, said Joel Pearson, an associate professor of psychology at the University of New South Wales in Australia and the lead author of the study. Intuition is a popular topic in psychology these days, and generally refers to a brain process that gives people the ability to make decisions without the use of analytical reasoning, the researchers suggest. Despite widespread acceptance of this idea by psychologists and the public, scientists have lacked a reliable test to gather objective data on intuition and even prove its existence. Previous studies didn't actually measure intuition because researchers didn't really know how to quantify it, Pearson said. Instead, these studies relied on information from questionnaires that asked people how they were feeling while they made decisions, which is more of a reflection of people's opinion of their intuition than an actual measurement of it, Pearson said. In the new research, however, Pearson and his colleagues came up with a series of experiments to determine whether people were using their intuition to help guide their decision making or judgment. The researchers defined intuition as the influence of "nonconscious emotional information" from the body or the brain, such as an instinctual feeling or sensation. Measuring intuition In the experiments, the researchers showed small groups of about 20 college students black-and-white images of dots moving around on one half of a computer screen. The researchers asked the students to decide whether the dots were generally moving to the left or to the right. As the participants made this decision, on the other side of the computer screen, they saw a bright, flashing square of color. But sometimes, the researchers embedded an image into the colorful square that was designed to trigger an emotional response from the participants. For example, each image was aimed at eliciting either a positive emotion (a puppy or a baby) or a negative emotion (a gun or a snake). However, the participants were not aware that they were being shown these emotional images because they flashed at speeds too fast to be consciously perceived. These subliminal images were meant to simulate the type of information involved in intuition — they were brief, emotionally charged and subconsciously perceived. The results showed that when the participants were shown the positive subliminal images, they did better on the task: They were more accurate in determining which way the dots were moving. But they also responded more quickly and reported feeling more confident in their choice. [10 Things That Make Humans Special] The experiments also suggested that the participants became better at using their intuition over time, Pearson said. "It's all about learning to use unconscious information in your brain," he said. Just as people can become more comfortable making decisions when they apply logic and reasoning, they may also become more adept at trusting their intuition when they use it more frequently over time, the study revealed. Intuition can help people make better decisions under the right circumstances, Pearson said. The study showed that information subconsciously perceived in the brain will help with decisions if that information holds some value or extra evidence beyond what people already have in their conscious mind, he said. In the future, the researchers might be able to develop a method to train people to take advantage of their intuition and then test them to see if their intuition truly improved with more frequent use and practice, Pearson said. (Source: Live Science)

What can money be?

anything that serves as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value (Source: Quizlet)

What's the disclaimer at the beginning of recently published Mr Nightmare videos?

Reuploading this content to YouTube or any other platform such as TikTok is not allowed and will be removed when found, which will result in the termination of said accounts. If you see this content being uploaded to any other channels or platforms, please inform me by email at: [email protected]

What to know about sleepwalking?

Sleepwalking Sleepwalking is when someone walks or carries out complex activities while not fully awake. It usually happens during a period of deep sleep. This peaks during the early part of the night, so sleepwalking tends to happen in the first few hours after falling asleep. Sleepwalking can start at any age but is more common in children. It's thought 1 in 5 children will sleepwalk at least once. Most grow out of it by the time they reach puberty, but it can sometimes persist into adulthood. Why some people sleepwalk The exact cause of sleepwalking is unknown, but it seems to run in families. You're more likely to sleepwalk if other members of your close family have or had sleepwalking behaviours or night terrors. The following things can trigger sleepwalking or make it worse: not getting enough sleep stress and anxiety infection with a high temperature, especially in children drinking too much alcohol taking drugs certain types of medicine, such as some sedatives being startled by a sudden noise or touch, causing abrupt waking from deep sleep waking up suddenly from deep sleep because you need to go to the toilet Other sleep disorders that can cause you to frequently wake up suddenly during the night, such as obstructive sleep apnoea and restless legs syndrome, can also trigger a sleepwalking episode. Taking steps to prevent some of these triggers - such as making sure you get enough sleep, and working on strategies to deal with and reduce stress - will often help. What happens when a person sleepwalks In some episodes of sleepwalking, a person may just sit up in bed and look around, briefly appearing confused. Others may get out of bed and walk about, open cupboards, get dressed or eat, and they may appear agitated. In extreme cases, the person may walk out of the house and carry out complex activities, such as driving a car. The eyes are usually open while someone is sleepwalking, although the person will look straight through people and not recognise them. They can often move well around familiar objects. If you talk to a person who is sleepwalking, they may partially respond or say things that do not make sense. Most sleepwalking episodes last less than 10 minutes, but they can be longer. At the end of each episode, the person may wake up, or return to bed and go to sleep. They will not normally have any memory of it in the morning or may have patchy memory. If woken while sleepwalking, the person may feel confused and not remember what happened. What to do if you find someone sleepwalking The best thing to do if you see someone sleepwalking is to make sure they're safe. If undisturbed, they will often go back to sleep again. Gently guide them back to bed by reassuring them. Do not shout or startle the person and do not try to physically restrain them unless they're in danger, as they may lash out. When to get medical advice Occasional sleepwalking episodes do not usually need medical attention. Sleepwalking is rarely a sign of anything serious and may get better with time, particularly in children. But, you should consider seeing a GP if sleepwalking happens frequently, you're concerned a person may be at risk of injuring themselves or others, or the episodes continue or start in adult life. The GP may refer you to a specialist sleep centre, where your or your child's sleep history can be discussed in more detail. If appropriate, sleep studies can be arranged to exclude other conditions that could be triggering the sleepwalking, such as obstructive sleep apnoea or restless legs syndrome. Treatments for sleepwalking There's no specific treatment for sleepwalking, but it generally helps to try to get enough sleep and have a regular and relaxing routine before bedtime. You may find the following advice helpful: try to go to bed at a similar time each night make sure your bedroom is dark and quiet when you go to sleep limit drinks before bedtime, particularly ones containing caffeine, and go to the toilet before going to sleep find ways to relax before going to bed, such as having a warm bath, reading or deep breathing if your child sleepwalks at the same time most nights, try gently waking them for a short time 15 to 30 minutes before they would normally sleepwalk - this may stop them sleepwalking by altering their normal sleep cycle Read about how to establish a regular bedtime routine and healthy sleep tips for children. Medicine is not usually used to treat sleepwalking. However, medicines such as benzodiazepines or antidepressants are sometimes used if you sleepwalk often or there's a risk you could seriously injure yourself or others. These medicines can help you sleep and may reduce the frequency of sleepwalking episodes. Therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) or hypnotherapy may sometimes be helpful. Preventing accidents It's important to keep the areas of your home where a person may sleepwalk free of breakable or potentially harmful objects and to remove any items they could trip over. It's also a good idea to keep windows and doors locked. If your child sleepwalks, do not let them sleep on the top bed of a bunk bed. You may want to fit safety gates at the top of the stairs. It's also important to tell babysitters, relatives or friends who look after your child at night that your child may sleepwalk and what they should do if it happens. (Source: nhs)

How do I get over a crush?

There's an age-old question in love that's plagued humanity since the dawn of time: How do you get over a crush? Few things are more torturous than an unrequited love—it feels like your heart's been shattered to pieces, but rest assured, you're not alone. We've all been there. (Yes, even Taylor Swift.) While heartbreak can feel like a form of never-ending torture, there is a way to get over someone you like. Losing feelings is easier said than done, but moving on from a crush is possible. We talked to a clinical psychologist Jane Mendle, who specializes in adolescence, and licensed therapist Racine Henry, who specializes in marriage and family therapy, to get some of the best tips for how to get over a crush. Below, find the must-try cures for heartbreak and the secret to stop crushing on someone once and for all. 1. Give Yourself Time It's natural to want to get over a heartbreak as soon as it happens, but it's not as easy as it sounds. And, honestly, sometimes you have to sit in your feelings for a little while before you can start to move on from a crush. According to Henry, the first thing you should do when trying to get over someone you like is to give yourself time. Don't try to rush the process or pretend the sadness and disappointment you feel isn't there. "You had hopes that what you felt for this person would be reciprocated and lead to an enjoyable relationship. It's not realistic to expect yourself to feel differently overnight," Henry says. 2. Talk It Out and Let It Go Commit to a big ole vent session with your mom or best friend and get all your feelings out on the table. Talk about what you saw in this person, how much you're hurting, and all the details of your perfect imaginary dates. Get it all out in one fell swoop, and then commit to letting it go. "Talking things through can help you understand more about why you feel the way you do, and also lets the people who care about you know what's going on in your life and that you might need extra support right now," explains Dr. Mendle. 3. Validate All Your Feelings An almost-ship can lead to an avalanche of emotions and insecurity. All the "what ifs'' and uncertainty can lead you down a rabbithole of possible personal shortcomings. But, questioning your sense of self can affect your future relationships—you might not be able to trust yourself or your next partner. Instead, take time to mourn the end of your crush and don't run or invalidate your own feelings. Take it one day at a time by journaling or listening to Taylor Swift on repeat. It's also important to respect the other person's decision and their boundaries. Don't discount their own feelings or attempt to coax them into a relationship. 4. Try Not to Obsess While talking it out is good, don't let the pain be the only thing you focus on. Zoning in on the same sad feelings on repeat turns into what psychologists call "overtalking" and makes it harder to lose feelings for someone. This can make you feel like you're stuck being sad all the time as you relive the rejection. Instead, take your mind off the situation by doing something fun with someone in your support system. "When that happens, it can sometimes be good to ask a friend or family member to help distract you. Support doesn't just have to be talking: Maybe there's an activity you typically enjoy or a particular place you want to go, and it can be healing to share that experience with someone who cares about you," says Dr. Mendle. 5. Don't Haunt Them on Social It can be all too easy to lurk on your crush's social media accounts, but doing so can make getting over someone infinitely harder. Our best advice: Unfollow, unfollow, unfollow. Sure, you might have to see the object of your affection in class, but why make the situation harder on yourself? Clearing your screen of your crush's presence can do wonders for your mental health. If you're too scared to totally unfollow them (we get it, it's a massive social no-no), try using privacy settings like "mute" to soft-block them. It's unfriending without actually unfriending, which is a great option if you're worried he or she will notice a drop in their friend count. "Constantly checking an ex or crush's social media keeps a relationship alive, and people often do this when they are not ready to face the end of that relationship," Mendle explains. "It's normal to want to stay connected to someone who means a lot to you, but it can also keep you in a state of grief, loss, or sadness. It takes a lot of strength and discipline, but most people find that they eventually feel better once they acknowledge that a relationship is over or that a desired relationship may not get off the ground." 6. Delete or Mute Them If you want to lose feelings for someone quicker, Henry suggests taking your social media hiatus to the next level by cutting off all contact with the object of their affection. "You will only prolong your healing process by feeding your hope through interpreting interactions to be more than they truly are. This means unfollowing on social media, letting friends know you don't want to hear anything about or discuss this person, and it may even mean blocking their phone number." 7. Know Your Worth When we're getting over a crush, one thing our friends always remind us is, "It's THEIR loss." Which is true! This person is not the only person in the world. YOU, however, are the only you. Do something that will remind you of this — whatever you excel at that makes you feel amazing and empowered when you do it. If your next crush is truly worthy of you, they'll be attracted to all of your talents and encourage you to be the best you can be. 8. Learn Whatever You Can Hindsight is always 20/20. Now that you're back to feeling like yourself, think about what qualities your old crush had that you'd like to find in a new one. Did they have a great sense of humor? A killer smile? Did you like the same music? What did you not like about this person? You most certainly don't need to dive right into a new romantic situation, but it's helpful to figure out what you're into — and what you're not — for the next time you find yourself having feelings. 9. Seek Clarity From Your Crush Closure can do wonders for people in relationships, situationships, and almost-ships. It can be incredibly difficult, but seeking clarity can help you stop crushing on someone quicker. Whether it's through a private DM or an in-person conversation, it's important to make sure to validate and respect your crush's decision during this conversation. But, before you reach out, make sure to check in on yourself and see what would bring you closure. Is it knowing why they rejected you? Is it something you could do better in future relationships? Come up with a clear way to communicate your needs before opening the floor for a direct conversation. 10. Get It All Out in Your Journal Journaling has been proven to reduce stress, clear your mind, and help you move on from negative thoughts. How? Well, first, it allows you to take a moment and focus solely on yourself, and be present in the moment. With this focus comes clarity, and you're able to get some respite from your emotions and thoughts. Even the act of journaling itself is healing — if you want, you can throw out the paper after you write down all your feelings (we get it: sometimes you don't want to keep a record of your innermost thoughts). 11. Meet New People When you feel ready, consider meeting and hanging out with new people. There's no pressure to start dating, of course, but even putting yourself out there and being open to new possibilities can do wonders for healing your heart and giving you hope that you will be able to develop feelings for someone else (even if it might not seem like it right now). You can try apps like Bumble BFF to connect with people on a platonic level or even join a local club or volunteer group to meet new, like-minded people in your community. 12. Stay Busy Sometimes all you need to do is distract yourself. If you're tempted to DM your crush or feel overwhelmed by sadness, bury yourself in a good novel, scroll on TikTok, or even set the vibe with an upbeat playlist to completely change your mood. The busier you are—with work, friends, or school—the less time you have to get in your feels. But, don't discount your feelings, you can still be sad while out mini-golfing with your BFFs. Sometimes it's better to be sad with your close friends than alone in your room with nothing but Netflix to keep you company. 13. Know That This Is Temporary and You're Not Alone No matter how much your heart is hurting, know that the feelings won't last forever. You will move on from a crush. "Feelings — even very negative ones — are actually temporary. There will always be times when you want something intensely and it just doesn't work out. It's normal to take a while to rebound from that. But learning that feelings can and do pass — even when it seems like you'll feel sad forever — is something you can remember the next time you feel down," says Mendle. 14. Put the Relationship Into Perspective Henry explains that putting the situation into perspective can not only help you learn from past mistakes, but also help you to better understand your feelings as a whole. "Even though your feelings may have been deep and meaningful, honestly ask yourself if the situation was as significant or real as you may have thought it to be. Did you get carried away? Did this other person mislead you? What, if anything, are you truly losing by letting this go?" 15. Treat Yourself Being busy with all the things you like doing is a great way to not even have time to dwell on a lost almost-love. Treat yourself to a day at the spa or an impromptu shopping spree. Keeping your mind distracted with things you like to do—and giving yourself room to treat yourself with kindness—will put you in a better headspace for your next relationship. And it'll remind you exactly who you are and what you want from your next crush. "While healing, this is a good time to be indulgent. Buy yourself things you like, eat foods you enjoy, be around people that make you smile, but in moderation. Don't spend all your savings or engage in unhealthy behaviors just because you're hurting. Enjoy yourself without creating another, potentially more complicated, problem," Henry says. 16. Listen to Sad Music While it may seem counterintuitive, studies have found that listening to sad music can help a person feel better. It turns out a playlist filled with melancholy Lana Del Rey and Joji songs can act as a cognitive reward for your brain. While distracting yourself from your emotions can help, so does listening to your heart and really delving into those sad emotions. Plus, music acts as a great distraction for a busy mind. 17. See a Therapist or Counselor If you've talked it out, blocked your crush on social media, and tried to move on from a crush, but just feel stuck in an inescapable cycle of sadness, it's time to consider seeing a counselor. How do you know if you should see someone? If you've been experiencing any of the following for a month or more, it might be time to see a mental health professional: You feel down all day most of the day nearly every day. Your feelings are keeping you from enjoying things you might normally enjoy. Your feelings are getting in the way of doing schoolwork, hanging out with your friends, or getting along with people. "The most important thing when visiting a counselor is that you feel comfortable with that person. It's hard and scary to tell someone personal things. You should have the sense that whatever you share will be respected and valued," says Mendle. "There are many different types of counseling. Some just involve support and listening. Others are more active. The counselor will still listen and support you, but you will also work together on ways to boost your mood or to help you feel more control over your life and feelings." (Source: Teen vogue)

What are the effects of porn?

The consumption of pornography has been shown to have an impact on sexual risk-taking, including less frequent usage of condoms and birth control, as well as more casual sexual encounters. It can negatively impact sexual functioning, especially in men. (Source: Wikipedia)

Can a university professor publicly announce your grades to your class?

So yes, a professor can do this, but it's a really cruel thing to do in a lot of cases. [But there may be some universities that consider this] a gross professional misconduct that can get a tenured professor fired. [This is something universities should probably avoid because it] would be in violation of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). Not only only will ANY professor will get fired for this, but the education institution where this occurred could be fined/sued/etc. for such actions. [source: Quora]

Can you manage stress with laughter?

Stress relief from laughter? It's no joke When it comes to relieving stress, more giggles and guffaws are just what the doctor ordered. Here's why. By Mayo Clinic Staff Whether you're guffawing at a sitcom on TV or quietly giggling at a newspaper cartoon, laughing does you good. Laughter is a great form of stress relief, and that's no joke. Stress relief from laughter A good sense of humor can't cure all ailments, but data is mounting about the positive things laughter can do. Short-term benefits A good laugh has great short-term effects. When you start to laugh, it doesn't just lighten your load mentally, it actually induces physical changes in your body. Laughter can: Stimulate many organs. Laughter enhances your intake of oxygen-rich air, stimulates your heart, lungs and muscles, and increases the endorphins that are released by your brain. Activate and relieve your stress response. A rollicking laugh fires up and then cools down your stress response, and it can increase and then decrease your heart rate and blood pressure. The result? A good, relaxed feeling. Soothe tension. Laughter can also stimulate circulation and aid muscle relaxation, both of which can help reduce some of the physical symptoms of stress. Long-term effects Laughter isn't just a quick pick-me-up, though. It's also good for you over the long term. Laughter may: Improve your immune system. Negative thoughts manifest into chemical reactions that can affect your body by bringing more stress into your system and decreasing your immunity. By contrast, positive thoughts can actually release neuropeptides that help fight stress and potentially more-serious illnesses. Relieve pain. Laughter may ease pain by causing the body to produce its own natural painkillers. Increase personal satisfaction. Laughter can also make it easier to cope with difficult situations. It also helps you connect with other people. Improve your mood. Many people experience depression, sometimes due to chronic illnesses. Laughter can help lessen your stress, depression and anxiety and may make you feel happier. It can also improve your self-esteem. Improve your sense of humor Are you afraid that you have an underdeveloped — or nonexistent — sense of humor? No problem. Humor can be learned. In fact, developing or refining your sense of humor may be easier than you think. Put humor on your horizon. Find a few simple items, such as photos, greeting cards or comic strips, that make you chuckle. Then hang them up at home or in your office, or collect them in a file or notebook. Keep funny movies, TV shows, books, magazines or comedy videos on hand for when you need an added humor boost. Look online at joke websites or silly videos. Listen to humorous podcasts. Go to a comedy club. Laugh and the world laughs with you. Find a way to laugh about your own situations and watch your stress begin to fade away. Even if it feels forced at first, practice laughing. It does your body good. Consider trying laughter yoga. In laughter yoga, people practice laughter as a group. Laughter is forced at first, but it can soon turn into spontaneous laughter. Share a laugh. Make it a habit to spend time with friends who make you laugh. And then return the favor by sharing funny stories or jokes with those around you. Knock, knock. Browse through your local bookstore or library's selection of joke books and add a few jokes to your list that you can share with friends. Know what isn't funny. Don't laugh at the expense of others. Some forms of humor aren't appropriate. Use your best judgment to discern a good joke from a bad or hurtful one. Laughter is the best medicine Go ahead and give it a try. Turn the corners of your mouth up into a smile and then give a laugh, even if it feels a little forced. Once you've had your chuckle, take stock of how you're feeling. Are your muscles a little less tense? Do you feel more relaxed or buoyant? That's the natural wonder of laughing at work. (Source: Mayo Clinic)

What are some different views on souls?

THE HEBREW VIEW: The Hebrew word for soul is nephesh and it literally means "breath." Animals as well as human beings were created with this life breath as a gift from God (Gen. 2:7; 7:22, 6:17; Ecc. 3:19). The Hebrew nephesh is also connected with the life-blood (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 17:11), and if the breath and/or blood leaves the body or stops circulating, then the soul is dead. Rather than a dualistic view like Plato's--i.e., an immaterial, immortal soul separate from, but within a material body--the Hebrews believed that the soul is a psycho-physical unity. It is sometimes called a "somatic" (Gk. soma=body) soul to emphasize the fact that there is no soul without the body and vice versa. We have to conclude, then, that the Hebrew soul was thoroughly mortal, and that this life was the most important for human beings, and that the afterlife was essentially the non-life of Sheol (the "Pit") where everyone goes, exists as a shadow, and is alienated from God. Note this passage from Job: "Before I go, never to return, to a land of darkness and gloom [Sheol]" (10:21, Anchor Bible). THE NEW TESTAMENT: The somatic soul of the Hebrews continued to have a profound influence, even though Greek dualism is strong as well. Late Judaism, especially under the Pharisees, eventually accepted the idea of eternal life, Heaven, and Hell, and this idea passes into Christianity. The Hebrew "somatic" view dominated particularly in the idea of the resurrection of the body. This is alien to Platonic and Hindu views of the soul, which celebrates a disembodied soul and rejects the body as ultimately evil. The New Testament uses the Greek word psyche for soul (it means "breath" too), and, interestingly enough, there are animal souls here, too (Rev. 8:9). And, even more intriguing, Jesus, when he dies, is said to "ransom" his soul (Mk. 10:45) or to give up his "spirit" (pneuma, Jn. 10:30; Lk. 23:46; Matt. 27:50). Neither soul nor spirit can be immortal if this is the case. Does God, in the Resurrection, bestow immortality on Jesus as well? THREE VIEWS OF THE SOUL'S NATURE AND DESTINY HOMERIC-HEBRAIC: The human soul is essentially mortal and must live in a body to have any integrity or meaning. There is only a shadowy, meaningless afterlife in Hades or Sheol. JUDEO-CHRISTIAN: The human soul is naturally mortal, but immortality is "bestowed" upon it by divine miracle, which resurrects the body and enables it to live with the soul forever. (Note that the Hebrew idea of psycho-physical unity wins out over Greek dualism.) Interestingly enough, this immortality must be granted to everyone, otherwise eternal damnation in Hell would make so sense. (After Vatican II Roman Catholics have returned to something like Sheol for the damned.) PLATONIC-HINDU: The human soul is naturally and essentially immortal; it is uncreated and eternal. The soul passes from one body to another through a series of many incarnations. After paying off its sin (karmic debt), the soul is liberated from somatic existence and lives in a totally blissful state. AN ARGUMENT FOR THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL (based on Plato) A thing can be destroyed only by separating its parts. The soul has no parts. Therefore, the soul cannot be destroyed. Both premises can be disputed. Think, for example, of ways of destruction other than separation into parts, such as a light burning out and having no intensity left. The second premise begs the question about the nature of the self. The self that we can observe by introspection is, as both the Buddha and Hume observe, a collection of feelings, cognitions, emotions, dispositions, and awareness. To assume that the soul is simple and not compound is to place your desired conclusion in the premises. (Source: University of Idaho)

What can I ask my child to get him or her excited to tell me about their day?

15 Ways to Get an Awesome Response to "How Was Your Day?" These questions can lead to more meaningful conversations with kids By Elizabeth McGrory Updated on October 05, 2022 Medically reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW Sometimes, it feels like the moments when you can learn about your school-age child's day or have a meaningful conversation with your teen are few and far between. In a rush to connect in a limited amount of time, many parents default to asking "How was your day?" on the way home from school or at the dinner table. And in response, they often receive a standard one-word answer like "fine" or "good." Of course, these one-word answers are not good fodder for a healthy discussion. If this happens to you, it is time to get creative when it comes to asking your kids about their day. Doing so will help you have a more meaningful conversation and cultivate deeper connections. Here's how you can get a better response to the age-old question "How was your day?" Ask Open-Ended Questions Aim to ask general, open-ended questions to get your child thinking and responding more freely. For example, ask "What was the bravest thing you did today?" Or "What was the kindest thing you saw at school today?" Or "What happened at recess today?" Avoid Pressuring Your Child Often, despite your best intentions, kids can perceive questions as judgment and/or worry about disappointing you. For better results, avoid asking about a test, a grade, or anything academic, or about practices and performances. For many kids, questions that deal with their performance in some way create anxiety and cause them to shut down. They may end up either feeling defensive or anxious about meeting expectations. Instead, aim for more neutral or fun topics. Be an Active Listener Once you ask your child a question, let them answer. Continue listening even if they only give a short answer. Be patient and wait silently to see if there is more to come. Or ask simple, agenda-free follow-up questions. Many times, kids will offer more information if you demonstrate that you are listening but not judging. Offering too much advice or trying to fix something that they need to deal with themselves also can cause kids to shut down. It is also a good idea to refrain from probing for more information than your child or teen wants to offer. Reframe the Question Instead of asking a generic question, mix it up a bit. Unique questions teach kids the art of conversation, and they also provide you with a better picture of what is going on in their lives and in their hearts. You can try these prompts, but you will also want to gear your questions to your child's age, interests, and activities. For instance, ask "What are you learning about in math class?" one day, and "What did you do in gym class?" on another. Slowly rotate through your child's class schedule. 19 Alternatives to "How Was Your Day?" What was your favorite part of the day? What was the hardest thing you did today? If you could pick three friends to play with/hang out with, who would they be and why? Who put a smile on your face today? What was your least favorite part of the day? If today was a color, what would it be and why? What is one creative thing you did today? Tell me about a book you are reading. Were you bored today? Why or why not? Tell me about a problem you solved today. Was today a fast day or a slow day? Why? What rule do you have to follow that makes no sense? Did anything happen today that made you proud? Did you face any particular challenges today? What was the kindest thing you did today? Do you have any questions for me about your day? What are you excited about right now? If you could pack anything in your lunch tomorrow, what would it be and why? What is the most important thing you learned today? Use Time Together Wisely When you are traveling in the car or sitting at the dinner table together, your child may be more open to talking because there are limited distractions and it's a designated time to be together. Eating is a time that conversation tends to flow naturally—and you're all already at the table. You can begin by talking about the food, then segue into other topics. This strategy also works when you are doing other activities together, such as yard work, chores, or walking the dog. There also is something about riding in a car that often gets kids to open up and share. Part of it has to do with the fact that they do not have to make eye contact with you unless they want to. They can look out the window if they want. These are the best times to get your kids to talk about their day. Reduce Distractions Make captured time together count by reducing distractions while you strike up a conversation. Turn down the radio or turn off the TV. Ask them to put away their devices (and put away your own) so you can focus on talking to one another about life. Limiting Technology and Focusing on Parenting Turn It Into a Game Sometimes, getting the conversation going at the dinner table can take a little effort and creativity. Some parents find that using a family fun night or conversation games like "High/Low" or "Would You Rather?" are really helpful. To play "High/Low," everyone at the dinner table takes turns telling the others one high point of the day and one low point of the day. Hearing what your kids consider a high point and what they consider a low point can provide a lot of insight into their lives and act as a conversation starter. "Would You Rather" is a fun way to interact with one another by using absurd questions like "Would you rather drink one jar of pickle juice or smell like a dill pickle for a week?" or "Would you rather have a water balloon fight every day or a food fight once a week?" There are no rules as to what the questions can or can't be about. Let everyone take turns making up questions. Connect Over Popular Culture If they're reluctant to talk about their day, try asking about culture topics and/or their interests. Ask about their favorite movies, video games, books, celebrities, sports, influences, social media, or music. Kids often get excited about talking about media, teams, or games that they enjoy. Once they get going telling you about an influencer, song, or video they like, they may become more open to sharing about their day-to-day life, too. Make Sure You Are Paying Attention Depending on your child, you may only get one chance to ask a question and receive an answer. Put all your focus on the conversation, avoid thinking about work or your to-do list, and give your child your full attention. Then, ask your question and wait for the answer. Be quiet and really look at your child while they speak. Giving kids space and the opportunity to answer is as important as asking the right question. Let Them Do Most of the Talking Once your child has answered you, continue to sit quietly. Sometimes, kids remember something else they want to add or they think of another story they want to share with you that had nothing to do with your initial question. Learning to sit tight not only gives your child the space to share but also improves your active listening skills. Look at your child and make eye contact if you can. Then, concentrate on watching your child and listening. You should not only listen to your child's words, but you should also pay attention to what is not being said. Show Them You Are Interested Remember, you are the person your child wants to share with—even if it can be hard for them. Being a good listener shows your child that you are present and that you are interested in them. There's something about someone who really listens to you that says, "I care about you." When kids know that they have unconditional love and concern from you, it boosts their self-esteem and opens up the path for good communication for years to come.1 Stay Available Kids can be unpredictable when it comes to sharing about their day. They may not seem that interested in talking to you when you ask them about their day in the car or play a conversation game at the dinner table. But later, as you walk into their room to say goodnight, they suddenly want to tell you about the fight they had with their best friend. Whenever your child chooses to share, make every effort to stop and listen to what they have to say. They are making an effort to share with you, and you want to do what you can to encourage this type of conversation. The more often you show your kids that you are interested in their lives, the more often they will open up to you. Make Time for Them Do your best to make time for them—but sometimes it will be challenging. If you are doing something that cannot be interrupted, ask if you can talk in 15 minutes and then follow through with your promise. You want to be sure your kids know you are available to them. If you are busy or preoccupied every time they want to talk to you, then you will likely get the same response from them when you reach out about their day. They will be too busy or preoccupied to truly engage in a conversation with you. Talk About Yourself First Help your conversations to feel less like an interrogation by by talking about yourself or your own day first. Try talking about something that happened during your day or something that you are working on or looking forward to doing. Mention what you learned or saw at work or at home. Talk talk about a memory you have from your own childhood. Don't Take One-Word Responses Personally If, no matter how hard you try, your child still seems to answer everything with a conversation-ender like, "Yes," "No," "Fine," or "I don't know," don't stress out too much. Do your best to accept that they may just prefer not to share a lot. Either way, continue to try to connect on some level, whether it's through an activity, such as playing a game together, or conversation. A Word From Verywell Even if you don't end up talking specifically about your child's day, you may still end up having a great conversation about another topic. Questions beyond "How was your day?" help you get to know your child better. And, the time you spend talking and listening reinforces to kids that you are interested in them and value their thoughts, experiences, and opinions. (Source: verywell family)

What effects did the pandemic have on teens' mental health?

How the Pandemic Made the Mental Health Crisis Worse for Teens By Meagan Drillinger — Fact checked by Dana K. Cassell — Updated on April 5, 2022 Depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth doubled during the pandemic, with 25 percent experiencing depressive symptoms and 20 percent experiencing anxiety symptoms. Symptoms of depression had already been rising in teens in recent years. Data from early 2021 shows that emergency room visits in the U.S. for suspected suicide attempts were 51 percent higher for girls and 4 percent higher for boys compared to the same period in early 2019. As we continue to battle the COVID-19 pandemic, another health crisis is rising quickly behind it. The U.S. Surgeon General issued a public health advisory on the mental health challenges that children and teenagers are facing in the midst of the pandemic. According to the Surgeon General's report, depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth doubled during the pandemic, with 25 percent of youth experiencing depressive symptoms and 20 percent experiencing anxiety symptoms. Beyond that, data from early 2021 shows that emergency room visits in the United States for suspected suicide attempts were 51 percent higher for girls and 4 percent higher for boys compared to the same period in early 2019. We've partnered with Newport Academy, a mental health treatment program for teens, to explore how the COVID-19 pandemic is affecting teen mental health. Depression and anxiety in youth pre-pandemic Depression and anxiety levels have been rising for kids and teenagers even before the pandemic. In 2019, 1 in 3 high school students and half of female students reported feelings of sadness or hopelessnessTrusted Source in the past year that they couldn't participate in their regular activities, which is an increase of 40 percent since 2009. But because of pandemic-related protocols, including reduced in-person interactions among friends, social supports, and professionals, experts say that it became more difficult to recognize the signs of child abuse, mental health issues, and other concerns. "Social isolation through the pandemic, stress in school, conflict at home with parents who are also highly stressed creates a powder keg in the house. Everyone has been dealing with an emotional experience during COVID," said Becky Lois, PhD. Lois is co-director of the KiDS of NYU Foundation Integrated Behavioral Health Program at Hassenfeld Children's Hospital at NYU Langone and a clinical psychologist in the Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry at NYU Langone. According to the World Health Organization's Determinants of Adolescent Health Development, there are several factors that can shape the mental health of young people. These include social and economic inequalities, neighborhood safety, relationships at school and in community, relationships with family, as well as age, race, ethnicity, gender, etc. Lois also pointed out that it wasn't just the pandemic itself that caused stress. Children who face discrimination also face higher risk of anxiety and depression. "A significant layer of this also has to do with the discrimination [in the U.S.] that has come to light. It increases the vulnerability for families of color, [as well as people struggling with] sexual identity and orientation," Lois said. How to treat depression and anxiety in teens One of the most important ways to help kids who are struggling with stress, anxiety, or depression is simply to talk about it. "Have a conversation about how hard things are. Normalize and validate that experience for your child," said Lois. "Just being able to have a conversation and acknowledge that things aren't easy is a first step for parents to hear directly from their child how they are doing." If parents are concerned, they can also engage the school environment and contact counselors, psychologists, and social workers in a school setting who may be able to check in. Newport Academy offers mental health treatment for teens dealing with anxiety, depression, substance abuse, eating disorders, and other mental health conditions. "Prevention and early intervention are the two key strategies to tackle the ever-increasing adolescent and youth mental health issues," said Dr. Peng Pang, director of child and adolescent psychiatry at Staten Island University Hospital. The Surgeon General's advisory pointed out that groups including community organizations, healthcare professionals, and government institutions, among others, can push to highlight the importance of paying attention to mental health. "By investing in education on mental health topics using developmentally appropriate and culturally sensitive communication, we can all learn and participate in mental health prevention and build a strong healthy society," Pang said. Lois said that the fact that the surgeon general issued this report is a sign that people are taking the crisis seriously. "I think it's heartening that the surgeon general and the government at large is acknowledging this crisis of mental health in children and trying to activate our system," said Lois. "Maybe this will activate the system and make it OK for people to raise their hand and say that they are not OK." How can parents spot early warning signs of depression or anxiety in teens? Because the day-to-day activities of everyone in the household during a pandemic may be different from years prior, experts say that it may be possible that parents overlook a child's mental health struggle. However, there are some common warning signs to look out for. "Signs of depression and anxiety in youth can be distancing, social withdrawal, lack of interest in activities they once engaged in, feeling sad and down, restless, and fearful," said Lois. "Younger children can be irritable, act out, or can complain of physical symptoms like stomach aches and headaches." Lois says that if you notice these things starting to happen, or if patterns are different in your child, it could be indications that they're going through something stressful. "It doesn't mean your kid is anxious or depressed. They may not meet the threshold for clinical diagnosis. But if you're seeing them act differently it's great to be aware to catch it early and try to intervene before stress escalates and impairs their ability to function," she explained. (Source: healthline)

Why self-care is good according to the NYTs?

Why Self-Care Isn't Selfish The pandemic taught us that when you take care of yourself, you're also taking care of your family, friends and community. The 7-Day Well Challenge will show you how to focus on self-care in 2021. What's the most important lesson of pandemic life? I would argue that it's this: Self-care isn't selfish. During Covid-19, we've learned that we are all connected, and that taking care of ourselves — staying safe and staying well — is a way to care for our community. Taking precautions is a way to keep ourselves, our loved ones and our neighbors from getting sick and avoid overwhelming our health care system. One of the challenges of 2021 will be to continue making self-care a priority once the pandemic has passed. If you're someone who has always said you don't have time for self-care, or that self-care seems selfish and self-indulgent, you're not alone. "One of the things that you come across all the time is the idea that 'I can't invest in things that are good for me, because it's taking away from my ability to be a good parent or do what I need to do at work,'" said Kelly McGonigal, a health psychologist and lecturer at Stanford University. "Wouldn't it be great if we learn to lean in to our interdependence, and that we can actually take some kind of joy in knowing that when I take care of myself, I often am also taking care of others?" Start 2021 by redefining what self-care is. Self-care is not just making time to recharge your batteries with a nap, meditation or by taking a break from your family — although all those things count. Self-care ultimately is about setting priorities, setting boundaries and finding purpose. "Everybody understands that relaxation and rest is important," said Dr. McGonigal, whose latest book is "The Joy of Movement." "So there are aspects of self-care related to sleep — everyone should take a bath, light candles. There's this idea that we need to calm down. But what can you experience today that is going to fill you with the positive emotions you need to do the most important things in your life? It's about refueling yourself in order to engage with life." Jack Groppel, an executive coach and professor of exercise and sport science at Judson University in Elgin, Ill., said it's always difficult to convince people that they can make time for exercise and other forms of self-care. "Self care is a lot of things," said Dr. Groppel, co-author of "The Corporate Athlete: How to Achieve Maximal Performance in Business and Life." "It can be exercise, creating boundaries. It's keeping yourself safe emotionally. Maybe it's not arguing with that uncle about politics right now. It can be spiritual. But you are in control of it." To learn five new ways to think about self-care, try today's Well Challenge. Sign up for the Well newsletter to get the 7-Day Well Challenge in your inbox. DAY 4 Lean In to Self-Care Self-care is different for everyone. Here are five self-care exercises to help you make yourself a top priority in 2021. Choose one or try them all. Give the best hours of your day to yourself: Dr. Groppel often advises clients to map out a typical day, from dawn until bedtime. You probably spend about eight hours sleeping — but how do you spend the other 16 hours? Write down the time you spend preparing meals, doing your job, shopping, watching television, doing laundry, helping children with homework, caring for an aging parent, catching up on emails Next, Dr. Groppel asks: What one- or two-hour period in each day do you feel your best? Your most energetic? Your most productive? Now look at your list, he says. Who gets those hours? Try giving that time to yourself instead. Giving yourself the best part of your day doesn't mean taking a two-hour break from life. It means focusing on your priorities, rather than someone else's. You can use that hour or two for anything you want — it might be for a hobby, a work project that you feel passionate about, time with your children or even to volunteer and help others. Giving yourself time every day to focus on your personal goals and values is the ultimate form of self-care. Pick a word of the year: Choose a single word that describes the goals, values or mood you want to set for 2021. Last year, Dr. McGonigal chose the word "vitality." "I had no idea how relevant it was going to be," she said. This year she's thinking about choosing the word dance, "because of all the meanings that dance has for me personally, in terms of celebration and community and courage." Your word can be anything that matters to you: community, family, exercise, love, health, energy. Use your word as a mini mantra throughout the year to remind yourself to make self-care a priority. Create a respite plan: If you are a caregiver to an aging parent, ill spouse or disabled child, self-care probably feels impossible. Finding time for exercise, spiritual support or just having some fun is more easily said than done. If you leave it to chance, self-care won't happen. That's why it's important to design a family respite plan that identifies your needs and wishes, as well as the types of help other people can provide. Call a family meeting or call your friends. Tell everyone what you need — don't expect them to automatically know how to help. The advocacy group AARP has a guide for designing a respite care plan. Help someone else: Our bodies and minds benefit in a variety of ways when we help others. Studies show that having a strong sense of purpose protects us from stress in the short term and predicts long-term better health. If the traditional forms of self-care feel too self-focused to you, think about how helping others can be good for you. "It's also the sense of having a responsibility to make a difference if you can," said Dr. McGonigal. "Did I stand up for something this year in a way that might have made a difference? Did I allow myself to participate in that bigger-than-self process?" Imagine the end of 2021: One of Dr. McGonigal's favorite exercises is to ask someone to imagine life one year into the future. Imagine you've made some important change in your life that you would feel grateful for. Imagining your future self can help you focus on positive acts of self-care you can commit to now. "Really let your imagination run free," she said. "Is there a change you could commit to? Is there a part of yourself that you want to really learn and grow? Can you imagine being grateful to your future self for making that commitment?"

Why shouldn't I tell someone to relax?

Why You Should Never Tell Someone to Relax Instructing people to calm down typically has the reverse effect; how to help people de-stress without ordering them around Being directed to 'relax' or 'calm down' at work can have the reverse effect, with the listener only feeling more tense and pressured. WSJ's Sue Shellenbarger joins Lunch Break with Tanya Rivero with ways to calm people without ordering them around. Photo: iStock By Sue ShellenbargerFollow Updated Aug. 16, 2016 6:50 pm ET It's a paradoxical fact: When someone is getting stressed out, one of the least effective (and perhaps most annoying) things to say is "Relax." The directive has exactly the opposite effect on most people. People who instruct a colleague, subordinate or loved one to relax may have good intentions. But it is usually better to resist ordering people to change their emotional state and try a different strategy. If you are on the receiving end of an order to relax, there are countermoves that can keep your blood pressure from soaring higher. Anna Runyan was working hard on a previous job as a consultant several years ago when her boss approached her desk and told her to relax, adding, "you don't have to be perfect," says Ms. Runyan of San Diego. Anna Runyan of San Diego felt angry when a former boss told her to ​​stop working so hard, suggesting that he didn't understand what she faced. She felt her face flush with anger. She wanted some acknowledgment of her hard work and tight deadlines, but "he really didn't understand all the things I was doing," says Ms. Runyan, founder of ClassyCareerGirl.com, a career and business site for women. "I wanted to shut down." Afterward, she tried updating her boss more frequently on her workload but left the company the following year. Relaxing on command is physiologically impossible if "the body is already too acutely stressed to turn it around," says Wendy Mendes, a professor of emotion at the University of California, San Francisco, and a researcher on stress. While the body responds rapidly to stress, returning to a relaxed state can take 20 to 60 minutes, she says. Other research shows that trying to hide or suppress an emotion, called "emotion suppression," typically backfires. When people are told to hide how they feel and try to clamp down on the emotion, "it actually leaks out more," Dr. Mendes says. Such misfires can open a deep divide between an employee and a boss. Brandon Smith was extremely stressed on a previous job as a retailing manager years ago, after his boss ordered him on his first day to start laying off several co-workers, says Mr. Smith, now an adjunct professor of business at Emory University in Atlanta. Brandon Smith of Atlanta ​says a former boss's dismissive remark that laying off co-workers wasn't a 'big deal' motivated him to build a new career as an executive coach. When his boss passed his desk and remarked "just settle down, it's not a big deal," Mr. Smith says, "I wanted to explode with anger." He was so shaken that he emerged with a new career purpose. After leaving that job, he earned two master's degrees, in clinical therapy and business, and became an executive coach and team-building consultant, says Mr. Smith, founder of TheWorkplaceTherapist.com. Advising someone to relax can mask a variety of motives. The underlying message may be, "I can't stand the way you're making me feel, so stop it," says Joseph Burgo, a clinical psychologist and writer best known for his work on narcissism. If it is a loved one giving the order to relax, it may reflect a genuine need—for instance, for calm time together. Nina Batson of Tinton Falls, N.J., sometimes rushes to get laundry and other housework done in the evening after work. If her 13-year-old daughter Tati tells her, "Oh, Mom, relax, slow down," Ms. Batson stops to watch TV with her for a while, talk, laugh and have a cup of tea, even though she knows it will take her longer to finish the chores. Left: 'Calm down!' can be well meant, but when a boss makes this command, an employee can feel even more stressed as well as defensive or angry. Right: Open-ended questions like 'How's it going?' or 'Would you like to talk?' invite the employee to describe the pressures she is under, helping her to shake her stress and feel better. If you're criticized for appearing stressed, pause and take a deep breath before responding, says Debra Burdick, an Enfield, Conn., speaker and author of books on mindfulness. Try not to take it personally, and regard it as a cue to address the underlying problems. Consider starting a conversation about reducing the causes of stress, says Jordan Friedman, a New York City stress coach. Acknowledge that you're feeling the strain, and then add, "It would be great if we could sit down at the beginning of next week and figure out how to make this process less stressful for me and everyone else." Also, take a moment to "hold up a mirror and take a look" at whether your style of working might be stressful to others, says Nancy Ancowitz, a New York City presentation and career coach. If so, say thanks for the feedback, and try reducing stress through exercise, more frequent breaks, deep breathing or other techniques. New York City graduate student ​Adam Ma says a professor's order to 'calm down' before giving a major presentation ​unnerved him at first​ but helped him perform better in the end​. Embracing more realistic expectations of yourself can help in some situations. Adam Ma of New York City, a graduate student whose first language is Mandarin, was extremely nervous several years ago when he stepped up to give a presentation to 40 fellow students. He wanted his English to be perfect, and he had memorized rigid rules about maintaining good posture and constant eye contact with listeners. When his professor told him in front of the whole class to "calm down," Mr. Ma says, at first, "it just made me feel worse." But then, "I decided to adjust my expectations to be more comfortable," he says. He allowed himself to use his notes and to pause now and then to look away from the audience, have a sip of water and take a breath. "I felt such relief," he says. He felt he made an emotional connection with listeners, who applauded warmly, and he scored an A for the course. (Source: WSJ)

What sex hormones do females have?

In females, the main sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone. The production of these hormones mainly occurs in the ovaries, adrenal glands, and, during pregnancy, the placenta. Female sex hormones also influence body weight, hair growth, and bone and muscle growth. (Source: medical news today)

What is Wikipedia?

It is a website where anyone can create a page or wiki about something. (Source: Quizlet)

How can I check my bank balance online?

How to Check Your Bank Balance Online By Justin Pritchard Updated on May 26, 2022 Reviewed by Michael J Boyle Fact checked by Emily Ernsberger It's critical to know how much money you have in your bank account and how much of your total balance is available for spending. Checking your account frequently helps you see where you stand as well as spot problems (like fraud or errors) before they get out of hand. Once you view your balance, be sure you understand the difference between the account balance and your available balance. 6 Easy Steps to Check Your Bank Balance 1. Log In Online You can check your account balance online anytime—and much more. To get started, navigate to your bank's website and access your account information. You can also use a mobile app, as described below. In most cases, you'll look for an option like "Login" or "Account Access." If it's your first visit, select options like "Register" or "First-time User." Note If the idea of online banking is new to you, give it a try. In addition to checking balances online, you can often transfer money to other banks, pay bills without writing a check, and more.1 2. Mobile Apps and Text Messages Mobile phones, tablets, and other devices make it easy to check on accounts from just about anywhere. Most banks provide apps (or at least websites designed for mobile devices) that allow you to see your account balance online and on-the-go. Apps typically enable you to do even more than you can do from a desktop computer. For example, banks increasingly allow you to deposit checks with your mobile device, so you can quit wasting time on trips to a branch and start getting your funds more quickly. The fastest way to use your cell phone is to set up text messaging with your bank. You don't even need to log in—you can request a quick balance update if your bank offers that option. 3. Use an ATM ATMs can provide updated account balances. Just insert your ATM card or debit card and follow the on-screen instructions. It's best to use your own bank's ATM (or an ATM network that your bank uses). Other ATMs will most likely charge fees—even if you don't withdraw cash. Your bank may also charge an additional fee for using a "foreign" ATM, so those balance inquiries can cost you. 4. Call the Bank If you prefer a more traditional approach, call your bank to find out your balance. You might need to call during certain hours to speak with a person, but most banks have automated systems that provide 24/7 account information. Getting set up to use those systems might take some effort (you may need to first establish a PIN, among other things). But once you're up and running, it'll become routine. 5. Set Up Alerts Instead of checking your bank account balances manually, you can have your bank push information out to you when something happens. This adds an automatic safeguard for your account. Just want a heads up when your account balance gets low or whenever there's a significant withdrawal? If so, set up alerts so that your bank sends you an email or text message. You can typically customize the types of messages you get and what dollar amounts are relevant to you. With alerts in place, you can assume all is well until and unless you hear from your bank. Note Even with alerts, it's wise to log in and review your account periodically. If there are any errors or fraudulent transactions, you need to report them promptly to get full protection under federal law.3 6. Talk to a Teller If all else fails, speak with somebody in person—assuming you use a brick-and-mortar bank with local branches. Unfortunately, it's getting harder to access tellers, and some banks even charge additional fees for personal service. However, if you use a credit union that's part of a shared branching network, there may be thousands of locations nationwide available to you. While a face-to-face talk can be helpful, it's best to get comfortable with some of the self-service methods above. You'll appreciate being able to get things done on your own time and from almost any location. Your Available Balance As you check your bank balance, pay attention to the type of balance that you see. When you go online or use the bank's app, most banks show an available balance (which tells you how much you can afford to spend or withdraw today) as well as a total account balance. The available balance is usually less than you think you have (what you think of as your "account balance") because of pending transactions: debit card authorizations, upcoming bill payments and deposits that have not yet cleared. Those funds may become available in a few days, but until then, the funds are frozen. You Know More Than Your Bank If you balance your account regularly, you rarely need to check your balance (although it's a good idea to do so, just to identify problems before they get worse). In fact, you'll probably know where your balance is headed before your bank does. If you write a check or spend before the transaction hits your account, your own records will be more accurate than those of the bank. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) How can you keep track of your checking account balance? You can monitor your account in multiple ways. Take advantage of mobile apps that keep information at your fingertips, and employ alerts to notify you of potential problems. As you track things, you'll know when deposits clear (and when you can use the money), and you'll have a better understanding of your finances. Which bank Is best for a zero-balance account? The best bank will depend on your preferences, such as whether you prefer online or in-person banking. However, if you plan on having low balances, you'll want to ensure that you choose a bank account without account minimums or monthly fees that could accidentally trigger an overdraft fee. What happens when you close a bank account with a negative balance? If you overdraft your bank account and end up with a negative balance, you will be expected to settle that debt. Even if you request to close your account, a bank probably won't allow you to close the account until you have brought the balance back to at least zero. (Source: thebalance)

How can we understand the brain, mind, and soul?

Mens Sana Monographs Wolters Kluwer -- Medknow Publications Understanding Brain, Mind and Soul: Contributions from Neurology and Neurosurgery Sunil K. Pandya Additional article information Abstract Treatment of diseases of the brain by drugs or surgery necessitates an understanding of its structure and functions. The philosophical neurosurgeon soon encounters difficulties when localising the abstract concepts of mind and soul within the tangible 1300-gram organ containing 100 billion neurones. Hippocrates had focused attention on the brain as the seat of the mind. The tabula rasa postulated by Aristotle cannot be localised to a particular part of the brain with the confidence that we can localise spoken speech to Broca's area or the movement of limbs to the contralateral motor cortex. Galen's localisation of imagination, reasoning, judgement and memory in the cerebral ventricles collapsed once it was evident that the functional units-neurones-lay in the parenchyma of the brain. Experiences gained from accidental injuries (Phineas Gage) or temporal lobe resection (William Beecher Scoville); studies on how we see and hear and more recent data from functional magnetic resonance studies have made us aware of the extensive network of neurones in the cerebral hemispheres that subserve the functions of the mind. The soul or atman, credited with the ability to enliven the body, was located by ancient anatomists and philosophers in the lungs or heart, in the pineal gland (Descartes), and generally in the brain. When the deeper parts of the brain came within the reach of neurosurgeons, the brainstem proved exceptionally delicate and vulnerable. The concept of brain death after irreversible damage to it has made all of us aware of 'the cocktail of brain soup and spark' in the brainstem so necessary for life. If there be a soul in each of us, surely, it is enshrined here. Keywords: Brain, Brainstem, Mind, Soul, Neurology, Neurosurgery, Philosophy Introduction Millennia ago, we embarked on a quest for knowledge of the wonderful structure of man. The organ that puzzled earlier observers most was the human brain. Despite our many explorations, we remained in awe of this organ. The evolution of our knowledge of the structure and function of the brain has been amply documented in volumes ranging from McHenry's revision of Dr. Fielding Garrison's work in 1969 (McHenry, 1969) to the more recent History of Neurology, edited by Finger and colleagues (Finger et al., 2009). Dr. Susan Greenfield's book (Greenfield, 1997), intended for the lay person, embodies much useful information. We are now aware of nerve cells, their connections and their modes of communication amongst themselves and with a variety of other structures. Injury to, and disease in, the brain often provides crucial insights on the role of its different parts. A dramatic example is the injury suffered by American railway foreman, Phineas Gage in 1848. Before his accident, Gage was liked by friends and acquaintances who considered him to be honest, trustworthy, hard working and dependable. A freak accident caused a metal tamping rod to enter under his left zygomatic arch and exit through the top of his skull (Barker, 1995). The accident left him with little if any intellectual impairment but after the accident, Gage became vulgar, irresponsible, capricious and prone to profanity. The company that had previously regarded him as the most efficient and capable of their employees dismissed him from his job. His change in character after the accident made this the index case for personality change due to frontal lobe damage. Subsequent studies (See, for example, Blumer and Benson, 1975) have shown a wide spectrum of abnormal behaviour (compulsive and explosive actions, lack of inhibition, unwarranted maniacal suspicion and alcohol and drug abuse) after injuries to and disease in the frontal or temporal lobes and their pathways to the deeper regions of the brain. Similar abnormalities also follow chemical derangements in the brain. Modern marvels such as computerised tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the nervous system have provided significant additional data. Functional magnetic resonance imaging now allows us to further localise function within the structure of the brain and correlate abnormalities of its structure and function. Even so, two entities remain enigmatic: the mind and the soul. Where are they located? Do they lie within the brain? Since neurophysicians treat patients with a wide variety of abnormalities of the brain and neurosurgeons lay bare the brain and often work in its interior, can they provide insights? Neurologists and neurosurgeons rank high among scientists participating in philosophical debates about what might extend beyond the physical world. They are constantly dealing with patients who have fallen into the deep hole of unconsciousness. In their attempts at restoring normalcy to bodies and minds, they also grapple with life and death. Inevitably, they ponder spirituality and the dominion of the soul. The Mind We are embodied spirits and inspirited bodies, (or, if you will, embodied minds and minded bodies). (Anonymous, 2003) Mind has been variously defined as that which is responsible for one's thoughts and feelings, the seat of the faculty of reason or the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term is often used to refer, by implication, to the thought processes of reason. [See, for example, definitions of mind in a) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind, and b) http://www.google.co.in/search?hl=enanddefl=enandq=define:mindandsa=Xandei=l973TOviFYusrAf-hfzvDwandved=0CBYQkAE] Prioreschi (1996) concluded that by the end of the 5th century B.C., the question of whether the heart or the brain was the seat of intelligence remained unresolved in Western medicine. This changed with the works of Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC-ca. 370 BC), 'a figure of heroic proportions even if dimmed by the mist of time.' Hippocrates' oft-quoted statements show a clear understanding of the role of the brain vis-à-vis the mind: 'Men ought to know that from the brain, and from the brain alone, arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs and tears. Through it, in particular, we think, see, hear and distinguish the ugly from the beautiful, the bad from the good, the pleasant from the unpleasant... I hold that the brain is the most powerful organ of the human body... wherefore I assert that the brain is the interpreter of consciousness...' (Hippocrates: On the sacred disease. Quoted by Prioreschi [1996]) In talking of the brain as an organ, Hippocrates very clearly refers to those functions which we ordinarily include in our understanding of the 'mind.' He talks of emotive mental functions like pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, sorrows, pains, griefs and tears; cognitive mental functions like thinking and seeing; aesthetic mental functions like distinguishing the ugly from the beautiful, the pleasant from the unpleasant and ethical functions like distinguishing the bad from the good-all these as attributes of the brain, and brain alone. By which he really makes a clear connection between mental functions as we understand them ('mind') and the structure that produces it (brain). In his book De anima (On the soul), Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) felt that man is born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) on which experiences and perceptions are written to form the mind. Although tabula rasa is a concept traditionally attributed to Locke, Aristotle first referred to it. See Part 4 of Aristotle's 'On the soul', the second-last paragraph.(Aristotle, 2009): 'Have not we already disposed of the difficulty about interaction involving a common element, when we said that mind is in a sense potentially whatever is thinkable, though actually it is nothing until it has thought? What it thinks must be in it just as characters may be said to be on a writing tablet on which as yet nothing actually stands written: this is exactly what happens with mind.' Over the centuries that followed Avicenna (981-1037), Ibn Tufail (c. 1105-1185), Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225-1274), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and others commented on this theme. (See Trimble, 2007.) Jean Fernel (1496-1558) treated mind and brain together in his Physiology. He felt that the brain refined the animal spirits. Purged of all corporeal dross, they became concepts, finally even universal concepts and the ideas of the moral values (Sherrington, 1946). The British neurophysiologist Charles Scott Sherrington (1857-1952), 'the scientist's philosopher' (Breathnach, 2004), pondered the location and functions of the mind. He acknowledged the problems encountered in attempting to restrict the mind to the brain. 'It seems ludicrous to range such a paucity of nerve-process alongside the manifold variety of mind.' He was well aware that '...our mental experience is not open to observation through any sense organ ...' He concluded that 'The brain is the provider of mind... The mental action lies buried in the brain ... in that part most deeply recessed from the outside world, that is furthest from input and output...' (Zeman, 2007). Pinker (2003) has recently discussed the role of nature vs nurture in the development of the mind. Dismissing the concept of the blank slate, Pinker wrote: 'The mind cannot be a blank slate, because blank slates don't do anything... The inscriptions (on such a slate) will sit there forever unless something notices patterns in them, combines them with patterns learned at other times, uses the combinations to scribble new thoughts onto the slate, and reads the results to guide behaviour toward goals. Locke recognized this problem and alluded to something called the understanding, which looked at the inscriptions on the white paper and carried out the recognizing, reflecting, and associating.' He concluded that 'The mind is a complex system composed of many interacting parts.' Neurologists and neurosurgeons see patients with injured or diseased brains. Neurosurgeons attempt restoration of the internal structure of the brain to normalcy or correct disordered function in select areas by such modes as deep brain stimulation or ablation. Some operations are performed on patients who are awake. Observations on patients provided clues to the functions of the mind in relation to the structure of the brain. 'When a surgeon sends an electrical current into the brain, the person can have a vivid, lifelike experience. When chemicals seep into the brain, they can alter the person's perception, mood, personality, and reasoning. When a patch of brain tissue dies, a part of the mind can disappear: a neurological patient may lose the ability to name tools, recognize faces, anticipate the outcome of his behaviour, empathize with others, or keep in mind a region of space or of his own body... Every emotion and thought gives off physical signals, and the new technologies for detecting them are so accurate that they can literally read a person's mind and tell a cognitive neuroscientist whether the person is imagining a face or a place. Neuroscientists can knock a gene out of a mouse (a gene also found in humans) and prevent the mouse from learning, or insert extra copies and make the mouse learn faster. Under the microscope, brain tissue shows a staggering complexity—a hundred billion neurons connected by a hundred trillion synapses—that is commensurate with the staggering complexity of human thought and experience... And when the brain dies, the person goes out of existence' (Pinker, 2003). Studies on patients who have suffered brain injury (such as Phineas Gage) have also provided interesting clues on the mind in relationship to the brain. We now know that damaged frontal lobes can no longer exert inhibitory influences on the limbic system with consequent aggressive acts. The relation between the amount of grey matter in the frontal lobes and intelligence; the inferior parietal lobules and spatial reasoning and intuitions on numbers (as in Albert Einstein) and the third interstitial nucleus in the anterior thalamus and homosexuality (Pinker, 2003) are a few more examples of specific areas of the brain linked to characteristics attributed to the mind. Paul Broca showed that damage to the area (subsequently named after him) in the dominant cerebrum results in an inability to talk. Subsequent studies showed several other areas within the cerebrum that govern other aspects of speech. Bilateral frontal lobotomy and subsequent more sophisticated variants such as stereotaxic amygdalotomies or cingulotomies reduce an aggressive, maniacal individual to docility (Heller et al., 2006). Dr. Wilder Penfield (1891-1976), Canadian neurosurgeon, was known for his groundbreaking work on epilepsy. He operated on patients with intractable epilepsy using local anaesthesia, ensuring that they remained awake throughout the operation. He stimulated areas of the brain surface in these patients in order to demarcate the part producing epilepsy. In many patients, electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain triggered vivid memories of past events. One patient, while on an operating table in Montreal, Canada, remembered laughing with cousins on a farm in South Africa. Penfield concluded: 'This is a startling discovery. It brings psychical phenomena into the field of physiology. It should have profound significance also in the field of psychology provided we can interpret the facts properly. We have to explain how it comes about that when an electrode (producing, for example, 60 electrical impulses per second) is applied steadily to the cortex it can cause a ganglionic complex to recreate a steadily unfolding phenomenon, a psychical phenomenon. 'It is obvious that there is, beneath the electrode, a recording mechanism for memories of events. But the mechanism seems to have recorded much more than the simple event. When activated, it may reproduce the emotions which attended the original experience. What is more, the ganglionic mechanism continues to add to itself the memory of emotions which attend the recollection of the event and the substance of the man's reasoning regarding the significance of the event... 'The neuronal mechanism which we have stumbled upon in the course of neurosurgical operations, and which is probably duplicated in homologous areas of the two hemispheres, seems to have for its function the reproduction of (1) a remembered event or (2) thinking related to that event, and (3) the emotion it evoked' (Horowitz, 1997). On 1 September 1953, Dr. William Beecher Scoville performed bilateral mesial temporal lobe resections on a patient known as H.M. in the medical records. The inadvertent severe damage to the important limbic structures resulted in permanent loss of memory in this patient (Scoville, 1957). H. M. knew his name. He knew that his father's family came from Thibodaux, LA, and his mother was from Ireland, and he knew about the 1929 stock market crash and World War II and life in the 1940s. But, he could remember almost nothing after that. Dr. Brenda Milner, professor of cognitive neuroscience at the Montreal Neurological Institute and McGill University studied H. M. almost up to his death in 2008 and noted: 'He was a very gracious man, very patient, always willing to try these tasks I would give him and yet every time I walked in the room, it was like we'd never met' (Carey, 2008). Damage to discrete areas within the brain can thus produce a variety of disorders of the mind. 'Taken together, the data from neurology suggests that despite our brain's ability to organize our experience of ourselves and the world into a seamless unity, we are, in fact, made up of several parts, the loss of any of which can have dramatic effects on the whole' (Craig, 2005). In his Nobel Lecture, Sperry described the implications on concepts of the mind of the observations made after splitting the corpus callosum (Sperry, 1981). Sperry's experiments, some conducted with R. E. Myers, showed that the cat with divided corpus callosum now had two minds either of which was capable of learning on its own, and of responding intelligently to changes in the world around it on its own. Subsequent experiments with rats, monkeys and later with human epileptic patients gave similar results. 'Using John Doe as an example study, doctors examined John Doe Left and John Doe Right. Psychological tests showed that both John Does had remarkably similar personalities. Except for language ability, they were about as much alike as identical twins. Their attitudes and opinions seemed to be the same; their perceptions of the world were the same; and they woke up and went to sleep at almost the same times. There were differences however. John Doe Left could express himself in language and was somewhat more logical and better at [planning...]. John Doe Right tended to be somewhat more aggressive, impulsive, emotional - and frequently expressed frustration with what was going on.' (McConnell, 1982). Such experiments led Sperry, Ornstein and others to conclude that each of the separated hemispheres has its own private sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings and memories, in short, that they constitute two separate minds, two separate spheres of consciousness (Gross, 2005). 'Splitting the brain amounts to nothing less than splitting the self' (Craig, 2005). In addition to structure, we must consider the chemical processes within the brain. The effects of caffeine, alcohol, marihuana and opium on the brain and mind are common knowledge. Chemicals within the nervous system, such as adrenaline, serotonin, dopamine, the endorphins and encephalins, enable and modify the many functions of brain and mind and body we take for granted. Craig (2005) quotes the statement made by Steven Johnson: 'Our personalities, the entities that make us both unique and predictable as individuals, emerge out of these patterns of chemical release.' Carter (1998) described modern techniques for mapping the brain and mind. 'It is now possible to locate and observe the mechanics of rage, violence and misperception and even to detect the physical signs of complex qualities of the mind like kindness, humour, heartlessness, gregariousness, altruism, mother-love and self-awareness.' O'Connor et al. (2008) studied the nucleus accumbens, the region most commonly associated with social attachment, in persons grieving from the death of a loved one [Figure 1]. Figure 1 Figure 1 'Nucleus accumbens activity in response to grief-related vs neutral words that was significantly greater in the complicated grief group compared to the non-complicated grief group' (O'Connor et al., 2008). Sounding a cautious note, Carter (1998) pointed out that whilst the optimist might wish for a complete understanding of human nature and experience from such studies, others may insist that a map of the brain can tell us no more about the mind than a terrestrial globe speak of Heaven and Hell. To sum up, whilst the brain is 'a physical mechanism, an arrangement of matter that converts inputs to outputs in particular ways' (Pinker, 2003) the manner in which its hundred billion neurones are deployed, the infinite variations in their connections that result in very complex neural networks, the multitude of chemical and electrical reactions within it and the consequent almost unimaginable complexity of structure and function enable it to contain the mind just as it does the sources of all the other activities attributed to sentient life. Where is the Mind Located? The brain is the organ of the mind just as the lungs are the organs for respiration. How does the Mind Function? Krishnamoorthy (2009) uses an analogy based on computers to explain the workings of the mind: 'The mind... is a virtual entity, one that reflects the workings of the neural networks, chemical and hormonal systems in our brain.' The mind cannot be localised to particular areas within the brain, though the entire cerebral cortex and deep grey matter form important components. Consciousness, perception, behaviour, intelligence, language, motivation, drive, the urge to excel and reasoning of the most complex kind are the product of the extensive and complex linkages between the different parts of the brain. Likewise, abnormalities attributed to the mind, such as the spectrum of disorders dealt with by psychiatrists and psychologists, are consequences of widespread abnormalities, often in the chemical processes within different parts of the brain. Two great British masters of neurology summed it up best. John Hughlings Jackson (4 March, 1835-7 October, 1911) addressed anatomy. 'Self, however, is dependent on the evolution of anatomically new structures. Jackson suggested that the evolutionary development of the prefrontal cortex is necessary to the emergence of self. In this sense it could be called the organ of mind. However, this is not to say that self resides in the prefrontal cortex. Rather, the new structure allows a more complex coordination of what is anatomically a sensori-motor machine. 'In summary, Jackson conceived of the central nervous system as having a hierarchical organization that reflects evolutionary history. He used the terms lowest, middle, and highest centres...as proper names...to indicate evolutionary levels. Ascending levels show increasing integration and coordination of sensorimotor representations. The highest-level coordination, which allows the greatest voluntary control, depends on prefrontal activity. Self is a manifestation of this highest level of consciousness, which involves doubling. This doubling is established by the reflective capacity that enables one to become aware of individual experience in a way that gives a sense of an inner life.' (Meares, 1999). Sherrington (1961) addressed function and emphasised the limitations of our means for analysis: 'Integration has been traced at work in two great, and in some respects counterpart, systems of the organism. The physico-chemical produced a unified machine... the psychical, creates from psychical data a percipient, thinking and endeavouring mental individual... they are largely complemental and life brings them co-operatively together at innumerable points... The formal dichotomy of the individual ... which our description practiced for the sake of analysis, results in artifacts such as are not in nature... the two schematic members of the puppet pair... require to be integrated... This integration can be thought of as the last and final integration.' The Soul Introduction The Bhagavad-Gita describes some of the qualities of the soul: I say to thee weapons reach not the Life; Flame burns it not, waters cannot o'erwhelm, Nor dry winds wither it. Impenetrable, Unentered, unassailed, unharmed, untouched, Immortal, all-arriving, stable, sure, Invisible, ineffable, by word And thought uncompassed, ever all itself, Thus is the Soul declared! (Arnold, 1900) *** Socrates - Now do you think one can acquire any particular knowledge of the nature of the soul without knowing the nature of the whole man? Phaedrus - If Hippocrates the Asclepiad is to be trusted, one cannot know the nature of the body, either, except in that way. (Plato's Phaedrus quoted by Prioreschi, 1996). *** I wrote an essay called The Exact Location of the Soul (Selzer, 1976). I was being mischievous. I asked, 'Is it under the kneecap or in a fold of the baby's neck? Where is it?' (Selzer Interview, 2005). *** The search for the location of the human soul probably dates back to the awareness of such an entity. Termed atman by ancient Indian philosophers, psyche by the Greek and anima by the Romans, it has been considered resident within, but distinct from the human body. Many consider it immortal, postulating death to be the consequence of the departure of the soul from the body. We use the term soul to denote essence as in the phrase 'prayer is the very soul of religion.' It is not surprising that we continue to enquire into the essence of man. Several questions arise when considering the soul. Here are some examples. When does the soul enter the human body, as the sperm enters the egg or as they fuse into one cell or at a later stage? Does the soul influence the body, mind and intellect? Is the soul identical with what we term conscience? Since it animates the live person, does it govern functions of the body beyond the control of the mind, functions termed 'vital' by biologists? What happens to the soul during dreams, anaesthesia, trance-like states? What happens to it after the soul leaves the body? Where and how are acquired characters stored in the nebulous soul? Where, in the body, does the soul reside? Is there any point in searching for the location of the soul? The answer must be in a resounding affirmative. The efforts over millennia to determine the nature and discover the location of the soul have resulted in a better understanding of the wonderful structure and function of man and his place in the cosmos. In making this search and noting our findings, we must never lose sight of the cautionary note sounded by Leonardo da Vinci circa in 1487: 'With what words O writer can you with a like perfection describe the whole arrangement of that of which the design is here?' (MacCurdy 1956). The search and some conclusions The physician-turned-author, Anton Chekhov (29 January, 1860-15 July, 1904) wrote to his friend Suvorin (7 May, 1889): 'I think that when dissecting a corpse, the most inveterate spiritualist will be bound to ask himself, Where is the soul here? And if one knows how great is the likeness between bodily and mental diseases, and that both are treated by the same remedies, one cannot help refusing to separate the soul from the body.' (See http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/chekhov/anton/c51lt/chapter24.html accessed on 6 December, 2010). Chekhov echoes the question asked by so many over the centuries. Hippocrates concluded that madness originated in the brain. Plato (in Timaeus) felt that folly was a disease of the soul. Philistion subclassified folly into madness and ignorance (Harris, 1973). Pythagoras (c. 570-c. 495 BC) had described the soul as consisting of three parts-intelligence, reason and passion. The seat of the soul extended from the heart to the brain, passion being located in the heart and reason and intelligence in the brain (Prioreschi, 1996). Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519; see Figure 2), with his uncanny genius, placed the soul above the optic chiasm in the region of the anterior-inferior third ventricle (Santoro et al., 2009). Figure 2 Figure 2 Leonardo depicted the location of the soul at the point where a series of intersecting lines meet (Santoro, 2009). His summing up will continue to evoke admiration: Though human ingenuity by various inventions with different instruments yields the same end, it will never devise an invention either more beautiful... than does Nature because in her inventions nothing is lacking and nothing superfluous and she... puts there the soul, the composer of the body, that is the soul of the mother which first composes in the womb the shape of man and in due time awakens the soul which is to be its inhabitant (Del Maestro, 1998). René Descartes (1596-1650; see Figure 3) distinguished between the body and the soul, but equated the mind and soul: Figure 3 Figure 3 Portrait of Rene Descartes by Frans Hals, 1649. There is a great difference between mind and body, inasmuch as body is by nature always divisible, and the mind is entirely indivisible. ...When I consider the mind, that is to say, myself inasmuch as I am only a thinking being, I cannot distinguish in myself any parts, but apprehend myself to be clearly one and entire; and though the whole mind seems to be united to the whole body, yet if a foot, or an arm, or some other part, is separated from the body, I am aware that nothing has been taken from my mind. And the faculties of willing, feeling, conceiving, etc. cannot be properly speaking said to be its parts, for it is one and the same mind which employs itself in willing and in feeling and understanding. But it is quite otherwise with corporeal or extended objects, for there is not one of them imaginable by me which my mind cannot easily divide into parts. ...This would be sufficient to teach me that the mind or soul of man is entirely different from the body, if I had not already been apprised of it on other grounds. Descartes localised the soul in the pineal gland as it lay deep within the brain, in the midline and was unpaired [see Figure 4]. It is of interest that in neurosurgery journals, Descartes' views are quoted with respect during discussions on surgery on the region of the pineal gland (Apuzzo, 1996). Figure 4 Figure 4 The pineal gland according to Descartes. This image from the 1664 edition of the Treatise of man illustrates Descartes' view that the pineal gland (H) is suspended in the middle of the ventricles (Descartes 1664, p 63). (See http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pineal-gland ... Lancisi (1654-1720) agreed that the soul must lie deep within the brain, in the midline and in an unpaired structure, but favoured the corpus callosum, especially the Nervali longitudinales ab anterioribus ad posteriora excurrentes, which are still called the medial longitudinal striae of corpus callosum, or nerves of Lancisi. He felt that the vital spirits could flow in the fibres of the medial striae. These formed a pathway for the stream of the soul (or perhaps consciousness) between the anterior part of the corpus callosum and the anterior columns of the fornix and the posterior part of the corpus callosum and the thalami, a sort of connection between the seat of the soul and the peripheral organs, between the soul and the body (Di Ieva, 2007). Thomas Willis (1621-1675) wrote Cerebri Anatome while being a Professor of Natural Philosophy in Oxford, where he used the anatomy of the brain as a tool to investigate the nature of the soul. In his dedication to Cerebri Anatome, he stated that the study of anatomy could 'unlock the secret places of Man's Mind and [to] look into the living and breathing Chapel of the Deity' (O'Connor, 2003). He conceived of 'a middle part of the brain, a kind of interior chamber of the soul... in the innermost part of which images or representations of all sensible things, sent in through the passages of the nerves... are revealed upon the corpus callosum... and so induce perception...' Willis had considered as active powers of the soul 'local motion, memory, phantasy and appetite' which succeeded to 'the passions' (Clarke and O'Malley, 1996). Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) placed the soul in the medulla oblongata (Trimble, 2007; p27). Bloom (2004) commented on the refutation of the dualist view differentiating the body and the soul: ... People often appeal to science to answer the question When does life begin? in the hopes that an objective answer will settle the abortion debate once and for all. But the question is not really about life in any biological sense. It is instead asking about the magical moment at which a cluster of cells becomes more than a mere physical thing. It is a question about the soul... It is not a question that scientists could ever answer. The qualities of mental life that we associate with souls are purely corporeal; they emerge from biochemical processes in the brain... Santoro et al. (2009) recently reviewed the postulates regarding the nature and location of the soul in the human body. They concluded that there exist two dominant and, in many respects, incompatible concepts of the soul: one that understands the soul to be spiritual and immortal, and another that understands the soul to be material and mortal. In both cases, the soul has been described as being located in a specific organ or anatomic structure or as pervading the entire body, and, in some instances, beyond mankind and even beyond the cosmos. Rationalists are doubtful. On the death of Harvard's distinguished psychologist, Professor William James (1842-1910), Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) was asked about the human soul. 'Soul? Soul? What do you mean by soul? The brain?' 'Well, for the sake of argument, call it the brain or what is in the brain. Is there not something immortal of or in the human brain - the human mind?' asked Marshall. 'Absolutely no.' said Edison with emphasis: 'There is no more reason to believe that any human brain will be immortal than there is to think that one of my phonographic cylinders will be immortal... No one thinks of claiming immortality for the cylinders... Then why claim it for the brain mechanism or the power that drives it? Because we do not know what that power is, shall we call it immortal? As well call electricity immortal because we do not know what it is... After death the force or power undoubtedly endures, but it endures in this world, not in the next. And so with the thing we call life, or the soul - mere speculative terms for a material thing which under given conditions drives this way or that. It too endures in this world, not the other. Because we are as yet unable to understand it, we call it immortal. It is the ignorant, lazy man's refuge' (Marshall, 1910). What were William James' views? He titled Lecture III of the published version of his Gifford Lectures 'The reality of the unseen' and discussed beliefs in objects that we cannot see. He quoted Immanuel Kant's doctrine about such objects of belief as God and the soul as 'properly not objects of knowledge at all.' James referred to the strange phenomenon of a mind believing with all its strength in the real presence of a set of things of no one of which it can form any notion whatsoever (James, 1902). In 1907, Dr. Duncan MacDougall of Haverhill, Massachusetts, decided to weigh the soul by weighing a human being in the act of death. 'My first subject was a man dying of tuberculosis. It seemed to me best to select a patient dying with a disease that produces great exhaustion, the death occurring with little or no muscular movement, because in such a case the beam could be kept more perfectly at balance and any loss occurring readily noted.' 'The patient was under observation for three hours and forty minutes before death, lying on a bed arranged on a light framework built upon very delicately balanced platform beam scales. The patient's comfort was looked after in every way, although he was practically moribund when placed upon the bed. He lost weight slowly at the rate of one ounce per hour due to evaporation of moisture in respiration and evaporation of sweat. During all three hours and forty minutes I kept the beam end slightly above balance near the upper limiting bar in order to make the test more decisive if it should come. At the end of three hours and forty minutes he expired and suddenly coincident with death the beam end dropped with an audible stroke hitting against the lower limiting bar and remaining there with no rebound. The loss was ascertained to be three-fourths of an ounce.' He found the soul in six patients to weigh between 0.5 to 1.5 ounces (MacDougall, 1907). In 1910, Dr. Max Baff of Clark University, Worcester, USA narrated to the correspondent of The New York Times his views on the use of x-ray cinematography to study the soul. 'Even the activities of the so-called soul may be projected on the screen... Photographs might be taken at the moment of death and immediately after. It is the belief that when the heart stops beating the soul leaves the body. Something may be learned of the soul by observing the changes in its habitat, the marrow-like brain, at the moment when life ceases. I myself do not believe the soul to be a thing without the brain though I am neither an atheist nor an agnostic. However much people may believe that the soul is a separate thing, it must be borne in mind that its activities, thought and action, are confined within the limitations of the brain' (Baff, 1910). I am not aware of any success from Dr. Baff's endeavours. Otto Rank (2002) has summed the situation regards the soul well. He felt that belief in the soul grew out of the need to reassure ourselves of immortality, despite our knowledge of the immutable biological fact of death: 'The collision (between our need and the fact of death) created a spark in our individual and social consciousness that through history has become both consolation and inspiration: the immortal soul... The immortal soul, whether fact or fiction, gives comfort.' V. S. Ramachandran, brain scientist at the University of California, San Diego, is less tactful. He said in an interview that there might be soul in the sense of 'the universal spirit of the cosmos,' but the soul as it is usually spoken of, 'an immaterial spirit that occupies individual brains and that only evolved in humans—all that is complete nonsense.' Belief in that kind of soul 'is basically superstition,' he said (Dean, 2007). For scientists who are people of faith, like Kenneth R. Miller, a biologist at Brown University, asking about the science of the soul is pointless, in a way, because it is not a subject science can address. 'It is not physical and investigateable in the world of science,' he said. Dr. Miller said he spoke often at college campuses and elsewhere and was regularly asked, 'What do you say as a scientist about the soul?' His answer, he said, is always the same: 'As a scientist, I have nothing to say about the soul. It's not a scientific idea' (Dean, 2007). If there be a soul, where is it located? Views of neuroscientists If we accept the existence of the soul and its localisation in the brain, we must focus on the brainstem. Christopher Pallis (1983), discussing the definition of whole-brain death, provided a modern concept of the soul. 'The loss of the capacity for consciousness and of the capacity to breathe (after brain death) relate to functional disturbances at the opposite ends of the brain stem while the former is also a meaningful alternative to "the departure of the soul".' Greenfield's (1997) description is relevant. The soul, like the seat of consciousness (in its neurological sense) lies in 'the cocktail of brain soup and spark' within the deep cerebrum and brainstem, whence dopamine, noradrenaline, acetylcholine are released 'in a fountain-like arrangement on to the more sophisticated regions of the (cerebral) cortex and immediate subcortical structures' to produce a series of electrical and chemical events. Neurosurgeons operating within the brainstem are known to tell their postgraduate students: 'I need not emphasise the need for the greatest accuracy and delicacy when operating here - we are now in the abode of the soul.' (This is the gist of what I have heard when watching some very senior neurosurgeons perform delicate operations deep within the brain.) We must confess that the existence of the soul remains unproven by tests 'in the acid baths of experiment and logic.' Nor has it 'enjoyed repeated vindication' (Wilson, 1998). Despite all that has been written on the soul, it is difficult to fault Musil's observation published in 1990: '(There is) an abiding miscommunication between the intellect and the soul. We do not have too much intellect and too little soul, but too little intellect in matters of soul.' Perhaps, we shall eventually come to conclusions similar to those reached by Sir Thomas Browne (19 October, 1605-19 October, 1682) in his most famous work, the Religio Medici: 'Amongst all those rare discoveries and curious pieces I find in the Fabrick of Man, there is no Organ or Instrument for the rational Soul; for in the brain there is not anything of moment more than I can discover in the crany of a beast, and this is an argument of the inorganity of the Soul. Thus we are men, and we know not how; there is something in us that can be without us, and will be after us; though it is strange that it hath no history what it was before us, nor cannot tell how it entered in us' (Browne, 1635/2009). We remain 'children of Tantalus, frustrated by the failure to grasp that which seems within reach...' (Wilson, 1998). Of course, if you have a hyperactive funny bone, you could paraphrase Woody Allen, who, as so often, has the ultimate comic word on the subject: 'You cannot prove the non-existence of the soul; you just have to take it on faith.' (http://cavett.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/02/07/ghost-stories/?apage=3) Concluding Remarks [see also Figure 5] Figure 5 Figure 5 Flowchart of paper The mind and the soul remain fascinating enigmas. Whilst we have made some progress in our understanding of these two hazy constituents of life, much is as yet poorly understood. Religious scholars ask us scientists to desist from any attempt at studying the soul. Hindu philosophers tell us that the soul of a person who has attained moksha (liberation from the cycle of re-birth) unites with God. The soul has often been termed the God within each of us. The spirit of enquiry that is the essence of science must stimulate us to continue our efforts at understanding it better. If, in doing so, we understand God better, this can only be to our advantage. Take home message The study of the brain, mind and soul has engaged some of the finest intellects of yesteryears. It remains an ennobling and inspiring pursuit, worthy of all those who are dedicated votaries of science. Questions That This Paper Raises What are the precise definitions of mind and soul? Do you agree with the author's conclusions on the mind in the brain? Which of the many modern tools used in the study of the brain should we use to further our understanding of the mind? Most religious texts treat the soul as 'something' that leaves the human body at death. What is this 'something' and if it leaves the human body, where is it located during life? Philosophers have argued that the soul is not amenable to scientific scrutiny. Accepting this point of view, would mean an end to any serious exploration of this hitherto nebulous entity. What studies can we undertake to advance our knowledge and understanding? About the Author Sunil Pandya is a neurosurgeon and thinker on medical ethics. He joined the Grant Medical College in 1957 and trained at the Sir JJ Group of Hospitals, Mumbai. He obtained the MBBS (1961), MS (1965) and Fellowship of the National Academy of Medical Sciences. He underwent further training under Professor Valentine Logue at the Institute of Neurology, London. He joined Dr Homi Dastur at the Department of Neurosurgery, Seth G.S. Medical College and KEM Hospital in 1967 as a Pool Officer and was appointed to the staff as Asst Neurosurgeon in 1968. In 1975, on Prof Dastur's retirement, he was appointed Prof of Neurosurgery. He retired on superannuating in 1998, and has since worked at the Jaslok Hospital and Research Centre, Mumbai. He is Editor Emeritus, Indian Journal of Medical Ethics; Journal Ombudsman, Journal of Post Graduate Medicine; on the Editorial Board, National Medical Journal of India; and on the International Editorial Advisory Board of the Mens Monographs. Acknowledgments I am grateful to Dr. Shakuntala and Dr. Ajai Singh for stimulating me to study this subject in greater detail. The adequate time provided by them between the invitation to participate in that very stimulating meeting and the event itself enabled me to consult books and journals and works available on the internet and put together this essay. Dr. Ajai Singh has also kindly made important suggestions for the improvement of my essay and helped in its writing and editing. Footnotes Conflict of interest None declared. Declaration This work was first read as a paper in an International Seminar on Mind, Brain and Consciousness at Thane, Maharashtra, India, 14 to 15 January, 2010. An earlier version was also published in the Proceedings of the Seminar. This paper is my original writing, and has not been submitted for publication elsewhere.

What does Conan O'Brien have to say in his rolling stone interview?

What did you take from your Catholic upbringing? Constant shame around attractive women. I have this job where the most beautiful women in the world are constantly coming out, dressed to the nines, and they make eye contact with me, and sometimes it can all be very flirty. That's confusing for an incredibly uptight Irish Catholic boy. I do have that Catholic feeling that someone's always watching me. Listen, I've had a lot of therapy, but when you get programmed that early that God is always watching, so if you think you could do better, God will know, and you must try harder ... I don't know. I mean, there are plenty of Catholics that didn't get that message, but that's the way I interpreted it. What's the most Boston thing about you? I grew up not expecting a lot to work out. That's a very Boston attitude. The Patriots were a disaster, the Red Sox hadn't won a World Series since 1918. There's the weather — they never canceled school in Brookline, lava could be pouring from the skies — and then there's the harsh Boston accents. There's this powerful negativity that makes people from Boston so funny. There's always this feeling of growing up and never catching a break. When you listen to someone like Bill Burr, I knew who Bill Burr was when he said one sentence. If I had grown up in Southern California and not been Catholic, and my dad was a surfer and my mom taught yoga on the beach, and we were told early on to just enjoy our bodies and I had a girlfriend when I was 14, I don't think I'd be a funny person. How have you adjusted to living in L.A.? It's an evolutionary mistake for me to live in Los Angeles. There are teams of scientists working on sunblocks for me. I shouldn't be living here. I'm like Matt Damon in The Martian. I ride a bike, but I wear long pants. When I'm riding near the beach, I'm dressed like a beekeeper. What have you had to work on in therapy? I had one therapist tell me in New York that I had the biggest conscience of anyone he had ever met. If I drop a tiny wrapper of Dentyne gum and walk 15 feet, I will turn around and pick it up. The part that's not so noble is, I think if I don't, something bad might happen to me. Therapy has been trying to turn down the punitive voice in my head saying things like, "You thought that was a good show? **** you." There are times when I get up in the night to urinate, and my wife will just hear, "****, you, man. Get it together. Do better." I'll come back and my wife will be like, "Having a nice little party in there?" I'm trying to disassemble that and not pass it on to my kids. Nobody really sees that side of you on TV. Well, it's funny, because that's the part where there's a disconnect. People used to say, "What would be the biggest thing that would surprise your fans the most?" I really am this person that you're seeing. This is an authentic side of me. I really like to make people laugh. But they would probably be surprised at how serious I am about my work. When I'm doing the show, it's a reprieve. Once you're out there and you're improvising and you're in front of people, there's no time to think, so you just go. I've actually been able to be very uninhibited on television doing comedy. There's so many things I can do on TV that I would be probably too shy to do in my everyday life. That's why my favorite moments on the show are the mistakes. I remember when we did our strike shows and we had to work without writers, so I would just kill time. Everyone understood the context, so there was nothing I could do except completely cut loose and do anything that came into my head. I could not have sustained that forever, but those were really successful shows because I was forced to not play by the rules. Is being on TV addictive? Doing a show is addictive. Being in front of humans and trying to use my brain and body to make people laugh is the thing that I'm addicted to. What I've found is that it doesn't always have to be on TV. In 2010, I went on this big tour across the country and played music and performed comedy and absolutely loved it. Had I not ever found a TV show again, I think I would have probably just kept doing that. I like to make stuff. If it comes out as a podcast or a TV show or a live tour, or if it comes out with puppetry or masturbating bears or however that's going to manifest itself — if I end my career performing in malls, I'm going to work really hard to make that a really good mall show. What's interesting is just how the Internet has changed everything. I'm very fortunate in that the kind of comedy that I like to do has been very web-friendly. It's pretty evergreen. You don't need to know the context so much for a lot of it. What does it mean to be on television exactly? In the old days, well, the Ed Sullivan show is canceled, Ed Sullivan disappears into obscurity and is gone. The minute you weren't on, you were gone, and I don't think that's really true anymore, you know? After 25 years on the air, how do you stay excited about what you do? I think the key is to keep changing. The best analogy I can make is that, if you've been driving for a really long time, cross-country, by yourself, you become aware at some point, "Gee, for the last 20 miles, I really haven't been present." That's a scary feeling, and that's the danger with doing a show like this with a very specific format for 25 years. Sometimes muscle memory takes over, and what people are seeing is you doing your job the way you've learned to do it over 25 years. I think that's when it's time to pull the car over, get out, drink seven Red Bulls, roll around in a cactus patch without your pants on, hit yourself in the head with a rock, do jumping jacks, and get back in the car, and maybe start driving it from the passenger side. Now do I recommend this as a method to people out there who are driving? No, but it's the best analogy I have. I want that to inform the half-hour program as much as possible. I want people to see me having fun and discovering new things and taking some chances. If that means that sometimes the show is a little ragged or we're rushing to squeeze it all into 30 minutes, then fine, as long as the moments are there and they're good. What career advice would you give young people? This is something that I tell young people all the time, if they're interested in a good way to get ahead. I didn't invent this, but it's really true: make yourself essential. I was very aware when I was starting out that people could fire me, and they wouldn't be worse off. Over time, through hard work and trying to hone whatever skill I had, I got to the point where it did feel like, "No, we really do need this person here. We need this Conan guy." Everybody is replaceable to some degree, and I accept that. But you can make yourself essential. So anyone who's starting now, don't look for the rewards right away. I know it's easy for me to say that in the situation I'm in, but don't make it about the money early on. Go to where they're making the stuff that you love. Start getting people coffee, even if you're not getting paid that much. Then always ask, "What else can I do?" And don't blow your own horn. Humility, work really hard, and you become essential. Then they start wanting you there. You came from a family of overachievers. I don't know that I'd describe them all as overachievers, but my parents set the tone. They were these Irish Catholic wunderkinds in the late Forties and early Fifties that not only were the first ones to go to college on full scholarships, but then went to graduate school on full scholarships. My mom was one of the early women to graduate from Yale Law School. So in a way, I'm relatively uneducated. Did I move the puzzle piece forward for my people, or did I move it back with Triumph the Insult Comic Dog and the Masturbating Bear? There's that immigrant philosophy that each generation is supposed to move the puzzle piece another step forward. I think the judgment is not in on me yet. We'll see. Your podcast is called Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend. Who are your closest friends in real life? The concept of the podcast is I don't have friends, but I do. There's people I've known forever like Greg Daniels, my original writing partner, who is a really close friend of mine. I have people who I've met in the world of show business who are great, like Megan Mullally and Nick Offerman. I love them as people and I try to see them whenever I can. Kevin Nealon is a great guy to hang out with and is hilarious. I knew him back from SNL days. Then I have friends who aren't in show business. One of my college roommates, we've been friends since 1981, when he had the lower bunk and I had the upper bunk. We're both fascinated with nerdy stuff in American history and Robert Caro. He also likes comedy, so he'll come see one of my comedy shows. What did you learn from being a writer on The Simpsons? At standard sitcoms or even Saturday Night Live, they write the material and then a couple of days later, it's shot. At The Simpsons, you keep going, rewriting it three or four times before it even gets to the cast. The animations come back months later, and you're still editing it. It taught me to keep going back at it — something can always be improved. What character was your favorite to write? Mr. Burns. You could make him as old as you wanted; there's not a figure in history you could bring up who he didn't know. Also, when you give a character unlimited wealth and unlimited cruelty, there's no end to what they can have in their basement. (Source: rolling stone magazine)

When should I go see a therapist?

7 Signs You Should Talk to a Therapist Here's how to know when to reach out for professional help. It's difficult to know if the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors you're experiencing are normal. It can also be tough to admit that you could benefit from professional help It's not always clear-cut whether you should talk to a therapist. But there are some signs that could indicate talking to a professional might be a good choice. Here are seven signs you might want to talk to a therapist: 1. Your symptoms interfere with your work. Difficulty concentrating, trouble managing your emotions at work, or a sharp decline in productivity could be signs of a mental health issue. Whether you're more stressed than usual, or you just feel a little burned out, reduced performance at the office may be a sign of emotional distress. 2. Your mood feels "off." It's normal to feel a little "off" sometimes. You'll have rough patches where you'll feel sad or anxious sometimes. But any change in mood that lasts longer than two weeks should be addressed. This is especially true when you don't have an explanation for the shift in your mood. 3. Your sleep habits have changed. From sleepless nights that leave you feeling exhausted to sleeping more hours than you should, your sleep patterns speak volumes about your mental health. It's a two-way street. Your psychological well-being can take a toll on your ability to sleep (and to wake up feeling refreshed). On the flip side, your sleep schedule will also affect how mentally healthy you feel. Talking to someone might treat underlying mental health issues that contribute to sleep problems or it could help you stave off insomnia. Studies show cognitive behavioral therapy is particularly effective for overcoming insomnia. 4. Your psychological health is affecting your physical health. Many physical aches and pains—like headaches and stomachaches—can stem from mental health issues. Of course, it's important to see your physician if you have physical health issues to rule out any medical problems first. If your doctor determines there are no known medical causes, you may be referred to a therapist. Anxiety, depression, and emotional distress can cause a host of physical symptoms. Treatment can help you feel better, both physically and emotionally. 5. You experience unexplained changes in weight. Stress and emotional distress cause some people to overeat. Others lose their appetites altogether. Even if you welcome a slightly slimmer waistline, don't ignore changes in your appetite or weight. It could be a sign of a mental health issue, such as depression. Treatment could help you feel better. 6. You use unhealthy coping skills. Negative thoughts, uncomfortable emotions, and self-defeating behaviors can cause you to engage in unhealthy coping skills, like overeating or drinking. Keep in mind that almost any coping skill can become unhealthy. Sleeping to escape your problems or reading for endless hours so you don't have to face your emotions could also introduce new problems into your life (or make existing problems worse). 7. Your relationships are impacted by your emotional state. Your personal or professional relationships may suffer when you're not feeling your best. You might find yourself short-tempered with your partner, isolating yourself from your friends, or rehashing the same problems over and over to your family. It's hard to maintain healthy relationships when you aren't feeling good on the inside. If you feel disconnected from people or other people are pointing out that you just don't seem like yourself, you might want to speak to a therapist. How to Talk to Someone You might be tempted to wait and see if you start feeling better on your own so you don't have to call a therapist. But if your distress doesn't improve within two weeks, reach out to a mental health professional. Remember that talking to a mental health professional isn't a sign of weakness. It takes much more mental strength to admit you don't have all the answers than it does to pretend like you have everything all together when you don't. Keep in mind you don't have to see someone in person. You can connect with an online therapist if you would prefer to talk to someone via messaging, phone, or video chat. (Source: PsychologyToday)

What is money?

A medium of exchange (currency, which includes coins and paper bills). It it allows people to obtain what they need to live. Bartering was one way that people exchanged goods for other goods before money was created. Like gold and other precious metals, money has worth because for most people it represents something valuable. (Sources: investopedia and quizlet)

How many gallons of gas does an Acura DMX have?

18.5 gallons

What are some tricky situations to look out for?

7 Tricky Work Situations, and How to Respond to Them by Alicia Bassuk Summary. You know the moment: a mood-veering, thought-steering, pressure-packed interaction with a colleague, boss, or client when the right thing to say is stuck in a verbal traffic jam between your brain and your mouth. This analysis paralysis occurs when your brain suddenly becomes overtaxed by worry or pressure. Consequently, you find yourself unable to respond to a mental, psychological, or emotional challenge, and you fail to execute in the critical moment. Many people experience this at work. But there are seven key phrases you can use, tailored to specific situations. You can keep them in your back pocket for when these kinds of moments happen, route your response with them, and redirect the situation to regain control.close You know the moment: a mood-veering, thought-steering, pressure-packed interaction with a colleague, boss, or client where the right thing to say is stuck in a verbal traffic jam between your brain and your mouth. Sian Beilock, president of Barnard College and author of Choke, found that this analysis paralysis occurs when your brain suddenly becomes overtaxed by worry or pressure. Consequently, you find yourself unable to respond to a mental, psychological, or emotional challenge, and you fail to execute in the critical moment. Many people experience this at work. But there are certain phrases you can keep in your back pocket when these moments come. Route your response with them, and redirect the situation to regain control. Situation #1: Someone takes credit for your idea. Katie is the COO of a hospitality company. She has a keen strategic mind. In a contentious moment, she recommends that the C-suite move toward a new talent strategy. The idea is met with resistance. Then Dave, the head of IT, restates her idea in his own words. The rest of the C-suite supports him in "his" idea. It's not a matter of if this situation happens, but when: You competently make a point. It goes unacknowledged or is tersely rejected. Minutes or days later, a colleague or manager misrepresents your point as their own, restates it identically, and is praised and credited for making it. What you should say: "Thanks for spotlighting my point." Why it works: Spoken with composure, it: prevents you from being trivialized by serving notice about the misappropriation of your contribution allows you to reclaim your idea without aspersion gives you the upper hand when addressing the matter with a manager provides an opportunity for greater ownership, if delivered in front of others, by offering detail or clarification for impact Katie didn't skip a beat. "Thanks for spotlighting my point, Dave. There are a couple other topics worth considering in tandem with this. I'll review those quickly and we can delve into more detail in the next meeting." The group refocused their attention on Katie, and moved along to viewing her as the point person for the conversation. Situation #2: You're asked to stay late when you're about to leave the office for a personal obligation. Heather is a physician at a large urban hospital. Wednesdays at 4 PM she attends a one-hour clinic administration meeting. If Heather leaves by 5 PM she arrives home in time to allow the nanny to get to her own children's after-school program on time. At 5 PM, Heather stands up to leave. One of the clinic administrators asks if she can stay a few more minutes until they are done. Heather dreads saying she has to leave to relieve the nanny, because she knows her colleagues may judge her as having a poor work ethic. What you should say: "Excuse me, I have another commitment." Picking up your child from daycare, moving a parent into a care facility, or attending a surgery consultation with a dear friend are time sensitive, must-do things — especially when someone you love is depending on you. No matter how family-friendly a workplace claims to be, explaining family matters to colleagues can cause resentment. Why it works: This sentence will minimize your risk of backlash because it: serves as an implicit, respectable request for confidentiality establishes an information boundary that puts anyone who crosses it at risk of appearing intrusive eliminates oversharing about the reason for your departure Gathering her laptop and bag, Heather said, "Excuse me, I have another commitment." Another physician asked, "Where are you off to? Anything fun?" Walking toward the conference room door, Heather grabbed her water bottle with the parting phrase, "It's just something I committed to long before this meeting was scheduled. I'll swing by tomorrow to get caught up." Situation #3: In a pivotal situation, a trusted colleague snaps at you. Manuel and Alvin run their website out of their home. Manuel writes content. Alvin designs and formats. Manuel realizes Alvin's work often requires longer hours to tend to. In appreciation, he frequently buys Alvin lunch, occasionally gifts him chiropractic treatments for chronic back problems, and sometimes surprises him with an addition to his wardrobe. One day Alvin approaches Manuel and tells him he wants to make a major career shift. Manuel says nothing. Feeling ignored, Alvin repeats his intention and asks, "You have nothing to say about this?" Dismissively, Manuel responds, "About what?" Alvin feels disrespected by Manuel's lack of concern or consideration. Despite Manuel's many acts of appreciation, Alvin regularly feels shortchanged in comparison with the focus, regard, and responsiveness Manuel shows to paying customers. When Alvin addresses it, Manuel snaps back, "Look at how much I do for you!" What you should say: "This isn't about what you do for me. It is about what you did to me." You know when a valued colleague, someone who almost always does right by you, damages your good rapport? Frustration follows when your attempt to address it is met with a retort and a guilt trip. Though their concerns may be valid, it doesn't mean they should be rude. Why it works: When stated without emotional inflammation, this sentence can quickly reduce frustrations by: limiting the scope of the exchange to the isolated misstep, and not being derailed by an exchange about a history of mutual consideration quickly dealing with the fact-based, cause-effect dynamics of the exchange allowing for an opportunity to establish mutually affirming conduct going forward Alvin took a deep breath. "This isn't about what you do for me. It is about what you did to me." He went on to acknowledge Manuel's appreciation for his work, and then addressed his partner's unresponsiveness. Manuel apologized, realizing he hurt Alvin by not being more mindful and considerate when Alvin came to speak to him. Situation #4: You have to say "no." Sam sends Julia a text at 9 PM on Saturday night, with an idea that could give the company an edge in customer service's call hold times. Julia has been asked to work more collaboratively with Sam, but she has been avoiding it because Sam is unreliable. What you should say: "This is a good launching point." Saying no is tough to do, especially when trying to demonstrate you are hardworking and a team player. It often seems easier to say yes to appease others, flash the right optics, or get the task out of the way. Why it works: Spoken with a tone of enthusiasm and flexibility, this positive statement allows you to bow out of the initial request, while protecting your reputation by: reframing their idea as a starting point allowing you to entertain the request without committing to it creating the option to shape the request doling out diplomacy not rejection Julia texted Sam "This is a good launching point! I'll get my team together to prepare the data, and reach out to you with ideas of how we can approach the call hold times." Situation #5: You have to give negative or awkward feedback to someone you're close with. Tony is a purchaser at a chocolate factory. For two years Jay has been both his manager and his friend. Lately, many other employees have asked Jay to tell Tony that he has halitosis. The situation has become intolerable for many, even off-putting to vendors. What you should say: "I'm here to be for you what someone once was for me." When you are giving sensitive feedback, no matter how much you try to position yourself as an advocate, people tend to become defensive. It makes you question if giving the feedback is even worth it. Why it works: Delivered in a calm and candid tone, this sentence can save a career, or life-altering moment, from becoming a decimating event with an alienating outcome by: giving the other person a moment to brace themselves leading by sharing a personal account of a tough feedback situation you experienced, which endorses the value of receiving and listening to criticism instantly unifying you with the other person through your shared vulnerability shifting them from hearing the message as disparagement to hearing it as encouragement or concern Jay approached Tony at his desk and let him know he had some quick feedback. "Tony, I'm here to be for you what someone once was for me. You may have noticed that I take a step back when we talk. I and others have experienced, on several occasions, that your breath isn't always the best. It could just be dehydration, but I'm concerned it could indicate something you might want to discuss with your dentist or doctor." He handed Tony a pack of breath mints. Tony, though a bit embarrassed, smiled and thanked him. Jay shook Tony's hand and headed back to his desk. Situation #6: You need to push back on a decision you believe is wrong. Mae-Li is a partner and the head of the most important research team at a pharmaceutical company. Her team is the only group in the company that is almost entirely Chinese and majority female. When the office is undergoing a redesign, a few top managers are tapped to decide which groups will be moved to the less desirable basement level. Without asking for her input, Mae-Li's group is selected to move to the basement. She feels slighted. What you should say: "This is my preference." Sometimes, when something bothers you, addressing it can leave you feeling apprehensive and conflicted. You can spend time analyzing and detailing a defense for your perspective, but it may just overcomplicate matters. Why it works: It will allow you to direct the conversation toward a desired change, while still conveying openness for other approaches by: clearly communicating your concern and what you want reasoning rather than offering a defiant dictate demonstrating you are willing to get involved with a potentially sensitive topic giving others the heads-up that the outcome matters to you enough to track it as it develops Mae-Li popped her head into her manager's office. She explained that since she wasn't consulted by the moving committee before being directed to move, she wanted to share her perspective, in the hope that her manager would share it with the committee. "I realize that some of the teams are going to have to move, but it's unclear why mine was selected for the basement. I want my team to stay on this floor. This is my preference." Her manager took notes, confirmed Mae-Li's perspective, and let her know that he would advocate for her team. Situation #7: You need to escalate a serious issue. Eva is an engineer in Silicon Valley. While away at an industry event in New York, she returns to her hotel to find her manager in the hotel lobby. He tells her that he flew there to spend time with her because he has strong feelings for her. When Eva reports this to Abe from the HR department, he tells her that her manager is one of the top performers at the company, that he has been there for many years without incident, and that she probably misinterpreted what he said. What you should say: "Your response gives me cause to take this further." When it comes to serious issues like sexual harassment, there is still inconsistency with how managers and HR departments handle complaints. This can leave you worried and troubled about being mistreated again, about losing opportunities for promotion, and even about losing your job. Why it works: This serious statement, delivered in a calm and matter-of-fact tone, informs the offender and managers that you will not be complicit and compliant with misconduct, and that you will figure out a way to take further action, by: establishing that the issue isn't going away, whether they elect to handle the situation themselves or answer to someone else about it later being transparent about your plan to escalate demonstrating that you expect the offender to suffer consequences for committing the poor conduct, and that you will not suffer consequences for reporting it empowering you in the moment, rather than demoralizing you in the aftermath Eva was not deterred by Abe's response. She wrote his words verbatim in her notebook and said, "I shared the facts with you. Your response gives me cause to take this further." Abe raised his eyebrows and asked, "Are you sure this is a battle worth fighting with your manager?" Eva again wrote Abe's words verbatim in her notebook. She responded, "Yes, I'm sure," and repeated, "Your response gives me cause to take this further." She thanked Abe and left the office to email another executive at the company, with the intent to pursue redress. (Source: Harvard Business Review)

What are some ways to say 'I hope your day gets better'?

21 Cheerful Ways to Say 'I Hope Your Day Gets Better' Updated 8/28/2020 frame profile picture Sherrie Johnson, BA in Liberal Studies Life can be pretty discouraging from time to time. Whether we're experiencing a tragic loss of someone near and dear, or we're going through the regular ups and downs that life can bring, we could all use some encouragement. Rather than sticking with the overused, "I hope your day gets better," send your friends and family some personalized, tailored phrases that speak to their particular situation. Show someone how much you care by putting thought into what you say. Think through how best to encourage them so you can help them face their situation and keep holding onto hope. Alternatives to 'I Hope Your Day Gets Better' For Someone Who Experienced a Death or Tragic Loss Talking with someone who has experienced a significant tragedy or a death can give you pause. What do you say? How do you encourage them without sounding trite or unfeeling? "Have a good day" sure won't work in this situation. Here are six alternatives that you can use. 1. "I know you're really hurting right now but I also know things can get better." Words of encouragement after death or loss should always be after words of sympathy. Acknowledge the fact that the person is hurting and having a difficult time, then encourage them that things will get better. 2. "I'm so sorry for everything you're going through. Keep holding onto hope and know that it won't always be this way." Tell them that you recognize that they're going through difficult times. Then encourage them to keep holding on. Make sure that you're speaking from experience with this one, otherwise, it will sound trite and unfeeling. 3. "It can feel like the pain will never go away, but it does get easier with time. There will be days when you catch yourself smiling again." If you've experienced the type of loss the other person is going through, say something like this. These words help your friend or relative know that there is someone who understands their loss and that brighter days are ahead. 4. "I'm here if you need anything - a hug, a smile, someone to help you stay positive. Things will get better." Use this message in person, in a card, or in a text to help them know that they're not alone. Telling someone "I'm here for you" is a simple way of standing with them through a difficult time they're experiencing. 5. "We'll get through this together. Things will look better as the days go by." Use a phrase like this for someone you are particularly close to. This is something that can be said to a close friend or relative who you are planning to help get through the tragedy they've experienced. » MORE: Easy as 1-2-3, make an online will in minutes. Alternatives to 'I Hope Your Day Gets Better' For Someone Who's Sick Though most illness doesn't result in death, sometimes sickness can be so bad that it feels that way. Encourage someone you know by helping them look forward to brighter days ahead with these phrases. 6. "I'm sorry you're feeling so down. Remember that it won't always be this way." While this should be said with a sense of gravity and understanding, it's also a simple way to cheer someone up by helping them focus on the good to come. 7. "Wrap your arms around yourself and pretend it's me giving you a hug. Hang in there!" If you can't see the person but you're speaking over the phone, messaging, or texting back and forth, tell them this. It may not be as good as an in-person hug, but they'll feel loved because of your words. 8. "You're so strong. I know you'll get through this." When someone is sick, sometimes all they see is discouragement and weakness. Encourage them by telling them about the strength you see in them. Voice your confidence in knowing that they'll make it through. 9. "We all love you and we're cheering you on. Keep on pressing on toward the better days." If you're sending a message or speaking to someone on behalf of yourself and a group of friends, or yourself and your family, be sure to include them in your message. This is a simple message that can easily be used in a card tucked into a small gift for a friend to cheer them up. 10. "I know you're looking forward to getting better. We're looking forward to it, too." Use this "get well soon" wish for a person you know who is on the road to recovery. This helps them know that they are supported by their friends and family and that better days are ahead. » MORE: Take your planning one document at a time. Alternatives to 'I Hope Your Day Gets Better' For Someone Who's Stressed No matter what brings the stress on in life, stress is a frustrating experience. It can feel like the whole world rests on your shoulders and there's never a moment when you can relax and hit the pause button. Encourage the friends and relatives you know with these simple phrases. 11. "Hang in there. Things will get better." Sometimes simple is best. Use this phrase on a physical card, a text, or an e-card. If you want to make this somewhat humorous, pair it with a picture of a cat hanging onto a tree limb to illustrate your words. 12. "Life won't always be this crazy. You'll get through this." This is a good phrase to use when you understand what it's like to be in your friend's shoes. If you've been through something similarly stressful, let them know that life will get better because you've experienced the stress and the better days. 13. "Remember that this is just a season. Things will hopefully even out again." This is another phrase to use as long as you're speaking from experience. This isn't something to say if you haven't gone through a similar circumstance. 14. "I know this is super stressful, but you're doing great. You're absolutely going to make it through." Encourage someone by pointing out what you see them doing well. Help them focus on the things they're doing well and tell them that they'll get through the tough times because they are strong. 15. "I'm proud of you for seeing this through. You're doing a great job." If you know someone stressed because they're standing up for their beliefs or what they think is right, send them this message. Even if it feels like the whole world is against them, your words of encouragement will help them get through. » MORE: A will is not enough. Get all the documents you need. Alternatives to 'I Hope Your Day Gets Better' For Someone Who's Upset Life frequently gives us lemons in the form of flat tires, parking tickets, bad news, and even wardrobe malfunctions. Help cheer up someone who is doing their best to make it through the day despite the frustrations and upsets of life. 16. "I'm so sorry about what happened. You'll get through this." This is appropriate for things that are on the serious side like parking tickets, fender benders, and even job demotions. Encourage them to look past the immediate frustration by letting them know they'll make it through. 17. "Here's hoping things start looking up from here." This is a lighter way of saying you hope someone's day gets better. This should only be used with upsets that aren't serious, like putting on two different socks, arriving late to work, or forgetting your lunch at home. 18. "Keep looking forward. This isn't where things end." No matter what someone is going through, this rings true. Discouragements aren't the end of life as we know it, even if it might feel that way. Encourage your friend to keep pressing on through the frustrations of life. 19. "There will be brighter days ahead. Keep holding your head up." A phrase like this is good to use when someone has gone through a discouragement such as being passed over for a promotion at work or the loss of a friend due to an argument or misunderstanding. Help them raise their head high and remember that their value comes from who they are, not from what others say about them. 20. "I know this is a huge disappointment, but there are better things ahead." Use a phrase like this for any disappointment that comes someone's way. Were they passed up for a lead part in a play? Perhaps the scholarship didn't get approved? They didn't get the job they applied for? Help them focus on better things to come rather than the disappointment they're going through. 21. "I'm so proud of the way you're handling this. There will be brighter days, don't you worry about that." Use a phrase like this for someone you are particularly close to. Let them know that you see how well they are handling the discouragement. Then tell them that there will be more than discouragement coming for them in the future. Spreading Encouragement with Thoughtful Words No matter what someone is going through, words of encouragement can help them focus on the good rather than the bad. Show someone you know that they're not alone by encouraging them to hold onto the hope of better days ahead. If you're looking for more ways to encourage a loved one, read our guides on the best encouraging gifts and how to write a letter of encouragement. (Source: joincake.com)

What are different views on political correctness?

4. Political correctness and offensive speech BY LAURA SILVER, MOIRA FAGAN, AIDAN CONNAUGHTON AND MARA MORDECAI TABLE OF CONTENTS Germans slightly favor being careful to avoid offense; in other publics, more say people are too easily offended In all three European countries surveyed, respondents are closely divided over whether people today are too easily offended or whether people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others. However, only four-in-ten Americans think people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others, with a majority (57%) saying people today are too easily offended by what others say. Those ages 65 or older in France and Germany are more likely than those ages 18 to 29 to say people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others, while in the U.S. and UK there are no significant age differences. Ideological leanings play a role in how American, British and German adults feel. The ideological gap is largest in the U.S., where 65% of those on the ideological left think people should be careful to avoid offending others, compared with about one-in-four on the right, a gap of 42 percentage points. The left-right difference is 17 points in the UK and 15 points in Germany. "There are all these things that growing up you just accepted it as that's the name of that place. You don't know what it is. And when you actually find out who that person was or what they were responsible for. I mean times were different and I understand that there were different considerations, but we know now that that was all wrong. It was wrong and I think it should be addressed." -Woman, 38, Edinburgh, Left Remainer While there is no significant difference between the left and right in France, those in the ideological center are less likely than those on the ideological left to think people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others. In the U.S., these ideological differences are closely related to partisanship. Six-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others, while only 17% of Republicans and GOP-leaners say the same. Women in the U.S. are also more likely to think people should be careful what they say than men. In the UK, those who identify as Remainers are much more likely than those who identify as Leavers to say people should be careful what they say to avoid offending others (53% vs. 27%, respectively). Though there was no explicit question in the focus groups dealing with issues of political correctness (or "PC culture," as the focus group participants often said), many in both the U.S. and UK brought up the topic themselves, especially when prompted to discuss the biggest issues facing the country as well as what makes them proud or embarrassed to be British or American. Leavers in the UK and Republicans in the U.S. overwhelmingly highlighted the negative aspects of PC culture or "cancel culture," as they saw it. These groups stressed what they perceived as declining patriotism as a result of PC culture. Leavers pointed to stereotypes they felt existed in the UK that those who fly the St. George's Cross or who are proud to be English are racists. Similarly, Republicans in the U.S. discussed declining respect for the American flag, the Pledge of Allegiance and "the pride of America and being an American ... being dwindled away." Some participants pointed with nostalgia to a time when people were not "forced to tolerate things in this country." Leavers and Republicans also brought up President Donald Trump and Prime Minister Boris Johnson in the context of PC culture. Leavers looked to Johnson as a positive example of someone who bucks the trend of PC culture, while Republicans brought up instances where President Trump and his supporters were victimized by PC culture. Some aspects of PC culture were characterized differently in the U.S. and the UK, however. UK participants pointed to the role of media in enforcing PC culture and the prohibition of certain jokes for being racist. For instance, one London group said they "should be able to make a racist joke, but it might not be perceived as a joke." In the U.S., one group of Republicans discussed how PC culture reflects underlying weakness among "the little snowflakes." Still, not all participants viewed PC culture as a negative. Some Democrats and Remainers discussed how PC culture has led to a reckoning with national history. Edinburgh participants discussed the necessity of renaming statues and monuments (the focus groups were conducted in fall of 2019, prior to racial justice demonstrations calling for the removal of statues and monuments related to the transatlantic slave trade). One Seattle Democrat stated that shameful events "did happen and it affects our country and how people think of other people and ourselves." Remainer and Democratic groups also focused on different issues when it came to PC culture. Remainers thought PC culture was responsible for more tolerance in society. In Birmingham, one person discussed racist cartoons from the 1970s, arguing that "if you were to see it nowadays, you'd think 'oof' because things have just changed ... it's stamped out now." Similarly, one group of Democrats argued that one "instance where cancel culture is helping" is through boycotts of certain products to combat harmful business practice abroad. Some Democrats and Remainers were worried that PC culture could end up being a harmful force, however. Some Remainers thought PC culture had "gone too an extreme" and that it meant always being afraid of offending someone. Democrats worried that the "weaponization of difference" could exacerbate polarization. (Source: Pew Research Center)

What are some other things to say than 'relax'?

5 More Helpful Things to Say Than "Calm Down" In times of conflict, here's how to not add fuel to the fire. In all my years as a psychologist specializing in anxiety, and as a relentless observer of human interaction, I can't think of a single time where the words "Calm down!"—especially shouted in a voice that is itself tense—had the desired effect. Whether it is during an argument with your partner, as a bystander to your child's tantrum, or in a stressed-out moment with a critical colleague, "Calm down!" often has exactly the opposite effect. The problem with the phrase is that it often puts people on the defensive—insinuating that their reactions are the problem. Even if this has some objective truth to it, and indeed their reactions seem out of proportion to the situation, getting them back to emotional equilibrium will likely not be helped by accusing them of having an "inappropriate" reaction. Moreover, it feels inherently invalidating to have someone tell you that your feelings are too big in proportion to what happened to you. Another problem with the command is that it gives no road map for putting anything into action. When someone is angry, anxious, or otherwise upset to the extent that someone else feels they should calm down, then by definition the alarm bells are ringing—and they can't just quickly turn them off because someone says so. And if the person saying "calm down" sounds anything but calm themselves? Then they're likely just adding fuel to the fire of escalation. The next time you are tempted to tell someone to calm down, pause, take steps to slow down your own stress response (tips for that can be found here), and try out one of these other interventions instead. 1. "I understand this is upsetting." The value of this statement is that it shows immediate empathy, and instead of making the person feel that there is something wrong with them—which risks pushing them away—you're attempting to make a connection. By validating the fact of their distress, you lessen the risk that they will get more frustrated with your not "getting it," which can turn them against you. Be wary of making the statement in too dismissive a tone, however, or pairing it with a quick request to move on. (Think of a monotone customer service representative reading off a script, if you want to know what to avoid.) 2. "It's hard for me to talk with you when things feel this intense." This can be a helpful thing to say when there is a heated argument and you are passing the point at which productive conversation reaches resolution. The key is to convey that you still want to talk, but that things feel potentially damaging in their current state. View this as a potential life raft that you are giving someone—illuminating a path out of the frantically intense emotions and toward a more even course. Do not use the phrase, though, as an ultimatum or a threat that you will cut them off or run away if they don't immediately calm down without your help—in which case it's just a wordier way of saying "Calm down." 3. "I am going to pause for a moment to slow things down." This phrase can be helpful in a conflict because it has the potential to model relaxation techniques without it feeling like an accusation of anything, or forcing them to follow you. Aim for a tone that is not condescending and that acknowledges your own role in the conflict. And then, truly pause—whether they follow you or not. Stretch your body, get some air, or do breathing exercises. Even if they don't follow your lead, at least you know that you will be better able to manage what is to come—and to lead by example. 4. "I'm here with you in this." This is especially helpful in situations where people's "big feelings" are getting the best of them, whether a child having a tantrum or an adult losing their cool over something that just feels like too much to handle. For most human beings, it is profoundly comforting to know that you are not alone and to have someone bear witness to your upset (it's one of the basic foundations of psychotherapy and sets the stage for healing). So often, when someone is upset, we want to know the perfect thing to say, but equally important is how we listen and simply stay emotionally present for the person. 5. "How can I help us move through this?" Very often, the idea of saying "calm down" holds appeal because it gives us a sense of moving forward. Of course, this is likely a false sense, but it's what we want most in that moment—the assurance that we can get through whatever is happening and solve it, preferably quickly. So, although "calm down" won't be likely to do the trick in that regard, you can still think about moving toward a solution if that is what feels most pressing—and if it feels too upsetting to simply sit with the person in their distress. By offering your help, you once again are going for a spirit of connection rather than accusation or separation. Just make sure you speak it with an extra dose of patience, so that the person doesn't feel that the clock is ticking loudly in their ear, which will likely agitate them even more. (Source: psychology today)

What are some ways to overcome an existential crisis?

6 Ways to Overcome an Existential Crisis Certain life changes can rock you to your core. Others leave you wondering what's the point of it all. When these feelings overtake you, you may be experiencing an existential crisis. "An existential crisis is a normal transitional phase that many people experience," says psychologist Susan Albers, PsyD. "When something in your life makes you confront that you will die at some point — whether someone in your life dies, there's an illness or something similar — you might start to ask questions about where you are in life." But don't despair. In this Q&A, Albers shares six ways to overcome these feelings and restore the balance in your life. Q. What does it mean to have an existential crisis? A. With existential crises, there's usually a turning point and moment of awareness that's often linked with worrying about death. This turning point causes people to think about and question the meaning in their lives. They look at what they're doing and why they're doing it. They may have profound feelings of dissatisfaction about where they are in life. We can keep the idea of death at bay for a long time, but particularly with the coronavirus pandemic, it's become front and center for many people. It's like they were running on a hamster wheel every day, just trying to catch up. But then suddenly, the pandemic stopped that wheel. People slowed down enough to start to wonder, "Why am I on this particular wheel? Do I even want to be on it? Why do I keep going?" People started to question the things that they had been doing in a rote way. It's really about the meaning of it all. An existential crisis is not the same as anxiety and depression. They are comparable because people often experience similar feelings, but an existential crisis usually has some trigger. Q. What can cause an existential crisis? A. It's usually some sort of crisis, including: Death of a parent or other loved one. Illness. Sudden change in circumstances, such as a job loss. Age-related health or life change, such as the kids leaving home. Q. What are signs that you're experiencing an existential crisis? A. You may have depression, anxiety or feel unmotivated. You may start asking a lot of questions, such as why you're doing the job that you're doing. You may feel regret over past choices and you may even have some suicidal thoughts. Q. How can you deal with an existential crisis? A. There are several things you can do to work through and overcome an existential crisis. 1. Adjust your viewpoint What's most important is your mindset and the lens through which you look at this experience. Instead of thinking of the situation as a crisis or something bad, see it as an opportunity to make changes that will add to your happiness. 2. Keep a gratitude journal Keep a gratitude journal about the things you are thankful for that add meaning to your life. Finding out where you really want to spend your energy, time and effort may take some soul-searching. By writing down the things you enjoy and find meaningful, you can figure out what you want to change. 3. Connect with people An existential crisis can happen when you feel disconnected from the people in your life. Reestablishing connections can help you feel more grounded. So reach out to friends and family and talk to others who have had similar experiences. If these feelings last more than a couple of months or lead to depression that doesn't pass or suicidal feelings, then connect with a therapist. Having someone to help you navigate these emotions is important. If you need immediate help, the 24/7 National Suicide Prevention Lifeline 800.273.8255 (or via chat) is a free resource that connects people in crisis to a local counselor. 4. Practice mindfulness Spend more time on things that make you feel good. Bring mindfulness to these experiences by savoring them with all your senses. 5. Redirect your energy With the pandemic, many people's careers were taken away. This change helped them realize they were channeling most of their time, energy and meaning into their careers. So when it was gone, it became a crisis. That's why redirecting your energy helps. Your career is a big part of your life — but it's only one part. Focus energy on your relationships and hobbies as well to achieve a better balance. It's similar to what happens when a person puts all their energy into a relationship and then gets divorced. They need to restore the balance by focusing more on their friends and career. A balance among all the aspects of our lives can keep us going when one part falters. 6. Don't dwell on the past People can get very depressed when they start looking to the past. But we can't change it. My motto is always, "Don't look back. You're not going that way." Instead of looking backward and regretting what's happened, look ahead to the direction you want your life to take. Q. How can you help someone experiencing an existential crisis? A. Offering support is a great way to help. Acknowledge what the person is going through, point out what you're observing and don't be critical. You can also offer to help them get therapy. Sometimes, there's a stigma associated with an existential crisis — that it's a bad thing. But this period can also mean opportunity, growth and redirection toward the things you feel good about in life. (Source: Cleveland clinic)

What is the Affordable Care Act?

A federal statute that changed preexisting condition requirements so that the insurers can no longer deny healthcare services to those with such conditions. It's a law consisting of two pieces of legislation that are collectively referred to as "Healthcare Reform" or "Obamacare". The Affordable Care Act requires businesses with 50 or more employees to report to the IRS that they provide health coverage. (Source: multiple sources)

Gut Feelings Are Real, but Should You Really 'Trust Your Gut'?

A sixth sense, hunch, or gut feeling: Whatever you choose to call it, the sudden flash of insight from deep within can inspire plenty of faith. The old saying "trust your gut" refers to trusting these feelings of intuition, often as a way to stay true to yourself. Following your instinct can certainly direct you toward the best path for you. And yet, you might wonder whether you should put so much trust in a feeling, an instinct you can't explain. Wouldn't sticking to logic and reason help you make better decisions? Not always. Science suggests intuition can be a valuable tool in some circumstances. It seems those gut feelings do mean something, and they can often help you make good choices. What do 'gut feelings' actually feel like? Ever experienced a nagging feeling of unease about a situation? Suddenly felt suspicious about someone you just met? You can't explain your feelings logically, but you know something isn't quite right. Or maybe a rush of affirmation or calm floods you after a tough decision, convincing you that you're doing the right thing. Gut feelings can evoke a range of sensations, some not unlike the physical feelings associated with anxiety. Other, more positive sensations might seem to confirm your choice. Some people describe gut feelings as a small internal voice, but you'll often "hear" your gut talking to you in other ways. Signs of a gut feeling a flash of clarity tension or tightness in your body goosebumps or prickling stomach "butterflies" or nausea a sinking sensation in the pit of your stomach sweaty palms or feet thoughts that keep returning to a specific person or situation feelings of peace, safety, or happiness (after making a decision) These feelings tend to come on suddenly, though they aren't always strong or overwhelming. You might experience them as a faint whisper or the barest sense of uneasiness, but they could also feel so strong, you can't imagine ignoring them. If it seems like your brain is encouraging you to take notice of these feelings, well, you're not far from the mark. Where do they come from? Though gut feelings often seem to come out of nowhere, they aren't random. They don't actually originate in your gut, either. The gut-brain connection makes it possible for emotional experiences to register as gastrointestinal distress. When you feel anxious, fearful, or certain that something's wrong, you might experience stomach twinges, pain, or nausea. That's where the name "gut feeling" comes from. Experts have come up with a few potential explanations for these feelings. Normal brain processes ResearchTrusted Source links these flashes of intuition to certain brain processes, such as evaluating and decoding emotional and other nonverbal cues. As you go about your day, your brain collects and processes sensory data from your environment. You're perfectly aware of some of this information. For example, if you notice two people shouting and pushing each other outside a store just ahead, you'll probably cross the street. But you wouldn't say your gut told you to move, since you made a reasoned decision based on available information. Your brain carries out these processes automatically to help prepare you for any situation that might come up. Since these processes run in the "background," you may not always realize what you're observing or what it means. What if you suddenly feel a strong urge to cross the street? There's no obvious reason behind your impulse, but you can't ignore it, or the tingling at the back of your neck. A few seconds after you cross, the sign on the building ahead comes crashing down, right where you would have been walking. You stare in disbelief, heart pounding. How did you know that would happen? This flash of intuition probably doesn't relate to any mystical sixth sense. It's more likely that as you walked, you made some unconscious observations. Maybe one corner of the sign hung loose, wavering in the wind and slapping against the building. Perhaps other pedestrians noticed and stepped out of the way, and you followed without realizing it. Predictions based on experience You can also think of gut feelings as a type of prediction based on experiences. Even memories you don't fully recall, or information you aren't consciously aware of, can guide you. A 2016 study that attempted to measure intuition tested this idea: Researchers asked student participants to look at a screen of tiny moving dots and determine whether the dots moved toward the right or left side of the screen. At the same time, the researchers also showed participants images designed to inspire positive or negative emotions: a puppy, a baby, a gun, a snake. These images told them which way the dots were moving on the screen. Participants only saw these images through one eye, but they didn't know they were seeing them. They viewed the dots through a mirror stereoscope, a device that allowed researchers to block those images from their conscious awareness. When participants "saw" these images, their decisions became faster and more accurate. Skin conductance responses, which measure physiological arousal, suggest the participants also reacted to the images physically — even though they never realized what they were looking at. Consider these examples of how existing knowledge — even if you aren't aware of it — can trigger gut feelings. A group of friends ask you to dinner at a popular restaurant. Something tells you not to go, and you pass on the invite. A few days later, you hear that nearly everyone who went came down with food poisoning. That's when you remember reading a critique of the restaurant that pointed out several unsanitary food preparation practices. Or you match with someone on an online dating app and meet in person after a few weeks of texting. Things start off well, but suddenly you feel uncomfortable, though you can't say why. Eventually you say you're not feeling well and leave. Back home, trying to puzzle out what happened, you glance back over their profile and early messages. Some of the information — their last job, where they went to school, how their last relationship ended — completely conflicts with what they said on the date. You didn't catch the lies in the moment, but they still served as red flags to wave you off. Gut feelings vs. anxiety and paranoia Gut feelings bring up some of the same physical sensations as anxiety, so it can be tough to tell the two apart. You might also worry your mistrust of someone suggests paranoia. Let's say you told a friend about what happened on your date instead of digging into those messages. "Your nerves got the better of you," they said knowingly. "It's totally normal to feel nervous when you finally meet someone great." You felt certain something wasn't right about them, but you decide your suspicions must have come from nerves after all. Here are some guidelines for distinguishing between gut feelings, anxiety, and paranoia. Gut feelings lead you in a clear direction That sense of knowing you recognize as a gut feeling tends to come up in specific situations or when thinking about a certain person. This intuition usually leads you toward a concrete decision or action. Anxiety, on the other hand, tends to focus on the future and often has less definition. With anxiety, you might find yourself worrying about all manner of concerns, particularly those you can't change or control. You might come up with several solutions to cope with potential negative scenarios but not feel certain about any of them. Paranoia isn't based on fact Paranoia is an irrational suspicion of others and their actions. You might feel convinced someone means you harm, though you have no reason to mistrust them and no evidence to support your doubts. These feelings often show up in different situations across your life. In other words, you probably won't suspect just one person. You may not recognize right away what fueled a gut feeling, but time and consideration can lead to deeper insight, even proof — just like the proof you found in your date's messages. To explore the feeling, try asking yourself things like, "What specifically bothers me about this person or situation?" or "Has something like this happened before?" Anxiety lingers Gut feelings tend to pass once you make a decision. You might even notice a sense of relief or calm has replaced them. Anxiety is more than a passing feeling, though. It typically leaves you on constant alert for potential threats. When you resolve one concern, you might begin worrying about something else or begin to doubt your decision. No matter what you do or where you go, that persistent background rumble of fear and unease follows. When should you trust your gut? Gut feelings can be very real things, grounded in observation and experience. Still, you may not want to use them to make every decision. Here's a look at a few scenarios where trusting your gut is probably a safe bet. When you can separate them from wishful thinking Wishful thinking happens when you want something to happen so badly, you begin to believe it will happen. Say you've always wanted to publish a novel, but you only have a few chapters written. But you just know — in your gut — your writing is good enough to catch the attention of an editor. They'll respond immediately, eager for more, you tell yourself. When you explain you're struggling to fit writing in among the demands of daily life, they'll offer an advance that allows you to take time off and focus on your book. In the end, you send the chapters out and start preparing a letter of resignation for work. It's difficult to rely on intuition when you lack the experience to back it up. Your desire to get published interferes with the reality that very few first-time authors get paid to finish writing a book. When you need to make a quick decision ResearchTrusted Source suggests the wealth of experience already cataloged in your brain can serve you well when you need to decide something quickly. Sometimes you'll want to weigh options, compare reviews, or get as many facts as possible. In some situations, though, you may not have much time to deliberate. Say you're looking at an apartment. The neighborhood seems fine, the building quiet, and the apartment itself is gorgeous. You love it, but you'd prefer to spend more time researching potential flaws or downsides before making up your mind. As you finish your tour, the landlord says, "It's yours if you want it, but I have four other people waiting, so I can only give you about 10 minutes to decide." If your gut says "Yes! Rent it. This is the place!" you're probably safe to listen. But if this is your first time picking a place on your own, it might be best to get a bit more experience under your belt first. When you're trying to get in touch with your needs Logic and reason can't always compare with your intuitive knowledge of what you need. After all, you know yourself best. Tonight is your friend's birthday party, but you don't want to go. You feel tired and drained, and a loud, crowded room sounds like the worst possible place to spend your evening. Even though you know you might feel a little better once you're actually there, an internal voice insists, "No way." Go ahead and skip it (really). Listening to your body can help you make decisions that support your needs in the moment. When you lack data Gut feelings can't replace cold, hard evidence, but you may not always have facts to consider. Or you might have some data, just not enough to guide you to an answer. Perhaps you're trying to choose between two job offers that seem pretty equal on paper, or deciding whether to go on a second date with someone you feel less than enthusiastic about. Your emotions can play an important role in decisions, so trust them. The choice you make might resonate more soundly with your sense of self. The bottom line Time and practice can hone your intuition, so give your gut feelings the consideration they deserve. Tuning in to your emotions and bodily cues can help you practice listening to your gut and learning when to trust it. When you struggle to identify gut feelings or have a hard time separating them from anxious thoughts, a therapist can help you cultivate the ability to tell them apart. (Source: healthline)

What is the online definition of estrogen?

Any of a group of steroid hormones which promote the development and maintenance of female characteristics of the body. Such hormones are also produced artificially for use in oral contraceptives or to treat menopausal and menstrual disorders.

What are the signs of bad parenting?

Bad Parenting: Signs, Effects, and How to Change It Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Sara Lindberg on September 25, 2020 What is it? Signs Effects How to stop it Bottom line unhappy child curled up in towel on bathroom floor Share on Pinterest Emily Mitchell/Offset Images It's a question we've probably all asked ourselves after a particularly rough day: "Am I a bad parent?" It's easy to feel like your parenting skills are below par in a moment when nothing seems to be going your way, and you've exhausted your patience completely. But the fact that you're concerned about whether you're making the right parenting choices is a good sign that you're not, in fact, a bad parent. Sometimes it can feel like every choice we're making is monumental and every mistake significant. We worry about the long-term effects of our choices, especially when it comes to negative interactions with our children. We stress over whether we were too harsh when we yelled at them earlier, if we could have handled that tantrum better, or whether we doled out the appropriate consequences. But every parent has those moments where they lose their cool. We've all made less-than-stellar parenting choices in a moment of frustration or confusion. That's why we asked two mental health experts to share tips on how to spot the signs of what we'll call "bad parenting" and the effect it may have on a child — to help clarify what's actually worth worrying about. We've also got some tips on focusing on the positive when it comes to parenting — because when we're in the trenches, it's oh-so easy to dwell on the negative. What is bad parenting? There are some things that are generally considered "bad" by anyone. Physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse are the most serious and damaging behavior traits that most of us equate with bad parenting. These are things that should be immediately addressed with professional help. But beyond child abuse and neglect, there are also things that parents may do or say that can, even unintentionally, lead to adverse outcomes for a child. Recognizing whether you're doing those things can help you to feel better about your parenting. Taking an honest assessment of your parenting style isn't always an easy task. That's why it's important to first separate the behavior from the person. Calling yourself or someone else a "bad parent" isn't something to jump to based on a difference in beliefs or parenting style. It's also important to recognize there is a difference between having a bad moment and being a bad parent. Losing your temper every once in a while is not the same as telling your child, "I'm smart, and you're dumb" or "I'm right, you're wrong, and there's nothing you can do about it." Although some people disagree on what is "good" or "bad" parenting, most parents have both positive and negative parenting traits. What are the signs of bad parenting? It's easy to see less than desirable parenting behaviors when you consider the extremes. Over or under involvement On one end, you have the uninvolved parent who is neglectful and fails to respond to their child's needs beyond the basics of shelter, food, and clothing. While not as damaging as a neglectful style, an over involved parent (aka helicopter parent) can also cause more harm than good by taking control of decisions and doing too much for their child, hindering them from learning by doing. Little or no discipline According to Sharron Frederick, LCSW, a psychotherapist at Clarity Health Solutions, children who have little or no discipline are left to fend for themselves, which can result in injuries and also creates a child who does not understand boundaries. "Children look to parents to define what boundaries are and the consequences that can occur if the child crosses the boundaries," she says. Strict or rigid discipline Unlike parents who enforce little to no discipline, Frederick says parents who practice strict or rigid discipline (aka authoritarian parenting) do not allow their child to explore their world, which often leads to a child who becomes fearful and anxious or rebellious. Withdrawing affection and attention "Ignoring a child is telling them that your love is conditional," says Frederick. Withdrawing affection because a child does not do what they are told causes similar harm. "These types of behaviors can cause a child to have low self-esteem and low confidence, which can result in a child not expressing their wants and needs," she says. Over time, Frederick says this can lead to co-dependency, in which the child will adapt to how they feel a person wants them to act. "Many times, this can lead to relationships that are abusive," she adds. Shaming Whether in public or private, children who are continually shamed can develop issues with perfection and a fear of failure. This can lead to depression or anxiety. What are the effects of bad parenting? Children without positive parenting are more at risk for their own relationship troubles, depression, anxiety, and aggression, among other negative outcomes. The below effects are the result of ongoing patterns of negative behavior. That time you yelled at your toddler for breaking your favorite coffee mug is not the same as a consistent pattern of criticism or physical violence. Negative self-perception A parenting misstep that can have lasting consequences is the overuse of negative labels and shaming. "Consistent use of negative labels such as name-calling deeply impacts a child's sense of self and contributes to long-standing negative self-narratives and self-fulfilling prophecies," according to psychotherapist, Dana Dorfman, PhD. Shame, she says, is a powerful and paralyzing emotion that becomes deeply embedded in the psyche and sense of self. Given its strength, Dorfman says many people, including parents, engender it to deter negative behavior or motivate toward positive behaviors. However, when shaming and negative labeling become a common tactic, Dorfman says children then begin to internalize and embody these negative messages. "They learn to speak to themselves the way they have been spoken to — perpetuating negative feelings and becoming harshly self-critical," she explains. Long term, people with negative self-perceptions often seek relationships that will reinforce the messages they're accustomed to hearing. Control issues and rebellion Children who experience overly rigid or strict discipline can have issues with control of others, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and other anxious behaviors, together with the mindset that the world is dangerous, according to Frederick. On the other end of the spectrum is the rebellious child who fights with their parents, breaks the rules, and engages in negative behaviors. Emotional and behavioral problems Harsh parenting, which includes verbal or physical threats, frequent yelling, and hitting, along with immediate negative consequences for a specific behavior, can lead to children having emotional and behavioral issues, such as aggressiveness and following directions at school, according to a 2014 studyTrusted Source. What can you do to stop bad parenting? Although negative parenting behaviors can put children at risk, it's not the only factor that determines outcomes. Even parents with a positive style of discipline and interaction can have children who struggle with behavioral or emotional issues. Just like a single bad day doesn't make you a bad parent, doing the best you can doesn't mean that your child will never struggle or have problems. And that's OK. Parenting is an ongoing process, and it's often challenging. If you've struggled thanks to less-than-ideal examples from your own parents, it might feel even harder. But you can work to overcome the negative messages you've been taught and build a healthy relationship with your own children. Your own parents may not have been good role models, but you can find support and positive encouragement in other parents to create your own parenting path. If you find yourself falling into bad parenting habits more often than you'd like, remember that you are capable of making changes. Revamping your parenting style can require patience, honesty, and a lot of hard work. The good news is it's never too late to start. Any positive change you make can result in a better outcome for your child. Here are some tips to help you focus on the positive. Listen to your child's thoughts and feelings We all want to be heard. And although we do not always agree with what others say, Frederick says we all need someone to listen to us. When it comes to your kids, she says to hear their concerns and frustrations, validate their feelings, and explain that they have a right to be angry — but not to act out (like throwing their crayons across the room). Instead, provide alternatives for them for different emotions. Provide appropriate consequences When using discipline, Frederick says it's critical to provide consequences that teach your child a positive lesson. "Hitting a child teaches them nothing about consequences, and can result in resentment and anger, together with that child going to school and hitting other children," she says. Instead, use a rewards chart or have them earn time doing something they enjoy. When taking something away, do not take it away for a week, instead, take it away for the afternoon. Make sure that the consequence is suitable for the behavior you're correcting. Label the behavior, not the child "If parents want to 'label,' they should make sure that they're labeling behavior, not character," says Dorfman. For example, when a child is acting out, remind them that it's the behavior of a bully, rather than saying, "You ARE a bully." Don't withhold attention We all get angry with our children, but Frederick says ignoring them only confuses a child. "Explain that you are angry, and although you are angry with them, you still love them," she explains. If you need a moment, try putting them in time out (1 minute for every age they are) and calm down, collecting your thoughts and feelings. Show love and affection Displaying love and affection means more than just telling your child that you love them. It also comes from supporting and accepting your child, being physically affectionate, and spending quality time together. Let them make mistakes Life is messy, so let your children explore being creative and making mistakes, without shaming or criticizing. When they make a mistake, ask your child, "What could you have done differently?" Use your own mistakes as an opportunity to show them that learning never stops, and that we can all have our bad days. Admitting when you've made a mistake, apologizing, and trying to improve is good for everyone. SUBSCRIBE NOW LIMITED SERIES null What they don't tell you about becoming "mom" Read real-life stories about motherhood and mental health in this limited series from our sister site, Psych Central. Enter your email SUBSCRIBE NOW Your privacy is important to us Takeaway Being a parent is emotionally challenging. It's also a huge responsibility that requires patience, consistency, love, compassion, and understanding. We all have days when we worry about our parenting choices. We love our kiddos so much, it's natural to only want the best for them. Remember that you're learning as you go, and every day is a chance to start fresh. With the right tools and with patience for our children — and ourselves — we can all choose the parent we want to be. Also remember that we all need support — some days more than others. If you're feeling stretched or overly stressed, seek help, guidance, advice, and perspectives from friends, colleagues, family, or mental health professionals whom you trust and respect. Parenting is the hardest job in the world. Hang in there — you've got this!

What is pink eye caused by?

Most cases of pink eye are typically caused by adenovirus but can also be caused by herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, and various other viruses, including the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Why shouldn't I tell my child to 'calm down"?

Telling your child to "calm down" also doesn't encourage growth or promote healthy coping skills. Instead, the phrase causes your child to stifle their feelings and learn that it's not OK to cry or get upset. "It tells the child that expressing emotions is not accepted or appropriate. (Source: parents.com)

If a girl plays with hair, is she flirting?

The only way to know is do what I did when I was at school. Me - So who's the guy? Girl - Huh? Me - You're twirling your hair. Who's the guy? Girl - No one. It calms me down. Me - So what do you do when you are into a guy? Girl *Blushes* Me - You blush. Hahah. So that's what you do. Girl - (blushes even more) OMG! You're making me feel hot Me - Oh you're hot alright ;) Me - Listen; break is soon, lets talk later Girl (Giggles) ok, you're not messing around, are you? Me - Nah. I like you a lot. You're cute in a weird way ;) Girl - (pulls tongue out) Me - Oh you'll have some of that too, no worries Girl - OMG! You're so bad Me - I'd rather be bad than boring

What is the cerebral cortex?

The outer wrinkly layer of the brain, controls consciousness, memory and language

What makes a theater actor good?

The very best actors have good technique and exceptional talent. Acting techniques, like projecting your voice and movement on stage, can be learned and finessed, improving any talent. The extra edge that extraordinary natural talent brings is something that cannot be taught and is what makes great actors stand out. (Source: BBC)

Is there science behind creativity?

The science behind creativity Psychologists and neuroscientists are exploring where creativity comes from and how to increase your own By Kirsten Weir Date created: April 1, 2022 13 min read Vol. 53 No. 3 Print version: page 40 Neuropsychology Creativity Creativity and Innovation young person standing on a rock outcropping with their arms up looking out at mountains in the distance Paul Seli, PhD, is falling asleep. As he nods off, a sleep-tracking glove called Dormio, developed by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, detects his nascent sleep state and jars him awake. Pulled back from the brink, he jots down the artistic ideas that came to him during those semilucid moments. Seli is an assistant professor of psychology and neuroscience at the Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and also an artist. He uses Dormio to tap into the world of hypnagogia, the transitional state that exists at the boundary between wakefulness and sleep. In a mini-experiment, he created a series of paintings inspired by ideas plucked from his hypnagogic state and another series from ideas that came to him during waking hours. Then he asked friends to rate how creative the paintings were, without telling them which were which. They judged the hypnagogic paintings as significantly more creative. "In dream states, we seem to be able to link things together that we normally wouldn't connect," Seli said. "It's like there's an artist in my brain that I get to know through hypnagogia." The experiment is one of many novel—and, yes, creative—ways that psychologists are studying the science of creativity. At an individual level, creativity can lead to personal fulfillment and positive academic and professional outcomes, and even be therapeutic. People take pleasure in creative thoughts, research suggests—even if they don't think of themselves as especially creative. Beyond those individual benefits, creativity is an endeavor with implications for society, said Jonathan Schooler, PhD, a professor of psychological and brain sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara. "Creativity is at the core of innovation. We rely on innovation for advancing humanity, as well as for pleasure and entertainment," he said. "Creativity underlies so much of what humans value." In 1950, J. P. Guilford, PhD, then president of APA, laid out his vision for the psychological study of creativity (American Psychologist, Vol. 5, No. 9, 1950). For half a century, researchers added to the scientific understanding of creativity incrementally, said John Kounios, PhD, an experimental psychologist who studies creativity and insight at Drexel University in Philadelphia. Much of that research focused on the personality traits linked to creativity and the cognitive aspects of the creative process. But in the 21st century, the field has blossomed thanks to new advances in neuroimaging. "It's become a tsunami of people studying creativity," Kounios said. Psychologists and neuroscientists are uncovering new details about what it means to be creative and how to nurture that skill. "Creativity is of incredible real-world value," Kounios said. "The ultimate goal is to figure out how to enhance it in a systematic way." Streaming Audio Creativity in the brain What, exactly, is creativity? The standard definition used by researchers characterizes creative ideas as those that are original and effective, as described by psychologist Mark A. Runco, PhD, director of creativity research and programming at Southern Oregon University (Creativity Research Journal, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2012). But effectiveness, also called utility, is a slippery concept. Is a poem useful? What makes a sculpture effective? "Most researchers use some form of this definition, but most of us are also dissatisfied with it," Kounios said. Runco is working on an updated definition and has considered at least a dozen suggestions from colleagues for new components to consider. One frequently suggested feature is authenticity. "Creativity involves an honest expression," he said. Meanwhile, scientists are also struggling with the best way to measure the concept. As a marker of creativity, researchers often measure divergent thinking—the ability to generate a lot of possible solutions to a problem or question. The standard test of divergent thinking came from Guilford himself. Known as the alternate-uses test, the task asks participants to come up with novel uses for a common object such as a brick. But measures of divergent thinking haven't been found to correlate well with real-world creativity. Does coming up with new uses for a brick imply a person will be good at abstract art or composing music or devising new methods for studying the brain? "It strikes me as using way too broad a brush," Seli said. "I don't think we measure creativity in the standard way that people think about creativity. As researchers, we need to be very clear about what we mean." One way to do that may be to move away from defining creativity based on a person's creative output and focus instead on what's going on in the brain, said Adam Green, PhD, a cognitive neuroscientist at Georgetown University and founder of the Society for the Neuroscience of Creativity. "The standard definition, that creativity is novel and useful, is a description of a product," he noted. "By looking inward, we can see the process in action and start to identify the characteristics of creative thought. Neuroimaging is helping to shift the focus from creative product to creative process." That process seems to involve the coupling of disparate brain regions. Specifically, creativity often involves coordination between the cognitive control network, which is involved in executive functions such as planning and problem-solving, and the default mode network, which is most active during mind-wandering or daydreaming (Beaty, R. E., et al., Cerebral Cortex, Vol. 31, No. 10, 2021). The cooperation of those networks may be a unique feature of creativity, Green said. "These two systems are usually antagonistic. They rarely work together, but creativity seems to be one instance where they do." Green has also found evidence that an area called the frontopolar cortex, in the brain's frontal lobes, is associated with creative thinking. And stimulating the area seems to boost creative abilities. He and his colleagues used transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to stimulate the frontopolar cortex of participants as they tried to come up with novel analogies. Stimulating the area led participants to make analogies that were more semantically distant from one another—in other words, more creative (Cerebral Cortex, Vol. 27, No. 4, 2017). Green's work suggests that targeting specific areas in the brain, either with neuromodulation or cognitive interventions, could enhance creativity. Yet no one is suggesting that a single brain region, or even a single neural network, is responsible for creative thought. "Creativity is not one system but many different mechanisms that, under ideal circumstances, work together in a seamless way," Kounios said. In search of the eureka moment Creativity looks different from person to person. And even within one brain, there are different routes to a creative spark, Kounios explained. One involves what cognitive scientists call "System 1" (also called "Type 1") processes: quick, unconscious thoughts—aha moments—that burst into consciousness. A second route involves "System 2" processes: thinking that is slow, deliberate, and conscious. "Creativity can use one or the other or a combination of the two," he said. "You might use Type 1 thinking to generate ideas and Type 2 to critique and refine them." Which pathway a person uses might depend, in part, on their expertise. Kounios and his colleagues used electroencephalography (EEG) to examine what was happening in jazz musicians' brains as they improvised on the piano. Then skilled jazz instructors rated those improvisations for creativity, and the researchers compared each musician's most creative compositions. They found that for highly experienced musicians, the mechanisms used to generate creative ideas were largely automatic and unconscious, and they came from the left posterior part of the brain. Less-experienced pianists drew on more analytical, deliberative brain processes in the right frontal region to devise creative melodies, as Kounios and colleagues described in a special issue of NeuroImage on the neuroscience of creativity (Vol. 213, 2020). "It seems there are at least two pathways to get from where you are to a creative idea," he said. Coming up with an idea is only one part of the creative process. A painter needs to translate their vision to canvas. An inventor has to tinker with their concept to make a prototype that actually works. Still, the aha moment is an undeniably important component of the creative process. And science is beginning to illuminate those "lightbulb moments." Kounios examined the relationship between creative insight and the brain's reward system by asking participants to solve anagrams in the lab. In people who were highly sensitive to rewards, a creative insight led to a burst of brain activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, the area of the brain that responds to basic pleasures like delicious food or addictive drugs (NeuroImage, Vol. 214, 2020). That neural reward may explain, from an evolutionary standpoint, why humans seem driven to create, he said. "We seem wired to take pleasure in creative thoughts. There are neural rewards for thinking in a creative fashion, and that may be adaptive for our species." The rush you get from an aha moment might also signal that you're onto something good, Schooler said. He and his colleagues studied these flashes of insight among creative writers and physicists. They surveyed the participants daily for two weeks, asking them to note their creative ideas and when they occurred. Participants reported that about a fifth of the most important ideas of the day happened when they were mind-wandering and not working on a task at hand (Psychological Science, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2019). "These solutions were more likely to be associated with an aha moment and often overcoming an impasse of some sort," Schooler said. Six months later, the participants revisited those ideas and rated them for creative importance. This time, they rated their previous ideas as creative, but less important than they'd initially thought. That suggests that the spark of a eureka moment may not be a reliable clue that an idea has legs. "It seems like the aha experience may be a visceral marker of an important idea. But the aha experience can also inflate the meaningfulness of an idea that doesn't have merit," Schooler said. "We have to be careful of false ahas." Boosting your creativity Much of the research in this realm has focused on creativity as a trait. Indeed, some people are naturally more creative than others. Creative individuals are more likely than others to possess the personality trait of openness. "Across different age groups, the best predictor of creativity is openness to new experiences," said Anna Abraham, PhD, the E. Paul Torrance Professor and director of the Torrance Center for Creativity and Talent Development at the University of Georgia. "Creative people have the kind of curiosity that draws them toward learning new things and experiencing the world in new ways," she said. We can't all be Thomas Edison or Maya Angelou. But creativity is also a state, and anyone can push themselves to be more creative. "Creativity is human capacity, and there's always room for growth," Runco said. A tolerant environment is often a necessary ingredient, he added. "Tolerant societies allow individuals to express themselves and explore new things. And as a parent or a teacher, you can model that creativity is valued and be open-minded when your child gives an answer you didn't expect." One way to let your own creativity flow may be by tapping into your untethered mind. Seli is attempting to do so through his studies on hypnagogia. After pilot testing the idea on himself, he's now working on a study that uses the sleep-tracking glove to explore creativity in a group of Duke undergrads. "In dream states, there seems to be connectivity between disparate ideas. You tend to link things together you normally wouldn't, and this should lead to novel outcomes," he said. "Neurally speaking, the idea is to increase connectivity between different areas of the brain." You don't have to be asleep to forge those creative connections. Mind-wandering can also let the ideas flow. "Letting yourself daydream with a purpose, on a regular basis, might allow brain networks that don't usually cooperate to literally form stronger connections," Green said. However, not all types of daydreams will get you there. Schooler found that people who engage in more personally meaningful daydreams (such as fantasizing about a future vacation or career change) report greater artistic achievement and more daily inspiration. People who are prone to fantastical daydreaming (such as inventing alternate realities or imaginary worlds) produced higher-quality creative writing in the lab and reported more daily creative behavior. But daydreams devoted to planning or problem-solving were not associated with creative behaviors (Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2021). It's not just what you think about when you daydream, but where you are when you do it. Some research suggests spending time in nature can enhance creativity. That may be because of the natural world's ability to restore attention, or perhaps it's due to the tendency to let your mind wander when you're in the great outdoors (Williams, K. J. H., et al., Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 59, 2018). "A lot of creative figures go on walks in big, expansive environments. In a large space, your perceptual attention expands and your scope of thought also expands," Kounios said. "That's why working in a cubicle is bad for creativity. But working near a window can help." Wherever you choose to do it, fostering creativity requires time and effort. "People want the booster shot for creativity. But creativity isn't something that comes magically. It's a skill, and as with any new skill, the more you practice, the better you get," Abraham said. In a not-yet-published study, she found three factors predicted peak originality in teenagers: openness to experience, intelligence, and, importantly, time spent engaged in creative hobbies. That is, taking the time to work on creative pursuits makes a difference. And the same is true for adults, she said. "Carve out time for yourself, figure out the conditions that are conducive to your creativity, and recognize that you need to keep pushing yourself. You won't get to where you want to go if you don't try." Those efforts can benefit your own sense of creative fulfillment and perhaps lead to rewards on an even grander scale. "I think everyday creativity is the most important kind," Runco said. "If we can support the creativity of each and every individual, we'll change the world." How to become more creative 1. Put in the work: People often think of creativity as a bolt of inspiration, like a lightbulb clicking on. But being creative in a particular domain—whether in the arts, in your work, or in your day-to-day life—is a skill. Carve out time to learn and practice. 2. Let your mind wander: Experts recommend "daydreaming with purpose." Make opportunities to let your daydreams flow, while gently nudging them toward the creative challenge at hand. Some research suggests meditation may help people develop the habit of purposeful daydreaming. 3. Practice remote associations: Brainstorm ideas, jotting down whatever thoughts or notions come to you, no matter how wild. You can always edit later. 4. Go outside: Spending time in nature and wide-open spaces can expand your attention, enhance beneficial mind-wandering, and boost creativity. 5. Revisit your creative ideas: Aha moments can give you a high—but that rush might make you overestimate the merit of a creative idea. Don't be afraid to revisit ideas to critique and tweak them later. (Source: American Psychological Association)

How do you have a great sense of style?

To have a great sense of style, begin by choosing clothing in colors that look good on you and that you feel confident in. Also, wear clothes that fit you well and aren't too tight or overly loose. Then, pick a few accessories that complement your outfit for an fashionable, fun look. (Source: wikihow)

How do I be more creative?

Train Your Brain to Be More Creative by Bas Korsten Summary. Creativity isn't inherent. You have to hone it. Here are a few ways to do that, based on neuroscience. Engage with nature: Looking at trees and leaves, instead of our electronic devices, reduces our anxiety, lowers our heart rates, soothes us, and allows our brains to make connections more easily. Meditate: Meditation clears our minds of jumbled thoughts, and gives our brains the space to observe and reflect, improving task concentration and enhancing our ability to make smart decisions. Get moving: Exercising releases endorphins - chemicals our body produces to relieve stress and pain. And when we are less stressed, our brains venture into more fruitful territory. Connect with different kinds of people: Diversity makes the brain work harder, by challenging stereotypes. I don't do ruts. Not because I'm some brilliant creative, but because I've learned how my brain works. Your brain needs fuel, and it needs to be stretched to create those "OMG!" moments on demand. Think about it. Great athletes train their bodies for days, weeks, and years to whip them into peak performance. Why, then, wouldn't a creator do the same with their brain? I've spent more than two decades (and counting) in the advertising industry, and contrary to popular belief, creativity isn't inherent. You have to hone it. Over time, I've figured out what I need to do to get ideas flowing freely, and a lot of that insight comes from my interest in neuroscience. The more we learn about the workings of our gray matter, the better we can train it, control it, and make it do what we want. Here a few things that have worked for me over the years. Engage with nature It's been proven that spending time in nature makes us more creative. Looking at trees and leaves — instead of our electronic devices — reduces our anxiety, lowers our heart rates, soothes us, and allows our brains to make connections more easily. By spending time in nature, I'm not referring to a trek in the wilderness either. Walking in an urban green space for just 25 minutes can quiet our brains and help us switch into autopilot node. According to the British Journal of Sports Medicine, this state sparks our present awareness and fuels imagination. We are more easily able to connect existing notions, thoughts, and images to form a new, relevant, and useable concept. So make disconnecting a priority. Take a walk in your neighborhood park, stroll along the beach, or just add plants to your balcony and spend some time out there. For me, walking my dog — even when my name is not on the family schedule — works. You'll feel the benefits of moving away from screens almost immediately. Meditate I know, I know, you've heard this a million times: Meditation clears our minds of jumbled thoughts, and gives our brains the space to observe and reflect, improving task concentration and enhancing our ability to make smart decisions. But did you know that meditation also puts the entire brain to work? You may have heard that creativity uses your right brain while your left brain is triggered during more analytical tasks. Well, neuroscientists have found that creativity actually draws on your entire brain — and meditation can you give you access to it. This intentional practice can be as simple as closing your eyes and focusing on your breath. Headspace, the popular meditation app, even has guided meditations for inspiring creativity. The idea is that when we intentionally pause in awareness, we allow our minds the freedom and space to be still and creative. I practice this between meetings. I find a quiet space, focus on my breathing, and get my brain into an alpha state, or a wakeful state of relaxation. This allows me to disconnect from my initial ideas (after all, the human brain is hardwired to take the path of least resistance) and create new pathways in my mind. Get moving Steve Jobs was a big advocate for walking meetings for a reason. Moving around has been linked to increased performance on creative tests. Exercising releases endorphins — chemicals our bodies produce to relieve stress and pain. When we are less stressed, our brains venture into more fruitful territory. In fact, a recent article compared the chemical that our brain releases during physical activity to Miracle-Gro, the water-soluble plant food that helps grow bigger, healthier plants. The good part is moving around is super simple to do, especially when you're working at home. I often attend meetings while cycling on a stationary bike or plan short walks in between (and this can be done in an office too). Try to add workout time on your calendar and make sure not to skip it. If you feel you don't have time for a dedicated workout, block 20 minutes on your calendar and spend that time doing stretches at your desk. Find a routine that works for you. Connect with different kinds of people When consciously seeking inspiration, not enough can be said about diversity. Remember the brain and its predisposition to take the lazy way out? Diversity makes the brain work harder by challenging stereotypes. In addition, researchers at Johns Hopkins University found that "exposure to diversity experiences might foster the development of more complex forms of thought, including the ability to think critically." I make it a point to surround myself with people who come from different backgrounds than I do because their perspectives are a catalyst for creative thinking. Contrasting opinions sparks new possibilities, and allow us to make connections we hadn't seen before, leading to better decisions. There was something to be said about Abraham Lincoln filling his cabinet with a "team of rivals." Productive discussions, brainstorms, and debates often result in wiser outcomes. At my agency, we've set up an "inspiration council," which brings together our people from various regions, cultures, genders, and more, to initiate these kind of discussions. Today, the distributed working model born out of the pandemic has made it even easier to bring people together. I recommend using social media channels like LinkedIn and Instagram to follow and connect with people who have backgrounds and experiences that diverge from your own. Don't limit yourself by geography when you're reaching out to someone or expanding your network. We are much better at creative problem-solving when we don't have the comfort of knowing what to expect, which can happen if we only surround ourselves with people just like us. Use these principles of neuroscience to give your brain the exercise that it needs. It will get you out of any rut. Or prevent you from getting into one in the first place. Bas Korsten is the Global Chief Creative Officer at Wunderman Thompson. (Source: Harvard Business Review)

How do I be more creative?

Train Your Brain to Be More Creative by Bas Korsten June 17, 2021 Anastasia Usenko/Getty Images Summary. Creativity isn't inherent. You have to hone it. Here are a few ways to do that, based on neuroscience. Engage with nature: Looking at trees and leaves, instead of our electronic devices, reduces our anxiety, lowers our heart rates, soothes us, and allows our brains to make connections more easily. Meditate: Meditation clears our minds of jumbled thoughts, and gives our brains the space to observe and reflect, improving task concentration and enhancing our ability to make smart decisions. Get moving: Exercising releases endorphins - chemicals our body produces to relieve stress and pain. And when we are less stressed, our brains venture into more fruitful territory. Connect with different kinds of people: Diversity makes the brain work harder, by challenging stereotypes.close Ascend logo Where your work meets your life. See more from Ascend here. I don't do ruts. Not because I'm some brilliant creative, but because I've learned how my brain works. Your brain needs fuel, and it needs to be stretched to create those "OMG!" moments on demand. Think about it. Great athletes train their bodies for days, weeks, and years to whip them into peak performance. Why, then, wouldn't a creator do the same with their brain? I've spent more than two decades (and counting) in the advertising industry, and contrary to popular belief, creativity isn't inherent. You have to hone it. Over time, I've figured out what I need to do to get ideas flowing freely, and a lot of that insight comes from my interest in neuroscience. The more we learn about the workings of our gray matter, the better we can train it, control it, and make it do what we want. Here a few things that have worked for me over the years. Engage with nature It's been proven that spending time in nature makes us more creative. Looking at trees and leaves — instead of our electronic devices — reduces our anxiety, lowers our heart rates, soothes us, and allows our brains to make connections more easily. By spending time in nature, I'm not referring to a trek in the wilderness either. Walking in an urban green space for just 25 minutes can quiet our brains and help us switch into autopilot node. According to the British Journal of Sports Medicine, this state sparks our present awareness and fuels imagination. We are more easily able to connect existing notions, thoughts, and images to form a new, relevant, and useable concept. So make disconnecting a priority. Take a walk in your neighborhood park, stroll along the beach, or just add plants to your balcony and spend some time out there. For me, walking my dog — even when my name is not on the family schedule — works. You'll feel the benefits of moving away from screens almost immediately. Meditate I know, I know, you've heard this a million times: Meditation clears our minds of jumbled thoughts, and gives our brains the space to observe and reflect, improving task concentration and enhancing our ability to make smart decisions. But did you know that meditation also puts the entire brain to work? You may have heard that creativity uses your right brain while your left brain is triggered during more analytical tasks. Well, neuroscientists have found that creativity actually draws on your entire brain — and meditation can you give you access to it. This intentional practice can be as simple as closing your eyes and focusing on your breath. Headspace, the popular meditation app, even has guided meditations for inspiring creativity. The idea is that when we intentionally pause in awareness, we allow our minds the freedom and space to be still and creative. I practice this between meetings. I find a quiet space, focus on my breathing, and get my brain into an alpha state, or a wakeful state of relaxation. This allows me to disconnect from my initial ideas (after all, the human brain is hardwired to take the path of least resistance) and create new pathways in my mind. Get moving Steve Jobs was a big advocate for walking meetings for a reason. Moving around has been linked to increased performance on creative tests. Exercising releases endorphins — chemicals our bodies produce to relieve stress and pain. When we are less stressed, our brains venture into more fruitful territory. In fact, a recent article compared the chemical that our brain releases during physical activity to Miracle-Gro, the water-soluble plant food that helps grow bigger, healthier plants. The good part is moving around is super simple to do, especially when you're working at home. I often attend meetings while cycling on a stationary bike or plan short walks in between (and this can be done in an office too). Try to add workout time on your calendar and make sure not to skip it. If you feel you don't have time for a dedicated workout, block 20 minutes on your calendar and spend that time doing stretches at your desk. Find a routine that works for you. Subscribe to our Weekly Newsletter Ascend Career and life advice for young professionals. Sign Up Connect with different kinds of people When consciously seeking inspiration, not enough can be said about diversity. Remember the brain and its predisposition to take the lazy way out? Diversity makes the brain work harder by challenging stereotypes. In addition, researchers at Johns Hopkins University found that "exposure to diversity experiences might foster the development of more complex forms of thought, including the ability to think critically." I make it a point to surround myself with people who come from different backgrounds than I do because their perspectives are a catalyst for creative thinking. Contrasting opinions sparks new possibilities, and allow us to make connections we hadn't seen before, leading to better decisions. There was something to be said about Abraham Lincoln filling his cabinet with a "team of rivals." Productive discussions, brainstorms, and debates often result in wiser outcomes. At my agency, we've set up an "inspiration council," which brings together our people from various regions, cultures, genders, and more, to initiate these kind of discussions. Today, the distributed working model born out of the pandemic has made it even easier to bring people together. I recommend using social media channels like LinkedIn and Instagram to follow and connect with people who have backgrounds and experiences that diverge from your own. Don't limit yourself by geography when you're reaching out to someone or expanding your network. We are much better at creative problem-solving when we don't have the comfort of knowing what to expect, which can happen if we only surround ourselves with people just like us. Use these principles of neuroscience to give your brain the exercise that it needs. It will get you out of any rut. Or prevent you from getting into one in the first place. Bas Korsten is the Global Chief Creative Officer at Wunderman Thompson. (Source: Harvard Business Review)

How do I recognize that I have a crush?

With a name like "crush," you'd think it'd be crushingly (ha!) obvious that you have one. But when it comes to feelings, things are rarely black and white. Real quick: What do we mean by 'crush'? A crush usually refers to romantic feelings for someone that go unexpressed. Thing is, crushes don't have to be romantic at all. Christie Kederian, PhD, a psychologist and licensed marriage and family therapist, explains that crushes aren't always romantic in nature. But they do reveal a desire to connect with another person on a deeper level. Turns out we can have crushes on potential friends, colleagues we want to be work buddies with, or even friends or co-workers we want to be potential romantic partners. Are there really signs to look for? Kind of. There are some signs, which, according to science, are linked to attraction, but no absolute telltale sign that someone's crushing on you. Keep in mind it's easy to mistake kind or respectful behavior as interest when looking for signs through the rose-colored glasses of someone in the throes of a crush. If you consistently notice any of the signs below from someone, it *might* indicate that they're crushing on you romantically or platonically: Their pupils dilate Pupils grow larger when we see something that excites us, like a person, a puppy, or a snazzy pair of shoes. It happens when your sympathetic nervous system kicks, but can also be caused by stress, fear, or booze and drugs. If they've got dilated pupils every time they see you, aren't running screaming or obviously under the influence, they might be crushing. They want to be around you We're talking going out of their way to be in close proximity to you. Think: taking the empty seat at your table in the break room or joining your group for happy hour. If it happens consistently, they probably want to get to know you better. They've got mention-itis "Mention-itis" may not be a recognized medical condition, but we tend to mention the object of our crush a lot. If you're on their mind, chances they'll mention your name in conversations to mutual friends and anyone else who'll listen. They ask and reveal According to a 2014 study, asking questions and revealing information are signs of attraction. Bonus if they're doing it sincerely and with attention, which anyone who has a genuine interest in you — romantic or otherwise — will do during conversation. They mirror your behavior Mirroring is believed to be a sign of interest. A person who has a crush on you may subconsciously adopt your behaviors and mannerisms when with you because they're genuinely engaged in the interaction and want to feel more connected. How can you determine whether you have a crush on someone? For starters, you're probably doing a lot of what we just covered, like incessantly thinking and talking about them. You'll probably also find that you feel strange around them. By "strange," we mean that people often describe being around their crush as a combination of excitement, nervousness, happiness, and awkwardness. You might imagine different scenarios around interactions you could have with them. Things like what you might say next time you see them, or ways that you could take your interaction to another level, like getting together for coffee or collaborating on a project with them. You might also find that your usual confidence waivers and you become shy, or your usually eloquent self gets tongue-tied when they're around. How can you determine whether someone has a crush on you? There's no foolproof way to determine someone has a crush on you without directly asking them. The best you can do is pay attention to their behavior and how they interact with you. Are they flirting? Do they seem to go out of their way to be near you? Do you have to act on it? Nope! Not unless you want to. And if you have to ask, chances are you're not sure you want to or should anyway. If you're not entirely sure that you want to pursue your feelings, take the time you need to figure it out. No pressure. What if you want to act on it — what should you do? That depends on things like how (or if) you know your crush, and how acting on it aligns with your current situation — like your partnerships, if any, or your job if it's a work crush, and so on. If crushing from afar on someone you don't know personally Whether you're hoping for a romantic relationship, new BFF, or a business collab, you want to take it slow. Avoid ambushing them with your feelings and wants. Give them a chance to get to know you, assuming they want to, of course. This is also important because it gives you time to get to know the real them — not the version of them you know based on creeping their socials. If you already know them IRL If you know each other and your interest isn't coming entirely out of left field, you can be more direct. If they're receptive, you can be as direct as is comfortable for you. Flirt and see how they respond, ask them to get together outside your usual shared setting, or just put your feelings out there, if you're so bold. If one of you is involved with someone else You need to consider your partnerships, if any, before you act on your crush. If either one of you is with someone else, acting on your feelings is going to leave some collateral damage. Regardless of the type of partnership you're in — whether an open arrangement or monogamous commitment — acting on a crush without considering your partner and honoring any mutually agreed upon boundaries or commitments is a jerk move. Be upfront about your feelings and intentions before acting on them. What if you don't want to have a crush at all? Cut yourself some slack; you're only human. You can't help how or when you feel the feels and who you do or don't feel them for. How to deal with a crush you don't want depends on whether you're the one with the crush or being crushed on, and why you don't want it. If you're already in a relationship If you're already in a relationship and develop a crush, Kederian recommends not judging your feelings. Instead, try to understand where the feelings are coming from. If you feel like you might be more attracted to your crush than your partner, she suggests that it could be a case of the-grass-is-greener and fantasizing about what you don't have. If this is the case, Kederian recommends working on increasing the connection and attraction in your current relationship. "If you feel your crush gives you attention, discover how your desire to be connected and affirmed in your current relationship is lacking and start working on that," Kederian explains. She adds that a crush could also be "a symptom of a deeper unmet need that the crush allows you to fantasize is possible without the hard work of being in a relationship." Her recommendation? "Release yourself from that negative thinking, and empower yourself to create the kind of relationship you desire." If you don't reciprocate someone's feelings This is a tough one for all involved, but if you don't reciprocate their feelings, it's OK to be honest about this in a kind way. Kederian explains: "For example, if someone reveals that they're interested in you romantically but you only view them as a friend, let them know what you appreciate about them, and that although those feelings aren't the same as theirs in nature, you value the friendship with that person." Why does this even happen? What's the point of all this? Who knows? Love hormones like oxytocin and dopamine definitely play a role in crushes. And the point of crushes? Valuable lessons we need to learn, for starters. Crushes help us learn about the type of mate we want when we're young. They can also alert you to unmet needs or a fear of rejection and vulnerability. The downside to crushes, says Kederian, "is that you can tend to romanticize someone to be something that they're not, and rather than creating a real connection, you can become attached to the fantasy in your mind about how it would be to be with that person." It's not all soul crushing, though. The excitement and anticipation of a relationship developing can put a little more pep in your step and raise your self-esteem thanks to a boost of those feel-good hormones. It can also awaken feelings that may have been dormant, i.e., in a rut. The bottom line Crushes can be amazing and agonizing at the same time. Sometimes they blossom into something more, and sometimes they go unrequited, leaving you, well, crushed. No matter what, they'll teach you a thing or two about yourself if you pay attention. (Source: healthline)

How do I live happily if comes a situation where nothing seems to matter to me anymore? Am I depressed?

You may not be depressed, you may just be intelligent. You are expressing existential nihilism, which is the belief that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism posits that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. We live within a society that has largely rejected theism and implicitly, if not explicitly, entered into nihilism (See the wikipedia entry for further details). The meaninglessness of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism. In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation, confusion, or dread in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Søren Kierkegaard proposed that each individual, not society or religion, is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or "authentically". Possible Solutions: 1. Modern medicine calls what you are feeling "depression", and will medicate you until you're no longer capable of thinking abstractly, and subsequently pronounce you as "cured". 2. Buddhism is separating of oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering. 3. Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that pleasure and happiness are the primary or most important intrinsic goods and the proper aim of human life. 4. Altruism or selflessness is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. 5. Preoccupy your time with art, poetry, and other forms of self expression. 6. Turn to Christianity, Islam, or some other religion that reinforces the belief that your real life begins with earthly death. 7. Reject religion but keep your faith in a higher power. My suggestion is to turn to love, philosophy, humor, art, and knowledge. Learn to laugh at tragedy, meditate and learn about yourself, serve others, find someone that thinks like you do to pass the time with, study philosophy, learn an instrument, learn to paint, go places, meet lots people, experience variety, forgive yourself, accept yourself, love yourself. Life is short. You will be here and gone in the blink of an eye. Savor its brevity and make the most of it, regardless of whether or not it is permanent. Having a good life has meaning to YOU. For now, to BE must be enough! Revised with additional comments June 26, 2019: Trebor Odinson's comments really hit home for me; "Excuse me but what you suggest he/she should do ,is an oxymoron to how the person feels.When NOTHING matters you don't CARE about traveling,meeting new people or taking up art classes." Thank you Trebor! You're right, and I appreciate your comment. I wrote this answer two years ago, and I'm always surprised how many people read it and upvote it. This answer obviously resonates with many people who read it, but for people that are no longer "feeling" the joys in their life, this answer is far too cerebral, and does little to help them reconnect with the feelings they desperately seek to re-invigorate their lives. For those people, I revise my answer to include a more tangible first step. There is an Indian/Buddhist word, Vāsanā, which translates roughly as, "behavioural tendency or karmic imprint." Think of it as habit energy. Your thoughts, like anything you do, become a habit. People tend to have recurring thoughts and thought patterns that have become deeply embedded in their mind. Like the roots of a tree, the undiscerning mind drinks everything, including the poisons that would kill it. It is true that brain chemistry affects thoughts, but it is also true that thoughts affect brain chemistry. In this way, the brain is like a giant flywheel. When you give it persistent thoughts, the flywheel begins to spin faster and faster. Once the flywheel is spinning, a single happy moment, or a single positive thought may affect the flywheel, but imperceptibly so. This spinning flywheel of thoughts and chemicals can become a lifelong prison. Yet another way to think about the mind is as a garden. The seeds you water become the plants that grow. If you water all seeds, then eventually the weeds may choke out the useful plants you wish to provide meaningful sustenance to life. It is only through experience and wisdom that we can learn to water that which helps us, and NOT water that which hurts us. Depression is a difficult beast because, by the time people realize they have a problem, they are no longer emotionally connected enough to find their way out of the hole which they have inadvertently dug. They are left to do it blindly, feeling their way out, with many missteps, and often falling right back down into the depths of the hole. To get out of the hole, it will take a deep commitment to change, and a strong belief in what others are telling them; that the view from the other side is (1) different, and (2) that life is worthwhile. It may take a doctor's help, to get medication to temporarily ease the intense emotional pain one is feeling, enough to begin the real healing process. Medication alone is NEVER the solution. On the subject of Vāsanā, or habit energy, the thoughts and ideas that fill the minds of the depressed are as numerous as the stars. It will take MEDITATION (as opposed to medication) to quiet the chatter enough to find the root thought(s) which are bringing about such profound sadness, and to bring about the deep introspection necessary to make profound changes. "But I'm not sad, I don't feel anything." This is the mind's defense mechanism. When one is consistently sad, the mind blocks off the "feeling" associated with the thought, but trust me when I tell you that the feeling is still there in the recesses of the mind. For me personally, I had several persistent thoughts that were causing depression. I will list them as examples, but you may or may not have these same thoughts... Thought 1: General preoccupation with religion. "Does Christ exist? What does it all mean? How can I resolve inner conflicts between society and what my religion is telling me?"... My solution was to come to peace. I'm a doubting Thomas. I don't believe what I can't see, and even if I can see it, I'm a skeptic. Its in my personal nature. So I accept that there is no way I will ever know if Jesus is real. For me it gave me freedom to explore my own sense of morality, outside what the church was telling me, and to do the mental exercises necessary to come to terms with the idea that I may be impermanent and unimportant in a universal sense. If you're struggling with depression then you're not ready to face this line of thoughts... But even if you're not ready to face them, it can weigh on your thoughts and bring you into depression. Thought 2: "I will be happy when I succeed." Success, to me, used to mean having enough money to get out of the 9 to 5 grind, and to have some measurable respect from some group of people, whether it be my family, or society in general. This is a powerful trap, because we think that giving up on success means never achieving it. And what is life without success? With a lot of work, I realized that success comes from happiness, and not the other way around. I learned to work on me FIRST, and then let the success follow. As for respect, this is an interesting paradox. Secure people, who are confident of their thoughts and ideas, don't need the respect of others, and assert their ideas on the world. It is exactly for not NEEDING the respect, that you get it. If you try to fake it, and you try to fill your own need for confidence with external respect, you will eventually crash and burn HARD. Thought 3: "I'm not a normal person, and I'm not a good husband." First of all, what is normal? Being emotionally disconnected was more a symptom than a root problem. When I learned how to relax, stop taking life so seriously, and listen to my own inner voice, I became more emotionally connected. Here the reader may be saying, "this was easy for you, but not for me." I assure you that, though it was three sentences on a written page, this process took decades. What I learned was that my EX wife was part of the problem. The reality is that you can SOMETIMES change yourself, but you can almost never change others, unless the other person wants to change them self. What are your habit energies? What is your path to happiness and wholeness? I could write a book, but its already been done. Many times. Some people found Cognitive Behavioral Therapy books, like "Being Happy", to be effective. For me, these books always worked like a band-aid. It would make the problems and symptoms a little better while I was actively reading the books and doing the exercises, but it didn't go far enough... For me, I knew that I had found something different and meaningful when I read the book "Peace Is Every Step: The Path of Mindfulness in Everyday Life" by Thich Nhat Hanh. It led me to follow up with "The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching: Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy, and Liberation" by Thich Nhat Hanh. As a Christian, I was initially put off by the idea of reading about Buddhism, but what I discovered is that Buddhism is an incredibly powerful self-help guide. The first few chapters of the book deal with habit energies, and work their way deeper and deeper into the psyche. Even the four noble truth's will feel familiar to those suffering from depression... (1) Suffering exists, (2) Suffering has a cause, (3) You can have relief from suffering, (4) Relief has a cause (the eight-fold path)... Will it work for everyone? Probably not. Some people look for excuses to stay trapped, because changing your thoughts and ideas is very difficult and painful in-and-of itself. Some people aren't ready to change. Some people don't want to take the time to change, because they are too anxious for "success." Stephen Covey (The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People) used to have a great little video where a lumberjack refused to stop cutting a log to sharpen his saw, because he didn't have time. It was so simple it made people laugh, but sometimes you have to stop what your doing and "sharpen your saw" to move forward. To do anything else is to stay on the path to destruction that you're currently on. I hope that helps, and best of luck to all of you! (Source: Quora.com)

Is it good to starve yourself for a day?

What happens if you don't eat for a day? The answer might seem relatively straightforward, but fasting for 24 hours has a complex ripple effect in the body. Fasting is a longstanding part of many religious traditions, including the Jewish and Muslim observances of Yom Kippur and Ramadan. A form of fasting known as intermittent fasting has also gained popularity as a weight-loss tool. Many studies have examined the benefits and risks of giving up food for a day, including how it affects weight loss. In this article, we look at what happens to the body during fasting, as well as what a person can do to make fasting safer. What happens during fasting? Whether a person is fasting or not, the body still needs energy. Its primary energy source is a sugar called glucose, which usually comes from carbohydrates, including grains, dairy products, fruits, certain vegetables, beans, and even sweets. The liver and muscles store the glucose and release it into the bloodstream whenever the body needs it. However, during fasting, this process changes. After about 8 hours of fasting, the liver will use the last of its glucose reserves. At this point, the body enters into a state called gluconeogenesis, marking the body's transition into fasting mode. Studies have shownTrusted Source that gluconeogenesis increases the number of calories the body burns. With no carbohydrates coming in, the body creates its own glucose using mainly fat. Eventually, the body runs out of these energy sources as well. Fasting mode then becomes the more serious starvation mode. At this point, a person's metabolism slows down, and their body begins burning muscle tissue for energy. Although it is a well-known term in dieting culture, true starvation mode only occurs after several consecutive days or even weeks without food. So, for those breaking their fast after 24 hours, it is generally safe to go without eating for a day unless other health conditions are present. Can fasting promote weight loss? It does appear that fasting can help with weight lossTrusted Source. However, studies make it clear that this is not the case for everyone. Popular diet plans include 12-hour or 16-hour fasting periods, as well as the 24-hour fast. Some diets require people to drink only water during the fast, while others allowed any zero-calorie beverage. Fasting is not necessarily better than any other weight-loss method, including reducing daily calorie intake by a small amount. In a recent studyTrusted Source, people with obesity who fasted intermittently for 12 months lost slightly more weight than those who dieted in a more traditional way, but the results were not statistically significant. The limits of fasting appear to have less to do with its physical effects than how it fits into a given lifestyle. For example, the same study found that people who fasted were more likely to give up on weight-loss efforts than those who dieted in a more traditional way, such as counting calories. The researchers concluded that fasting might be harder to maintain over time. Another possible concern is post-fast binging. Some fasting expertsTrusted Source agree that it is easy to derail weight-loss successes by overeating after the fasting period. Fasting days can also offer a false sense of security, leading people to disregard positive eating habits on non-fasting days. Other effects of fasting As well as aiding weight loss, not eating for a day can have other health benefits. Research suggests that occasional 24-hour fasting can improve cardiovascular healthTrusted Source. Some evidence from research on animals shows that fasting can help fight certain kinds of cancerTrusted Source or even help preserve memoryTrusted Source. Water intake Drinking enough water is essential for maintaining everyday health, whether a person is eating or not. Many health authorities recommend drinking eight 8-ounce glasses (about 2 liters) of water every day. Unless a religious observance forbids it, a person can take advantage of the fast by drinking plenty of water to help curb hunger pangs. When fasting for 24 hours, some people consume other beverages such as tea, black coffee, or zero-calorie sweetened drinks. Risks Although it is generally safe, going a day without eating can be risky for some people, including: people with diabetes people with a history of eating disorders people using medications that they must take with food children and adolescents those who are pregnant or breastfeeding What is the safest way to break a fast? According to Chelsey Amer, a registered dietitian nutritionist, there are several ways a person can break their fast safely: Drink water: This is especially important if circumstances prevented it during the fast. Eat a small meal: Eating a large meal immediately after a fast can strain the digestive system. Chew food thoroughly: Chew each bite at least 30 times. Eat cooked foods: Go for foods that are easier to digest, such as cooked vegetables instead of raw. Avoid experimenting: Trying new foods after a fast can make digestion harder and may make a person feel ill. Summary Going a day without eating is generally safe and can be beneficial in several ways, including as a weight-loss tool. Fasting does not help weight loss any more than other conventional approaches and can be harder to stick with over the long term. If a person is fasting for health reasons, it is essential that they do it safely and for no longer than is necessary. Long-term fasting starves the body of essential nutrients and can cause many complications. (Source: medicalnewstoday)

What's the difference between a debit and credit card?

When you use a debit card, the funds for the amount of your purchase are taken from your checking account in almost real time. When you use a credit card, the amount will be charged to your line of credit, meaning you will pay the bill at a later date, which also gives you more time to pay. (Source: Huntington)

When should I consult a psychologist?

When to consult a psychologist Is it time to get some help? Life is rarely without its challenges. There are some, however, that can be so overbearing that it seems impossible to move on. Whether it's the death of a loved one or overwhelming feelings of anxiety, it's important you know that help is available for every problem life throws your way. Learn about common reasons people see psychologists. Loss Death is an unavoidable part of life, but that doesn't make it any easier to deal with. Everyone handles the loss of a loved one — whether a parent or a pet — differently. Grieving openly or privately are both common, but avoiding the realities of loss can lead to longer, lingering problems. A psychologist can help you find appropriate ways to cope with the death of someone close to you. Stress and anxiety Certain facets of life are stressful, and many situations — from a job interview to relationship problems — can cause you to feel anxious. Stress and anxiety, if left to fester, can lead to social isolation, depression, and a slew of other problems. A psychologist can help you manage stress and anxiety by finding the source or cause of your problems, as well as appropriate ways to overcome them. Depression Overwhelming feelings of helplessness or hopelessness are common signs of depression. While some people believe that you can just "snap out" of depression, it rarely occurs. Depression is a common mental health disorder where people lose interest in things, experience fatigue, and often have trouble managing their emotions. Psychologists can help you find the source of depression — often the first step to feeling better, along with helping with negative thought processes. Phobias Being afraid of heights and spiders are common phobias, but some unusual and unfounded fears can create substantial problems in your life. For example, sitophobia (fear of eating) may lead to serious health problems. An experienced psychologist can help you begin to overcome your fears so that you can live without polyphobia (fear of many things) or phobophobia (fear of fear). Family and relationship issues Relationships, whether family, personal, or work-related, have their ups and downs. While relationships can be some of the best things in life, they can also be a source of stress and problems. Working with a psychologist, either individually or in a group setting, can help iron out wrinkles that can form in even the strongest relationships. Unhealthy habits and addictions Some unhealthy habits — such as smoking, drinking, and drug use — are often used to escape larger underlying problems or to self-medicate. While your psychologist will help you get to those problems, they can also help you tackle the problems immediately facing your health, such as: addictions eating disorders stress management sleeping problems Performance enhancement Some of the most successful people achieve their goals by first visualizing them. Athletes often mentally prepare for a competition with as much intensity as they physically train their body. Others use this technique to proactively prepare for challenging life events. Just as you would rehearse a speech before giving it, your psychologist can help you prepare for big events so you can perform at your best, whether it's the Olympics or a job interview. Mental clarity A psychologist can help you improve your mental clarity by acting as an unbiased set of ears. Often, people find their own solutions just by hearing themselves talk out loud in therapy. Simply getting their problems out in the open helps many people improve their mental clarity, be more able to concentrate, and become more task-oriented. Psychologists are trained to be great listeners. Mental disorders Sometimes multiple symptoms are caused by larger problems. Mental disorders can manifest themselves in several ways. They're often disguised as something else and can only be uncovered with the help of a mental health professional. Some mental disorders with varying symptoms include: bipolar disorder major depressive disorder schizophrenia post-traumatic stress disorder Finding the right help A psychologist can be a helpful tool in your proverbial health kit. By helping you keep a clear mind and manage any stress, anxiety, phobias, and other problems you face, a psychologist can help you get the most out of life and keep you free from symptoms of depression and other mental health problems. The first step is finding a local psychologist and beginning a relationship that's open, communicative, and prosperous. After that, it's all about working together to maximize your mental health and help you live a better life. (Source: healthline)

What's the background to gymnastics?

gymnastics, the performance of systematic exercises—often with the use of rings, bars, and other apparatus—either as a competitive sport or to improve strength, agility, coordination, and physical conditioning. History The term gymnastics, derived from a Greek word meaning "to exercise naked," applied in ancient Greece to all exercises practiced in the gymnasium, the place where male athletes did indeed exercise unclothed. Many of these exercises came to be included in the Olympic Games, until the abandonment of the Games in 393 CE. Some of the competitions grouped under this ancient definition of gymnastics later became separate sports such as athletics (track and field), wrestling, and boxing. Of the modern events currently considered to be gymnastics, only tumbling and a primitive form of vaulting were known in the ancient world. For instance, Egyptian hieroglyphs show variations of backbends and other stunts being performed with a partner, while a well-known fresco from Crete at the palace at Knossos shows a leaper performing what is either a cartwheel or handspring over a charging bull. Tumbling was an art form in ancient China as well. Stone engravings found in Shandong province that date to the Han period (206 BCE-220 CE) portray acrobatics being performed. Tumbling continued in the Middle Ages in Europe, where it was practiced by traveling troupes of thespians, dancers, acrobats, and jugglers. The activity was first described in the West in a book published in the 15th century by Archange Tuccaro, Trois dialogues du Sr. Archange Tuccaro (the book contains three essays on jumping and tumbling). Tumbling seems to be an activity that evolved in various forms in many cultures with little cross-cultural influence. For instance, the hoop-diving illustrated in Tuccaro's book looks very similar to a type of tumbling seen in ancient China. Tumbling and acrobatics of all kinds were eventually incorporated into the circus, and it was circus acrobats who first used primitive trampolines. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Émile; ou, de l'éducation (1762; Emile; or, On Education) is credited by historians as the catalyst of educational reform in Europe that combined both the physical and cognitive training of children. Rousseau's work inspired educational reformers in Germany, who opened schools known as Philanthropinum in the late 1700s that featured a wide variety of outdoor activities, including gymnastics; children from all economic strata were accepted. The "grandfather" of modern gymnastics, Johann Christoph Friedrich Guts Muths (1759-1839), was a leading teacher at the Philanthropinist school in Schnepfenthal. In his seminal work, Gymnastik für die Jugend (1793; Gymnastics for Youth), Guts Muths envisioned two main divisions of gymnastics: natural gymnastics and artificial gymnastics. These two divisions may be thought of as utilitarian and nonutilitarian gymnastics. The former disciplines emphasize the health of the body, similar to the exercises developed in Sweden and Denmark under Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839) and Neils Bukh (1880-1950), respectively. Modern aerobics also falls into this category; indeed, sports aerobics has recently been added to the disciplines sponsored by the International Gymnastics Federation. In contrast, nonutilitarian gymnastics is characterized by modern artistic gymnastics, the maneuvers of which are geared to beauty and not function. For example, in feudal Europe young men were taught to mount and dismount a horse, useful knowledge during a time when armies rode. Modern "horse" work in artistic gymnastics has evolved to a point where there is no practical connection between gymnastic maneuvers on a horse and horsemanship. Only the language of riding remains, with the terms "mount" and "dismount" still being used in gymnastics. The prime developer of natural gymnastics was Per Henrik Ling. In 1813 Ling founded a teacher-training centre, the Royal Gymnastics Central Institute, in Stockholm. Ling devised and taught a system of gymnastic exercises designed to produce medical benefits for the athlete. Calisthenics are attributed to him, including free calisthenics—that is, exercises without the use of hand apparatus such as clubs, wands, and dumbbells. Although Ling did not promote competition, free calisthenics have evolved into the competitive sport now known as floor exercise. The acknowledged "father" of gymnastics, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, founder of the Turnverein movement, is credited with the rapid spread of gymnastics throughout the world. Gymnastic competition can be traced to the outdoor playground (Turnplatz) Jahn opened in a field known as the "Hasenheide" (rabbit field) on the outskirts of Berlin. Ernst Eiselen, Jahn's assistant and the coauthor of Die Deutsche Turnkunst (1816; The German Gymnastic Art), carefully noted and explained the various exercises developed on the playground. The pommel horse was used for leg-swinging exercises and for vaulting. Jahn invented the parallel bars to increase the upper-body strength of his students, and immense towers were erected to test their courage. Balance beams, horizontal bars, climbing ropes, and climbing poles were also found at the Turnplatz. Primitive pole vaulting was practiced along with other athletic games. The wide variety of challenging apparatus found on the playground attracted young men who were then, in addition, indoctrinated with Jahn's dream of German unification and his ideas on the defense of the fatherland and ridding Prussia of French influence. The Prussians and leaders from surrounding countries became wary of nationalist sentiments, and Jahn and his followers were viewed with suspicion after the defeat of Napoleon in 1813. By 1815 student organizations such as the Burschenschaft ("Youth Branch") were in favour of adopting a constitutional form of government, arming the citizenry, and instituting greater civil freedoms. In 1819, after the murder of the German playwright August von Kotzebue by a Burschenschaft gymnast, the Prussian king Frederick William III closed approximately 100 gymnastics fields and centres in Prussia. Other Germanic states followed suit. Jahn was arrested, jailed as a democratic demagogue, and placed under house arrest for the next five years. He was eventually acquitted but was admonished to relocate far from Berlin to a city or town with neither institutions of higher learning or gymnasia. He was awarded a yearly stipend and settled in Freiburg. The time was a period of personal tragedy for Jahn; two of his three children died while he was under house arrest, and his wife died shortly thereafter. Three of his close followers, Karl Beck, Karl Follen, and Franz Lieber, fearing arrest, fled to North America, bringing gymnastics with them. The Turners remaining in Prussia went underground until the ban on gymnastics was lifted by King Frederick William IV in 1842. The first German gymnastic festival (Turnfest) was held in Coburg in 1860. The festival attracted affiliated Turnverein clubs and marked the beginning of international competition, as the growing family of Turners outside of Germany were invited to participate. Americans had been introduced to gymnastics by followers of Jahn in the late 1820s, but not until 1848, when large numbers of Germans immigrated, did transplanted Turnverein members organize clubs and establish a national union of Turner societies. (A similar movement, the Sokol, originated and spread in Bohemia and was also transported to the United States.) By 1861 American Turners and Turners from Germanic regions bordering Prussia attended the second Turnfest in Berlin. By the time of the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, eight Turnfests had taken place in Germany with the participation of a growing number of countries. In 1881 the Fédération Internationale Gymnastique (FIG) was founded to supervise international competition. The 1896 Olympic Games fostered interest in gymnastics, and the FIG World Championships in gymnastics were organized for men in 1903, for women in 1934. The 1896 Olympic Games marked the advent of true international, open competition in gymnastics. The Games featured typical German, or "heavy apparatus," events and rope climbing. Gymnastics competitions were not standardized nor free of track-and-field events until the 1928 Olympics, when five of the six events presently held in Olympic gymnastics were contested—pommel horse, rings, vaulting, parallel bars, and horizontal bar, with both compulsory and optional routines required. Women first competed in the Olympics in 1928 in events similar to those of the men except for the addition of the balance beam. Floor exercise events were added in 1932. (Source: Britannica)

Can orange juice be an aphrodisiac?

Could Orange Juice Be An Aphrodisiac? It's probably not an aphrodisiac per se, but people given high doses of vitamin C reported having sex more frequently: BACKGROUND: Ascorbic acid (AA) modulates catecholaminergic activity, decreases stress reactivity, approach anxiety and prolactin release, improves vascular function, and increases oxytocin release. These processes are relevant to sexual behavior and mood. METHODS: In this randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled 14 day trial of sustained-release AA (42 healthy young adults; 3000 mg/day Cetebe) and placebo (39 healthy young adults), subjects with partners recorded penile-vaginal intercourse (FSI), noncoital partner sex, and masturbation in daily diaries, and also completed the Beck Depression Inventory before and after the trial. RESULTS: The AA group reported greater FSI (but, as hypothesized, not other sexual behavior) frequency, an effect most prominent in subjects not cohabiting with their sexual partner, and in women. The AA but not placebo group also experienced a decrease in Beck Depression scores. CONCLUSIONS: AA appears to increase FSI, and the differential benefit to noncohabitants suggests that a central activation or disinhibition, rather than peripheral mechanism may be responsible. Source: "High-dose ascorbic acid increases intercourse frequency and improves mood: a randomized controlled clinical trial." from Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Aug 15;52(4):371-4. Much like the numerous studies showing exercise to improve sex, it makes me wonder how much of this is just due to an lack of decent nutrition and activity in the first place. (Source: Business Insider)

What are some common phobias?

claustrophobia (small spaces), agoraphobia (crowded or public places), and hydrophobia (water)

What Psychologists Want Today's Young Adults to Know according to the New York Times?

What Psychologists Want Today's Young Adults to Know The generation entering adulthood now faces novel, sometimes debilitating, challenges. Experts offer tools to navigate a "quarterlife crisis." Satya Doyle Byock, a 39-year-old therapist, noticed a shift in tone over the past few years in the young people who streamed into her office: frenetic, frazzled clients in their late teens, 20s and 30s. They were unnerved and unmoored, constantly feeling like something was wrong with them. "Crippling anxiety, depression, anguish, and disorientation are effectively the norm," Ms. Byock writes in the introduction of her new book, "Quarterlife: The Search for Self in Early Adulthood." The book uses anecdotes from Ms. Byock's practice to outline obstacles faced by today's young adults — roughly between the ages of 16 and 36 — and how to deal with them. Just like midlife, quarterlife can bring its own crisis — trying to separate from your parents or caregivers and forge a sense of self is a struggle. But the generation entering adulthood now faces novel, sometimes debilitating, challenges. Many young people today struggle to afford college or decide not to attend, and the "existential crisis" that used to hit after graduation descends earlier and earlier, said Angela Neal-Barnett, a psychology professor at Kent State University who has studied anxiety in young people. "We've been constrained by this myth that you graduate from college and you start your life," she said. Without the social script previous generations followed — graduate college, marry, raise a family — Ms. Byock said her young clients often flailed around in a state of extended adolescence. Indeed, according to a recent online survey by Credit Karma, a personal finance platform, nearly one-third of Gen Z adults are living with their parents or other relatives and plan to stay there. Many find themselves so mired in day-to-day monetary concerns, from the relentless crush of student debt to the swelling costs of everything, that they feel unable to consider what they want for themselves long term. That paralysis is often exacerbated by mounting climate anxiety and the slog of a multiyear pandemic that has left many young people mourning family and friends, or smaller losses like a conventional college experience or the traditions of starting a first job. Experts said those entering adulthood need clear guidance for how to make it out of the muddle. Here are their top pieces of advice on how to navigate a quarterlife crisis today. Take yourself seriously. "Set aside time to be selfish," said Dr. Neal-Barnett, who is also the author of "Soothe Your Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic and Fear." She recommends scheduling reminders to check in with yourself, roughly every three months, to examine where you are in your life and whether you feel stuck or dissatisfied. From there, she said, you can start to identify aspects of your life that you want to change. Ms. Byock said to pay attention to what you're naturally curious about, and not to dismiss your interests as stupid or futile. Maybe there is a place you have always wanted to visit, or a language you want to learn. Maybe you want to take up a new hobby or research a part of your family history. "Start to give your own inner life the respect that it's due," she said. However, there is a difference between self-interest and self-indulgence, Ms. Byock said. Investigating and interrogating who you are takes work. "It's not just about choosing your labels and being done," she said. Be patient. "Some people are still locked into the view that you turn into an adult when you're 18, and that you should be all ready to go," said Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, a researcher at Clark University who studies the psychology of young adulthood. "I don't know if that ever made sense, but it certainly doesn't now." Quarterlifers may feel pressure to race through each step of their lives, Ms. Byock said, craving the sense of achievement that comes with completing a task. But learning to listen to oneself is a lifelong process. Instead of searching for quick fixes, she said, young adults should think about longer-term goals: starting therapy that stretches beyond a handful of sessions, building healthy nutrition and exercise habits, working toward self-reliance. "I know that seems sort of absurdly large and huge in scope," she said. "But it's allowing ourselves to meander and move through life, versus just 'Check the boxes and get it right.'" Ask yourself what's missing. Ms. Byock also said to take stock of your day-to-day life and notice where things are missing. She groups quarterlifers into two categories: "stability types" and "meaning types." "Stability types" are seen by others as solid and stable. They prioritize a sense of security, succeed in their careers and may pursue building a family. "But there's a sense of emptiness and a sense of faking it," she said. "They think this couldn't possibly be all that life is about." On the other end of the spectrum, there are "meaning types" who are typically artists; they have intense creative passions but have a hard time dealing with day-to-day tasks, Ms. Byock said. "These are folks for whom doing what society expects of you is so overwhelming and so discordant with their own sense of self that they seem to constantly be floundering," she said. "They can't quite figure it out." But quarterlife is about becoming a whole person, Ms. Byock said, and both groups need to absorb each other's characteristics to balance themselves out. Stability types need to think about how to give their lives a sense of passion and purpose. And meaning types need to find security, perhaps by starting with a consistent routine that can both anchor and unlock creativity. Channel Yoda. That process of cobbling together self-understanding can seem pointless in an unstable world, Ms. Byock acknowledged, and many young people are overwhelmed by the current state of the world. She turns to perhaps the prototypical inspiration for staying calm in chaos: Yoda. The Jedi master is "one of the few images we have of what feeling quiet amid extreme pain and apocalypse can look like," Ms. Byock said. Even when there seems to be little stability externally, she said, quarterlifers can try to create their own steadiness. Dr. Gregory Scott Brown, a psychiatrist and author of "The Self-Healing Mind," said establishing habits that help you ground yourself as a young adult is critical because transitional periods make us more susceptible to burnout. He suggests building a practical tool kit of self-care practices, like regularly taking stock of what you're grateful for, taking controlled breaths and maintaining healthy nutrition and exercise routines. "These are techniques that can help you find clarity," he said. Don't be afraid to make a big change. It's important to identify what aspects of your life you have the power to alter, Dr. Brown said. "You can't change an annoying boss," he said, "but you might be able to plan a career change." That's easier said than done, he acknowledged, and young adults should weigh the risks of continuing to live in their status quo — staying in their hometown, or lingering in a career that doesn't excite them — with the potential benefits of trying something new. Despite its confusion and constraints, quarterlife is typically "the freest stage of the whole life span," Dr. Arnett said. Young adults may have an easier time moving to a new city or starting a new job than their older counterparts would. Know when to call your parents — and when to call on yourself. Quarterlife is about the journey from dependence to independence, Ms. Byock said — learning to rely on ourselves, after, for some, growing up in a culture of helicopter parenting and hands-on family dynamics. But even if you're still living in your childhood bedroom, Ms. Byock said, there are ways your relationship with your parents can evolve, helping you carve out more independence. That can involve talking about family history and past memories or asking questions about your parents' upbringing. "You're transitioning the relationship from one of hierarchy to one of friendship," she said. "It isn't just about moving away or getting physical distance." Every quarterlifer typically has a moment when they know they need to step away from their parents and to face obstacles on their own, Ms. Byock said. For her, the realization came after a breakup in her mid-20s. She called her mother sobbing in the middle of the night, and her mother offered to visit her and help her through. Ms. Byock was tempted, but declined. "It felt so good to have her offer to come to my rescue, but I also knew in that same moment that I had to do this by myself," Ms. Byock said. That doesn't mean you can't, or shouldn't, still depend on your parents in moments of crisis, she said. "I don't think it's just about never needing one's parents again," she said. "But it's about doing the subtle work within oneself to know: This is a time I need to stand on my own." Audio produced by Kate Winslett. Dani Blum is an associate writer for Well at The Times.

What is the definition of health?

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (Source: Quizlet)

What effects did Covid 19 have on teenage mental health?

According to the new data, in 2021, more than a third (37%) of high school students reported they experienced poor mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, and 44% reported they persistently felt sad or hopeless during the past year. (Source: CDC)

How can I cope with an existential crisis?

Coping With an Existential Crisis A period of personal crisis can offer wisdom, if we take the time to listen. At some point in life, many of us will experience an existential crisis. Such a struggle usually involves the loss or wavering of meaning and purpose in life. There might also be a sense of personal insignificance or aloneness in the world. An existential crisis could be accompanied by a range of feelings like sadness, despair, frustration, or anxiety. An existential crisis can emerge for many reasons. It might occur after a major life change. It could be a painful one like the death of a loved one, something positive like the birth of a child, or something more neutral like turning a certain age (e.g., a milestone year like 50, or a personally meaningful year like the age when a parent died). It can also arise in anticipation of a major change such as when you anticipate losing a job, ending a relationship, or when you know grown children will soon be leaving the nest. Sometimes crises occur suddenly when we encounter a new idea, have a new insight, or get an important piece of news. They can also arise gradually, a bit like slowly turning up the volume on something until eventually you cannot ignore it anymore. Whatever brings it on, and however it manifests, an existential crisis does not have to be completely negative. While there might be painful thoughts or emotions involved, much of the struggle can be salutary if we make space for it. Below are three tips for navigating such a challenge. Be curious about your crisis. Instead of trying to shove it out of your awareness, cultivate a sense of openness and curiosity about this experience. Why is it arising now? What wisdom or insight might it have to offer? Oftentimes, crises arise when some deeper truth has been ignored. The only way out becomes to listen closely to what needs to be heard. What is true that you have been ignoring? What longing has remained unfulfilled? This can require being painfully honest with ourselves. It may involve facing potentially inconvenient truths about our careers, our relationships, or how we use our time. Be willing to take action. Existential crises often arise when something is out of alignment in our lives. We aren't living according to one of our deeply held values, or something just feels off and we aren't sure what yet. For most people, there is a wish for a deeper sense of meaning or a longing for something new. Show respect for the wisdom in your crisis by doing something different. Don't be short-sighted and do anything you might regret later on, but do see what you can jiggle around in your life to get new kinds of stimulation. Sometimes our crisis turns out to be a response to monotony, and just shaking up our usual routines can make a difference. If you sense that you need bigger or more bold change, start to do small things differently. This can build our confidence for the bigger future actions we may need to take. If we don't know what's next, try a bunch of small experiments to keep the stakes low while also allowing yourself to explore what the next chapter might look like. It might be reading a whole new kind of book, taking a class in a subject you always meant to study, showing up at the religious service of a new congregation, joining a new club, or reaching out to someone who you think might make a good new friend. Be open to surprise and synchronicity and stay tuned in to your emotional responses to these new experiences. Be patient with yourself. It is normal to experience existential crises from time to time and to varying degrees. The very fact that you are committed to living a meaningful life means occasionally you will realize that you've lost your way. This is part of life's journey, not an aberration. At such a time, we need to feel our pain or grief in order to come to terms with it. Trying to ignore it, or hurry through it, will only compound the pain next time around. Only after we've slowed down and patiently let ourselves feel our emotions and make space for new perspectives can we begin the process of getting back on track. Existential crises can be painful in the moment, but in the long run they can offer wisdom, hope, and profound positive transformation. By being patient, curious, and willing to take action, we can carry ourselves safely through to a better and more meaningful tomorrow. (Source: psychology today)

do we have a soul?

Does Your 'Self' Have a Soul? By Robert Lawrence Kuhn published October 16, 2016 (opens in new tab) (opens in new tab) (opens in new tab) (opens in new tab) (opens in new tab) Interplay of profile lines of human head on the subject of education, science, technology and graphic design. Do you think your personal identity depends on you having a soul? (Image credit: agsandrew / Shutterstock.com) Robert Lawrence Kuhn is the creator, writer and host of "Closer to Truth," a public television series and online resource that features the world's leading thinkers exploring humanity's deepest questions. This essay, the third of a four-part series on the Self, is based on "Closer to Truth" episodes and videos, produced and directed by Peter Getzels and streamed at closertotruth.com. Kuhn contributed it to Live Science's Expert Voices. Advertisement Below is Part III of a four-part series on the self. In Part I: Is Your 'Self' Just an Illusion?; and Part II: Can Your 'Self' Survive Death? Most religions claim that there is more to the self than the brain. The traditional understanding is that human sentience and selfhood are conveyed via some kind of nonphysical substance, often called a "soul." Sponsored Links Why people are so passionate about Ka'Chava Kachava Learn More Though the soul is far out of favor with most contemporary philosophers, a few distinguished scholars defend and scrutinize the idea of a self that is founded on the soul and extends beyond the physical and could survive after the body dies. Even so, those scholars diverge on the concept, with some saying the soul is crucial to personal identity, though perhaps it cannot be separated from the physical body. Another idea is that the soul is an "information-bearing pattern" that connects the living self with the afterlife person who lives forever. And still another scholar suggests the soul, as it were, is a sort of existential unity of successive stages of the brain over a person's lifetime. [10 Phenomena That Science Can't Explain] RECOMMENDED VIDEOS FOR YOU... 0 seconds of 2 minutes, 7 seconds PLAY SOUND The essence of the soul Distinguished Oxford philosopher of religion Richard Swinburne, author of "Mind, Brain, and Free Will" (Oxford University Press, 2013), defends the soul with sophistication and vigor. Advertisement "If you want to tell the whole story of the world, you must say what objects there are in the world, what substances there are, and what properties they have at different times," Swinburne said on "Closer to Truth." "Of course, that will include all the physical objects, all the tables and chairs and planets and atoms. But, of course, that won't tell the whole story. You will also have to tell the story of conscious life, which is associated with each body." [All quotes are derived from "Closer to Truth."] Swinburne asserted that in order to tell "the full story of the world," one must "pick out subjects of experience — not just by the experiences they have, not just by the physical bodies with which they are associated" but also with "separate mental entities for which the natural word is 'soul'... If you can't bring 'soul' into the account of the world, you will not tell the full story of the world, because you will not tell who has which conscious life." "If the only things were physical objects, including bodies and brains, we would not be able to distinguish a case where you have the body which is presently yours and I have the body which is presently mine, from the case where you have the body which is presently mine and I have the body which is presently yours," he added. "If physical properties and mental properties were just properties of bodies there would be no difference between these cases;" but because there are obvious differences between "you" and "me," Swinburne claimed that "there must be another essential part of me which goes where I go, and this we can call my 'soul.'" Swinburne stressed that his argument for the existence of a soul — that "souls constitute personal identity and the continued existence of me will consist in the continued existence of my soul" — "is quite apart from what might happen in the world to come." In other words, Swinburne said that his claim about the reality of a nonphysical soul does not depend on theological revelation or his own religious belief. Advertisement As to the relationship between the body and the soul, Swinburne is ambivalent. "Maybe, of course, a soul can't function on its own," he said. "Maybe it can only function when associated with a body. In that case, my continued existence would consist in it being joined to a body again, perhaps an entirely new body. I think a soul could exist on its own, but not a great deal turns on that." A body is required, Swinburne said, because "for us to interact with others, to recognize others, we need different public characteristics." [The 10 Biggest Mysteries of the Mind] I asked Swinburne to speculate on the essence or composition of such a soul. Is it a differentiated substance? What's to prevent your soul from getting mixed up with my soul? "The difference between souls is ultimate, unanalyzable by anything else," Swinburne responded. "A soul has no extension. It is an 'immaterial particular', to use an old-fashioned philosophical term. It does, of course, have characteristics, properties. It has thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and so on. But the way we distinguish in practice between souls is in terms of the bodies with which they are associated because the difference between your soul and my soul, being ultimate, does not consist in their relations to our respective bodies. There is of course nothing paradoxical about the difference between souls being unanalyzable, because some differences must be ultimate; if you can analyze 'a' by 'b' and 'b' by 'c' and so on, you eventually get to things which you can't analyze, and the differences between human souls in my view are one of those things." This is why the only way souls can have a public presence is through their attachment to bodies. Advertisement Afterlife of the soul Physicist and Anglican priest John Polkinghorne gets to a similar religious result for the meaning and purpose of the self, but he achieves it via a different religious formulation. He agrees with fellow scientists that patterns of information carry the self, but as to what follows, he diverges dramatically. Polkinghorne begins by asking, "Can you make credible understanding of a destiny beyond death for human beings?" Then, from his Christian theological perspective, he sets two equal and opposite requirements for the afterlife of a soul: continuity, in that the same person (the same self) must live after death, and discontinuity, in that the afterlife person (the afterlife self) must live on forever. [What Happens When You Die?] How, then, Polkinghorne asked, can you have both continuity and discontinuity of the same person (the same self)? "The traditional answer has been the soul, often understood in Platonic terms — there's some sort of spiritual bit of us liberated at death that exists and carries on." Citing the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament, Polkinghorne said, "I think that's a mistake," adding, "We have psychosomatic unity. We're not 'apprentice angels'; we're embodied human beings. In fact, it's quite difficult to understand what's the carrier of continuity for a person in this life. Here am I, an aging, balding academic — what makes me the same person as the little boy with the shock of black hair in the school photograph of years ago? It's not atomic material continuity — the atoms in my body are totally different from the atoms in that schoolboy. It's not the atoms themselves, but the pattern in which those atoms are organized in some extraordinary, elaborate and complex sense. And I think that's what the human 'soul' is. It is the information-bearing pattern that is the real me." Advertisement At death, then, wouldn't that pattern decay with the body in which it resided? "If I believe in the faithful God as I do, God will remember that pattern and will reconstitute that pattern in an act of resurrection," Polkinghorne said. "But that's not keeping me alive [after death and before a resurrection]. So if I am truly to live again, I have to be re-embodied, because that's what I am as a human being. That's the continuity side of things. The discontinuity is that I'm not made alive again in order to die again, so I must be embodied in some new form of matter. And it's perfectly coherent to believe that God can bring into being such a new form of matter." [8 Ways Religion Impacts Your Life] To Swinburne, the idea of our afterlife existence existing in a renewed instantiation of the pattern of information that we had on Earth is problematic. "The trouble is not merely how could God, if God so chose, bring into [renewed] existence a being with a specific pattern of information, but rather that God could [therefore] bring into existence a few thousand such beings. But because only one of them could be me, a pattern of information provides no extra criterion for distinguishing which one that would be. And whatever the extra criterion is, it would have to be such that there [logically] could only be one instance of it at one time. And if we have such a criterion, then what need is there for the pattern of information to be the same as a previous pattern?" Existential unity Philosopher John Leslie, a professor emeritus at the University of Guelph in Canada, stated that robust selfhood may require a kind of "existential unity," a state "as found in wholes whose parts are incapable of separate existence." (In other words, they couldn't split apart from one another without changing their intrinsic natures.) Leslie likens this existential unit to the holistic conscious experience of a painting or of several successive musical notes heard together. Though "existential," this unity of the self is real; it "may depend on the fact that particular states of a brain, and also successive states of that brain and their linkages over a lifetime, possess this existential unity." He distinguished "existential unity" from "mere unity of integration, like the unity of the parts of a working machine or of a well-disciplined army." How could such existential unity be achieved? The brain could be a kind of quantum computer. "Quantum wholes are ones whose parts don't exist separately," Leslie said. "And in the brain, there is a unity-of-existence such as is had by quantum computers, but not by digital computers," he explained. Even so, he added, "the brain carrying out quantum computing isn't essential to my position, and something other than quantum unity could be involved." Leslie drew an analogy with a historical understanding of souls. "When the parts of a soul were viewed as existentially unified at each particular instant," he said, "it wasn't thought that God, when manufacturing unified souls, had to do some kind of special mixing involving many separate steps. It was believed simply that souls had, from the moment of their creation by God, the property of being complex yet existentially unified. Many distinguishable elements of such complexity were present when a soul had a thought or an experience, but still, a soul remained existentially unified at each instant and remained the very same soul at successive instants." To conclude this four-part series on the self, I gather, categorize and assess all putative explanations for your "self." Next in this four-part series: What Is a 'Self'? Here Are All the Possibilities Kuhn is co-editor, with John Leslie, of "The Mystery of Existence: Why Is There Anything at All? (opens in new tab)" (Wiley-Blackwell, 2013). Read more of Kuhn's essays on Kuhn's Space.com page. Robert Lawrence Kuhn Robert Lawrence Kuhn Robert Lawrence Kuhn is the creator, writer, host and executive producer of the PBS television series "Closer to Truth" — co-created, produced and directed by Peter Getzels — the PBS/public television series and online resource on the cosmos, consciousness and meaning that presents leading scientists, philosophers and creative thinkers discussing fundamental questions. Kuhn has published more than 30 books, including "The Mystery of Existence: Why Is There Anything at All?" (2013) with philosopher John Leslie, "Closer to Truth: Challenging Current Belief" (2000), "Closer to Truth: Science, Meaning and the Future" (2007), "How China's Leaders Think" (2011) and "The Man Who Changed China: The Life and Legacy of Jiang Zemin" (2005), the first biography of a living Chinese leader published in China and China's best-selling book in 2005. Kuhn is a commentator for the BBC, CCTV, CNN and Bloomberg, and a featured columnist in the South China Morning Post and China Daily. He is creator and host of "Closer to China with R.L. Kuhn" on CCTV News, and of "China's Challenges," an award-winning documentary series, also directed by Getzels, broadcast on PBS stations and in China. Kuhn is also an international corporate strategist and investment banker, and he is the founder chairman of The Kuhn Foundation, which produces "Closer to Truth." Kuhn has a B.A. in human biology from Johns Hopkins University, a Ph.D. in anatomy/brain research from UCLA and an M.S. (Sloan Fellow) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). MORE ABOUT... Prime Day headphone deals: save up to $80 on running-friendly earbuds LATEST Should you buy the Jabra Elite Active 75t in the Prime Early Access Sale? 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MOST READ MOST SHARED two women enjoying a vegan meal 1 Do vegans live longer than meat-eaters? 2 Fungi grow inside cancerous tumors, scientists discover 3 WWI German U-boat discovered off US coast 100 years after it sank 4 Largest asteroid ever to hit Earth was twice as big as the rock that killed off the dinosaurs 5 How old is ancient Egypt? HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE ● How It Works Magazine The ultimate action-packed science and technology magazine bursting with exciting information about the universe From $3.99 VIEW Live Science is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. Visit our corporate site (opens in new tab). About Us (opens in new tab) Terms and conditions (opens in new tab) Privacy policy (opens in new tab) Cookies policy (opens in new tab) Accessibility Statement (opens in new tab) Topics (opens in new tab) Advertise with us (opens in new tab) Web notifications (opens in new tab) Careers (opens in new tab) Do not sell my info © Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036. (Source: Live Science)

Does the soul exist?

Does the Soul Exist? Evidence Says 'Yes' New scientific theory recognizes life's spiritual dimension. Traditionally, science has dismissed the soul as an object of human belief. While science has explained some of the functioning of the human brain, the reason for one's subjective experience remains mysterious. Biocentrism and other scientific theories have started to challenge the old physico-chemical paradigm to ask: "Is there a soul?" The reality of the soul is among the most important questions of life. Although religions go on and on about its existence, how do we know if souls really exist? A string of new scientific experiments helps answer this ancient spiritual question. Definition of the soul The idea of the soul is bound up with the idea of a future life and our belief in a continued existence after death. It's said to be the ultimate animating principle by which we think and feel but isn't dependent on the body. Many infer its existence without scientific analysis or reflection. Indeed, the mysteries of birth and death, the play of consciousness during dreams (or after a few martinis), and even the commonest mental operations — such as imagination and memory — suggest the existence of a vital life force — an élan vital — that exists independent of the body. Yet, the current scientific paradigm doesn't recognize this spiritual dimension of life. We're told we're just the activity of carbon and some proteins; we live awhile and die. And the universe? It too has no meaning. It has all been worked out in the equations — no need for a soul. But biocentrism — a new "theory of everything" — challenges this traditional, materialistic model of reality. In all directions, this outdated paradigm leads to insoluble enigmas, to ideas that are ultimately irrational. But knowledge is the prelude to wisdom, and soon our worldview will catch up with the facts. Of course, most spiritual people view the soul as emphatically more definitive than the scientific concept. It's considered the incorporeal essence of a person and is said to be immortal and transcendent of material existence. But when scientists speak of the soul (if at all), it's usually in a materialistic context or treated as a poetic synonym for the mind. Everything knowable about the "soul" can be learned by studying the functioning of the brain. In their view, neuroscience is the only branch of scientific study relevant to understanding the soul. Traditionally, science has dismissed the soul as an object of human belief or reduced it to a psychological concept that shapes our cognition of the observable natural world. The terms "life" and "death" are thus nothing more than the common concepts of "biological life" and "biological death." The animating principle is simply the laws of chemistry and physics. You (and all the poets and philosophers that ever lived) are just dust orbiting the core of the Milky Way galaxy. As I sit here in my office surrounded by piles of scientific books, I can't find a single reference to the soul, or any notion of an immaterial, eternal essence that occupies our being. Indeed, a soul has never been seen under an electron microscope, nor spun in the laboratory in a test tube or ultra-centrifuge. According to these books, nothing appears to survive the human body after death. The reason for our subjective experience While neuroscience has made tremendous progress illuminating the functioning of the brain, why we have a subjective experience remains mysterious. The problem of the soul lies exactly here, in understanding the nature of the self, the "I" in existence that feels and lives life. But this isn't just a problem for biology and cognitive science, but for the whole of Western natural philosophy itself. Our current worldview — the world of objectivity and naïve realism — is beginning to show fatal cracks. Of course, this will not surprise many of the philosophers and other readers who, contemplating the works of men such as Plato, Socrates, and Kant, and of Buddha and other great spiritual teachers, kept wondering about the relationship between the universe and the mind of man. Biocentrism and the soul Recently, biocentrism and other scientific theories have also started to challenge the old physico-chemical paradigm, and to ask some of the difficult questions about life: Is there a soul? Does anything endure the ravages of time? Life and consciousness are central to this new view of being, reality, and the cosmos. Although the current scientific paradigm is based on the belief that the world has an objective observer-independent existence, real experiments suggest just the opposite. We think life is just the activity of atoms and particles, which spin around for a while and then dissipate into nothingness. But if we add life to the equation, we can explain some of the major puzzles of modern science, including the uncertainty principle, entanglement, and the fine-tuning of the laws that shape the universe. Consider the famous two-slit experiment. When you watch a particle go through the holes, it behaves like a bullet, passing through one slit or the other. But if no one observes the particle, it exhibits the behavior of a wave and can pass through both slits at the same time. This and other experiments tell us that unobserved particles exist only as "waves of probability" as the great Nobel laureate Max Born demonstrated in 1926. They're statistical predictions — nothing but a likely outcome. Until observed, they have no real existence; only when the mind sets the scaffolding in place, can they be thought of as having duration or a position in space. Experiments make it increasingly clear that even mere knowledge in the experimenter's mind is sufficient to convert possibility to reality. Many scientists dismiss the implications of these experiments because until recently, this observer-dependent behavior was thought to be confined to the subatomic world. However, this is being challenged by researchers around the world. In fact, just this year a team of physicists (Gerlich et al, Nature Communications 2:263, 2011) showed that quantum weirdness also occurs in the human-scale world. They studied huge compounds composed of up to 430 atoms and confirmed that this strange quantum behavior extends into the larger world we live in. Importantly, this has a direct bearing on the question of whether humans and other living creatures have souls. As Kant pointed out over 200 years ago, everything we experience — including all the colors, sensations, and objects we perceive — are nothing but representations in our mind. Space and time are simply the mind's tools for putting it all together. Now, to the amusement of idealists, scientists are beginning dimly to recognize that those rules make existence itself possible. Indeed, the experiments above suggest that objects only exist with real properties if they are observed. The results not only defy our classical intuition but suggest that a part of the mind — the soul — is immortal and exists outside of space and time. "The hope of another life," wrote Will Durant, "gives us courage to meet our own death, and to bear with the death of our loved ones; we are twice armed if we fight with faith." And we are thrice armed if we fight with science. (Source: Psychology Today)

Why shouldn't I tell someone to "calm down"?

Don't Tell Me to Calm Down!" How to Help Someone Who is Angry, Anxious, or Stressed "Calm down." "Just relax." "Don't worry about it." "Stop stressing out." "It will be fine." "Don't get so upset." We have all probably been told these phrases, or something similar, by another person when we were angry, anxious, or stressed. We may even ourselves be guilty of saying them to another person. But did it help? Most likely not at all, and more likely it just made us, or the other person, angrier, more anxious, or even more stressed. When our emotions are at a very high level or seemingly out of our control, being told something that seems obvious or "simple" can appear like a brush off, uncaring or uninterested, or that we were misunderstood. So what should you say or do when someone is angry, anxious, or stressed out? For each situation, the most important first step is to actively listen. Most people aren't really fully listening since they are thinking about how to respond or are only listening with the intent to solve a problem. When we don't actively listen to the other person, we don't really "hear" them and understand what they are trying to tell us. There is no way you are going to be able to help someone or understand them if you aren't fully listening to what they are saying and trying to express. Try to give the other person your undivided attention and do not think about how you are going to respond or what the "best" thing to say would be. Just be fully present in the conversation. Additionally, there are also specific techniques or tips to help someone with each of the aforementioned emotions. Anger: When someone is angry, it is important to remain calm and try not to become defensive. If we also become angry and defensive or respond in the like, it will only escalate the situation and the other person's anger. Try to keep quiet and neutral and let them vent if needed until they are in a better emotional state to be able talk about the situation in a more rational manner. Try to validate their anger and the situation, apologize if you were in the wrong, and show empathy or understanding for their feelings. If the person is unable to control their anger or decrease it, the best option may be to give them space and time or to just walk away. Anxiety: Although you may not be able to fully understand or relate to someone with significant anxiety, or possibly panic attacks, there are still ways to connect to the person in order to provide support and help since we have all experienced anxiety, or even fear, to some extent during our lives. Most importantly, do not judge the person for their anxiety. It may seem irrational or out of proportion to you, but to them it is not. Be willing to listen to them without judgment, offer support, ask what the experience is like for them, and validate and show understanding for their emotions. However, be careful to not "join" the anxiety or fear by enabling or becoming an accomplice to the situation. Remain calm yourself and do not feed into the idea that there is more to be anxious or afraid of. Phrases such as "that must be really hard for you" or "I understand why that would make you anxious" can be very validating and show understanding and support. Overall, just be available to the person however they may need you. Stress: When someone is overwhelmed or stressed out, it is usually our initial reaction to want to try to help them solve the problem or take care of it in some way. Again, listen to their feelings, validate their emotions and experience, and offer support. Ask them if there is anything you can do to help the situation or decrease their stress. They may already know what they need to do, they just needed someone to listen and possibly help. Overall, the most important take away to help someone who is angry, anxious, or stressed is just to be there for them. You may not even need to say anything. Just being there shows your understanding, support, and willingness to help, which in and of itself can be quite soothing and helpful. (Source: symmetrycounseling.com)

What effect does estrogen have on the female body?

Estrogen's Effects on the Female Body What is estrogen? Estrogens are a group of hormones that play an important role in the normal sexual and reproductive development in women. They are also sex hormones. The woman's ovaries make most estrogen hormones, although the adrenal glands and fat cells also make small amounts of the hormones. In addition to regulating the menstrual cycle, estrogen affects the reproductive tract, the urinary tract, the heart and blood vessels, bones, breasts, skin, hair, mucous membranes, pelvic muscles, and the brain. Secondary sexual characteristics, such as pubic and armpit hair, also start to grow when estrogen levels rise. Many organ systems, including the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems, and the brain are affected by estrogen. Hormone replacement therapy update To learn more about women's health, and specifically hormone replacement therapy, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) started a large study in 1991 .It was called the Women's Health Initiative (WHI). The hormone trial had two studies: the estrogen-plus-progestin (HRT) study of women with a uterus and the estrogen-alone (ERT) study of women without a uterus. Both studies were concluded early when the research showed that hormone replacement did not help prevent heart disease and it increased risk for some medical problems. The FDA states that hormone therapy should not be taken to prevent heart disease. These products are approved therapies for relief from moderate to severe hot flashes and symptoms of vaginal dryness. Although hormone therapy may help prevent osteoporosis, it should only be considered for women at high risk of osteoporosis who cannot take non-estrogen medicines. The FDA recommends hormone therapy be used at the lowest doses for the shortest duration needed to achieve treatment goals. Postmenopausal women who use or are considering using hormone therapy should discuss the possible benefits and risks to them with their healthcare provider. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute offers the following suggestions for women who are deciding whether or not to use postmenopausal hormone therapy: The most important thing a woman can do in deciding to continue hormone replacement therapy is discuss the current research with her healthcare provider and health care team. Women need to be aware that taking a combined progesterone and estrogen regimen or estrogen alone is no longer recommended to prevent heart disease. A woman should discuss other alternatives of protecting the heart with her healthcare provider. Women should discuss with their healthcare providers the value of taking combined progesterone and estrogen replacement therapy or estrogen to prevent osteoporosis. There may be alternative treatments based on a woman's health profile. Always see your healthcare provider for more information. (Source: John Hopkins medicine)

Is selfishness bad?

Good, Neutral, and Bad Selfishness Despite the negative connotation of "selfish," selfishness is not always bad. When someone says, "You are being selfish," there is no doubt that you have just been criticized. The message from your critic is clear: You are paying too much attention to your own wants, needs, and well-being, and not enough attention to others. Selfish behavior is often described as immoral. A good person thinks of others first. This idea is instantiated in the oft-quoted "It is more blessed to give than to receive" (Acts 20:35) and "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country," (JFK's 1/20/1961 inaugural address). According to some experts, selfish behavior is not only immoral, but it is also bad for your own psychological well-being. Renowned positive psychologist Sonja Lyubomirsky has written an essay claiming that research supports the Chinese proverb that ends, "If you want happiness for a lifetime, help someone else." Nonetheless, if you read enough self-help literature, you can't help but notice a different view about thinking of yourself first that seems to contradict the bad press about selfishness. The label self-care refers to prioritizing your own physical health and psychological well-being by engaging in good eating habits, exercise, sleep, relaxation, and enjoyable activities every day. Proponents of self-care like to point out that unless we take care of ourselves first, we will not be well enough to help and take care of others. As flight attendants tell passengers, "If you are traveling with a child or someone who requires assistance, secure your own mask first, and then assist the other person." So, is selfishness (thinking of yourself first) good or bad? When I am asked questions like this, my first response is to ask "Good for what (or whom)?" So the deeper question, as I see it, is "Who benefits from selfishness?" (Hence the name of this blog, Cui Bono: To whose benefit?) The simple (and wrong) answer to this question is that when I behave selfishly it is always good for me but bad for others. True, there are many cases where people benefit (at least temporarily) at the expense of others. The most obvious cases are criminal acts such as assault, theft, and fraud. Harry Browne refers to the use or threat of violence to take from others what they do not want to voluntarily give up a one-sided transaction. Steven Covey calls this a win-lose transaction where one person gains while another loses. There are also noncriminal win-lose transactions, the most common one being emotional manipulation. If I pressure you to do something you do not want to do by making you feel guilty if you don't, or by yelling or withdrawing or being unpleasant in some other way, I got what I wanted at your expense. The reason that one-sided or win-lose transactions are not always good for me is that there are negative consequences for me that outweigh the temporary gains. Obviously, criminal acts can result in fines or incarceration. But even mere emotional manipulation can have disastrous long-term consequences. If you exploit people they become less likely to cooperate with you voluntarily. They may even seek revenge against you or ask powerful relatives or friends to seek revenge against you. More importantly, someone who engages in emotional manipulation to get what he or she wants develops a reputation as someone not worth dealing with, someone to shun and avoid. Reputation is no trivial thing, because happiness is very unlikely to be achieved alone, in isolation from the rest of society. To be happy, we need a network of people in our lives who like, love, and respect us, and to build such a network, we need to play fair. I therefore call engaging in one-sided transactions "bad selfishness" because ultimately this behavior is bad for both the selfish person and the people victimized and exploited by the selfish person. Then there is what I like to call "neutral selfishness." Neutral selfishness includes looking after your own well-being in ways that do not directly and substantially involve other people. If I take five minutes to brush my teeth to avoid the ill effects of tooth and gum disease, this is a form of neutral selfishness. In looking after my dental hygiene, I am neither taking away from someone's well-being nor adding to it. The same would be true if I take 10 minutes every morning to meditate. I know there are people who might nitpick about whether there are really any neutral selfish behaviors. Some will say that I could have used the five minutes I spent brushing my teeth or 10 minutes I spent meditating to assist people at a homeless shelter. There are always people in need, so any behavior designed for my own benefit takes time away from what I could be doing to benefit others. But, as the self-care movement has pointed out, how much help can I be to others if I don't look after my own physical and psychological health first? Taking care of myself puts me in a better position to do things that benefit others. Therefore, I continue to believe that some selfish behaviors are nearly neutral; they do not immediately help or harm others. They may represent time taken away from directly helping others, but they also put me in better condition to help others. In addition to bad selfishness and neutral selfishness, there is also what I call "good selfishness," which benefits both ourselves and other people. Harry Browne refers to good selfishness as a two-sided transaction, an exchange where two people willingly part with something in order to gain something they value. Because both people are winning something they want, Covey calls this a win-win transaction. The clearest example of a two-sided transaction is a simple swap. If I trade my copy of The Beatles Love Me Do / P.S. I Love You single for your copy of The Beatles' first stereo pressing of Please Please Me because each of us values the other's record more than the one we own, we both feel like we are gaining in the swap. Of course, in modern economies we do not directly swap goods and services for all of our exchanges; money serves as an intermediary for two-sided transactions. But two-sided transactions involve far more than economic exchanges of goods and services. Any time we do something with someone else because we enjoy the activity more than doing it alone, we have a two-sided transaction. If you go to a movie with a friend, you "exchange" knowing glances, laughter, and conversation, all of which enhance the experience for both of you. The same can be said for attending concerts, watching sporting events, and sitting on the beach. Some activities, such as putting on a theatrical production, playing basketball, engaging in sexual intercourse, and taking a course in positive psychology, actually require the participation of more than one person. As long as all partners in these activities are willing participants who are getting something of value that is worth what they are investing in the activity, these are all examples of two-sided transactions. All are forms of good selfishness—interactions that are good for both people. A moment's reflection on the three kinds of selfishness tells us that if you want to maximize your happiness (and who doesn't?), you'll want to avoid bad selfishness (because it is likely to decrease your happiness in the long run) and willingly choose neutral and good selfishness. As obvious as this might seem, why do so we so often hear that you have only two choices: to be selfish (which is bad) or to be selfless and serve others first (which is good)? I have both an optimistic and not-so-optimistic answer to that question. The optimistic answer is that critics of selfishness are talking only about bad selfishness, and when they urge us to "do for others" they really mean to do for others in ways that are beneficial and rewarding to us (which would make the doing a two-sided transaction). So, I think these people have good intentions, but they confuse the issue by pitting selfishness against selflessness. But I've also seen a darker answer that explicitly condemns self-interest in favor of advancing the interests of other people. While researching my blog post on seva (selfless service; part I, part II), I found that while some ashrams make every attempt to find meaningful work that fits a new member's skills and interests, other ashrams intentionally assign unpleasant, mind-numbing, back-breaking drudgery. A rationale for the latter is that practicing unpleasant tasks will liberate a person from ego-attachments. Perhaps this is true, but what if it is not? What if this is just a way to trick others into doing difficult work that you would otherwise have to do yourself? In my first post on seva, I described other dark examples where talk of the virtues of sacrifice and service is a trick to exploit and manipulate others: "I'm thinking of preachers who fleece their flocks, becoming ultra-rich by preaching the virtue of charitable giving. I'm thinking of war-lords who gain power by exaggerating external threats and convincing patriotic young people to sacrifice their lives in unnecessary wars. And I am thinking of any kind of 'mandatory service' program, because, in the words of James Joyner, 'the idea of mandatory voluntarism is as creepy is it is oxymoronic'." The irony in all of these examples is that the people who are telling us that selfishness is bad are actually engaging in bad selfishness themselves. Those who would manipulate us into doing their dirty work give us a false choice between bad selfishness (gaining at the expense of others) and selfless sacrifice (doing good for others at a cost to you). Given only those choices, it's no wonder that our moral sensibilities vote for the latter. A slightly different version of this false choice pops up when people say that good relationships are based on compromises, where my partner and I take turns sacrificing for each other. ("I'll agree to be miserable going shopping with you if you agree to be miserable watching the football game with me.") Fortunately, there is a better, third choice: Why not practice good selfishness, which benefits both ourselves and others? (Source: Psychology Today)

What does hormone therapy do?

Hormone therapy: Is it right for you? Hormone therapy was once routinely used to treat menopausal symptoms and protect long-term health. Then large clinical trials showed health risks. What does this mean for you? By Mayo Clinic Staff Hormone replacement therapy is medication that contains female hormones. You take the medication to replace the estrogen that your body stops making during menopause. Hormone therapy is most often used to treat common menopausal symptoms, including hot flashes and vaginal discomfort. [it can also be used to treat prostate cancer]. Hormone therapy has also been proved to prevent bone loss and reduce fracture in postmenopausal women. However, there are risks associated with using hormone therapy. These risks depend on the type of hormone therapy, the dose, how long the medication is taken and your individual health risks. For best results, hormone therapy should be tailored to each person and reevaluated every so often to be sure the benefits still outweigh the risks. What are the basic types of hormone therapy? Hormone replacement therapy primarily focuses on replacing the estrogen that your body no longer makes after menopause. There are two main types of estrogen therapy: Systemic hormone therapy. Systemic estrogen — which comes in pill, skin patch, ring, gel, cream or spray form — typically contains a higher dose of estrogen that is absorbed throughout the body. It can be used to treat any of the common symptoms of menopause. Low-dose vaginal products. Low-dose vaginal preparations of estrogen — which come in cream, tablet or ring form — minimize the amount of estrogen absorbed by the body. Because of this, low-dose vaginal preparations are usually only used to treat the vaginal and urinary symptoms of menopause. If you haven't had your uterus removed, your doctor will typically prescribe estrogen along with progesterone or progestin (progesterone-like medication). This is because estrogen alone, when not balanced by progesterone, can stimulate growth of the lining of the uterus, increasing the risk of endometrial cancer. If you have had your uterus removed (hysterectomy), you may not need to take progestin. What are the risks of hormone therapy? In the largest clinical trial to date, hormone replacement therapy that consisted of an estrogen-progestin pill (Prempro) increased the risk of certain serious conditions, including: Heart disease Stroke Blood clots Breast cancer Subsequent studies have suggested that these risks vary depending on: Age. Women who begin hormone therapy at age 60 or older or more than 10 years from the onset of menopause are at greater risk of the above conditions. But if hormone therapy is started before the age of 60 or within 10 years of menopause, the benefits appear to outweigh the risks. Type of hormone therapy. The risks of hormone therapy vary depending on whether estrogen is given alone or with progestin, and on the dose and type of estrogen. Health history. Your family history and your personal medical history and risk of cancer, heart disease, stroke, blood clots, liver disease and osteoporosis are important factors in determining whether hormone replacement therapy is appropriate for you. All of these risks should be considered by you and your doctor when deciding whether hormone therapy might be an option for you. Who can benefit from hormone therapy? The benefits of hormone therapy may outweigh the risks if you're healthy and you: Have moderate to severe hot flashes. Systemic estrogen therapy remains the most effective treatment for the relief of troublesome menopausal hot flashes and night sweats. Have other symptoms of menopause. Estrogen can ease vaginal symptoms of menopause, such as dryness, itching, burning and discomfort with intercourse. Need to prevent bone loss or fractures. Systemic estrogen helps protect against the bone-thinning disease called osteoporosis. However, doctors usually recommend medications called bisphosphonates to treat osteoporosis. But estrogen therapy may help if you either can't tolerate or aren't benefiting from other treatments. Experience early menopause or have estrogen deficiency. If you had your ovaries surgically removed before age 45, stopped having periods before age 45 (premature or early menopause) or lost normal function of your ovaries before age 40 (primary ovarian insufficiency), your body has been exposed to less estrogen than the bodies of women who experience typical menopause. Estrogen therapy can help decrease your risk of certain health conditions, including osteoporosis, heart disease, stroke, dementia and mood changes. If you take hormone therapy, how can you reduce risk? Talk to your doctor about these strategies: Find the best product and delivery method for you. You can take estrogen in the form of a pill, patch, gel, vaginal cream, or slow-releasing suppository or ring that you place in your vagina. If you experience only vaginal symptoms related to menopause, estrogen in a low-dose vaginal cream, tablet or ring is usually a better choice than an oral pill or a skin patch. Minimize the amount of medication you take. Use the lowest effective dose for the shortest amount of time needed to treat your symptoms. If you're younger than age 45, you need enough estrogen to provide protection against the long-term health effects of estrogen deficiency. If you have lasting menopausal symptoms that significantly impair your quality of life, your doctor may recommend longer term treatment. Seek regular follow-up care. See your doctor regularly to ensure that the benefits of hormone therapy continue to outweigh the risks, and for screenings such as mammograms and pelvic exams. Make healthy lifestyle choices. Include physical activity and exercise in your daily routine, eat a healthy diet, maintain a healthy weight, don't smoke, limit alcohol, manage stress, and manage chronic health conditions, such as high cholesterol or high blood pressure. If you haven't had a hysterectomy and are using systemic estrogen therapy, you'll also need progestin. Your doctor can help you find the delivery method that offers the most benefits and convenience with the least risks and cost. What can you do if you can't take hormone therapy? You may be able to manage menopausal hot flashes with healthy-lifestyle approaches such as keeping cool, limiting caffeinated beverages and alcohol, and practicing paced relaxed breathing or other relaxation techniques. There are also several nonhormone prescription medications that may help relieve hot flashes. For vaginal concerns such as dryness or painful intercourse, a vaginal moisturizer or lubricant may provide relief. You might also ask your doctor about the prescription medication ospemifene (Osphena), which may help with episodes of painful intercourse. The bottom line: Hormone therapy isn't all good or all bad To determine if hormone therapy is a good treatment option for you, talk to your doctor about your individual symptoms and health risks. Be sure to keep the conversation going throughout your menopausal years. As researchers learn more about hormone therapy and other menopausal treatments, recommendations may change. If you continue to have bothersome menopausal symptoms, review treatment options with your doctor on a regular basis. (Source: Mayo Clinic)

What is pink eye?

Inflammation or infection of the outer membrane of the eyeball and the inner eyelid. Conjunctivitis, or pink eye, is an irritation or inflammation of the conjunctiva, which covers the white part of the eyeball. It can be caused by allergies or a bacterial or viral infection. Conjunctivitis can be extremely contagious, and is spread by contact with eye secretions from someone who is infected. (Source: maybe Mayo Clinic)

What are relationships?

Relation or links between entities that have something to do with each other. For example - The customer name is related to the customer account number and contact information, which might be in the same table. There can also be relationships between separate tables (for example, customer to accounts). (Source: Quizlet)

What are relationships by marriage?

Relationships by Marriage Question Can I call the sibling of my spouse 'brother'? — Rajan, India Answer The brother of your spouse is called your brother-in-law. If your spouse has a sister, she is your sister-in-law[you might also call them a co-sister-in-law but that's less common)]. You also call your own siblings' spouses your brother-in-law (the husband of your sibling) or sister-in-law (the wife of your sibling). Your in-laws are people you are related to by marriage. Below are more in-law terms: mother-in-law: the mother of your spouse father-in-law: the father of your spouse aunt-in-law: the aunt of your spouse uncle-in-law: the uncle of your spouse daughter-in-law: the wife of your child son-in-law: the husband of your child I hope this helps. (Source: Britannica)

How should companies approach building relationships with coworkers amid pc culture?

Rethinking Political Correctness by Robin J. Ely, Debra Meyerson, and Martin N. Davidson From the Magazine (September 2006) Summary. Legal and cultural changes over the past 40 years ushered unprecedented numbers of women and people of color into companies' professional ranks. Laws now protect these traditionally underrepresented groups from blatant forms of discrimination in hiring and promotion. Meanwhile, political correctness has reset the standards for civility and respect in people's day-to-day interactions. Despite this obvious progress, the authors' research has shown that political correctness is a double-edged sword. While it has helped many employees feel unlimited by their race, gender, or religion, the PC rule book can hinder people's ability to develop effective relationships across race, gender, and religious lines. Companies need to equip workers with skills—not rules—for building these relationships. The authors offer the following five principles for healthy resolution of the tensions that commonly arise over difference: Pause to short-circuit the emotion and reflect; connect with others, affirming the importance of relationships; question yourself to identify blind spots and discover what makes you defensive; get genuine support that helps you gain a broader perspective; and shift your mind-set from one that says, "You need to change," to one that asks, "What can I change?" When people treat their cultural differences—and related conflicts and tensions—as opportunities to gain a more accurate view of themselves, one another, and the situation, trust builds and relationships become stronger. Leaders should put aside the PC rule book and instead model and encourage risk taking in the service of building the organization's relational capacity. The benefits will reverberate through every dimension of the company's work. (Source: Harvard Business Review)

Is it ever ok to be selfish?

Sometimes Self-Care Is Selfish — and That's OK By Jamie Elmer — Updated on July 1, 2020 Self-care: We hear it all the time now — or, more accurately, see it on Instagram as skin care products, fizzy bath bombs, yoga poses, açai bowls, and more. But self-care is more than what's commercialized on our social media feeds. Self-care started as a way to physically take care of yourself. It then evolved into caring for your emotional well-being, and even more so the overall healing for women, people of color, and more marginalized communities. Then why are we still feeling like self-care is selfish? Maybe you've just called off dinner, declined an invite where your ex will be, or even just said no to anything. This might leave you feeling a little selfish or guilty. It doesn't matter that you're emotionally and physically exhausted, or that your mental health is suffering. You might lie awake in bed, thinking about how you should have done something different or been better in some other way. Saying no feels like a failure, like you're incompetent or unequipped to handle day-to-day life. But if staying in helps you prioritize yourself and your own energy and healing, are you really being selfish? Redefining what it actually means to be selfish When the word "selfish" comes to mind, it often sparks negative connotations at first. We think self-centered, self-serving, self-involved. And we're supposed to avoid thinking only "me and my interests," right? To instead try to live for the good of all humankind, since giving is taught as preferential to taking? Even though it's defined as being concerned with only your own personal pleasure and profit, as well as lacking consideration for others, we still think of selfish as the times when we're simply putting ourselves first. But we can't see it in black and white. For instance, we're told we need to adjust our own oxygen mask first before helping others in a plane emergency. Or to make sure the scene is safe for you before helping anyone who's hurt. No one would call us selfish for following those instructions. Just like all things, there's a spectrum. Sometimes the right thing is to be "selfish." And just because someone defines something you've done as selfish (like opting out of their party), doesn't mean you have to define it on their terms. So, repeat after me: I won't beat myself up for being 'selfish' Sometimes being "selfish" isn't a bad thing. There are times when being selfish is the right thing to do for your health and well-being. These are also times when taking care of yourself is necessary. Here are some of those times: 1. You need help Everyone needs help from time to time, but we often avoid seeking it. Whether we acknowledge it or not, sometimes asking for help can make you feel incompetent, weak, or needy — even if not asking for help means adding unnecessary stress. But asking for help when you need it is important. If the stress of a work project is getting to you, ask a co-worker for assistance or delegate tasks. If you need companionship, ask a friend for support. If you need an unbiased outside voice, seek therapy. 2. You need to rest When you're feeling tired — it doesn't matter if it's emotionally, mentally, or physically — it's time to rest. Sometimes, that just comes down to sleep. There are a number of consequences to not getting enough sleep, including trouble focusing, a weakened immune system, and memory issues. Skipping too much sleep can even have a negative impact on your relationships. But we often feel like we have to keep going. Sometimes sleep isn't at the top of our priorities. But the fact is we need rest. If you've been working late and skipping sleep, it's time to find some work-life balance. And the next time you choose to go home and sleep instead of grabbing drinks with friends, that's OK. If that's called selfish, it's the kind you want to be. Resting doesn't always mean sleeping, either. Whether your brain is feeling off-balance or you have a health condition flare up, consider it a sick day and take the time off. And don't feel obligated to do the laundry since you're at home. Read a book in bed, binge-watch a show, or take a nap. If you're feeling fatigued, exhausted, or in pain, it's time to get some extra rest and not feel guilty about it. Rest is essential to any type of recovery. 3. You just need alone time Some people might not get it when you choose staying home over going out. If that's what you're in the mood to do, don't feel selfish for wanting to be alone. We all need alone time sometimes, and some people need more than others. Social interactions can be exhausting for some people. There's no shame in taking time for yourself. If you've been going nonstop, your mood is all out of whack, or you need to reevaluate your relationships, now may be a good time to plan some alone time. You don't need to fill your calendar with social events unless you want to. Run a bath, unplug, and have that "me time" you've been craving. 4. It's time to end a relationship, job, or living situation It's never easy breaking up with a significant other, moving to a new city, or quitting a job. If you feel bad when you interact with someone or dread encountering them again, it's time rethink your relationship. We often stay in friendships or relationships because we're scared of hurting someone. But when it comes to relationships that are damaging, sometimes you need to put yourself first. It's not self-sustaining to continue a relationship — or job or anything, especially one that's in any way abusive — that no longer makes you happy. If something is affecting your well-being, it might be time to say goodbye. 5. Give is being significantly outweighed by take Although it can fluctuate, any relationship should have a good balance of give-and-take. But when the scales tip so that all you're doing is giving and all they're doing is taking, it might be time to do something. The balance of give-and-take is especially important when living with someone. Do you find yourself doing all the errands and chores when you get home from work while they come home and put their feet up? It's important to have balance to avoid both resentment and fatigue. Depending on the situation, you may choose to talk to them, take a short break to recharge, or cut them out completely. It's not selfish to prioritize your own needs over others if the act of giving is causing you more harm. 6. To avoid burnout, after work or in your personal life Everyone is susceptible to burnout or work exhaustion. Certain professions can be exceptionally draining. When burnout occurs, it can hurt both your professional and personal life. One study even points out that for mental health professionals, it could be "ethically imperative" to practice self-care. So when clocking-out time comes, truly clock out. Turn off your work notifications, snooze your email, and deal with it tomorrow. Most of the time, whatever it is can be handled just as well tomorrow instead of in the middle of dinner. No matter what you do, make sure you have time to separate yourself from work. Creating this work-life balance can help you avoid burnout and bring more happiness to your personal life. Take care of yourself Don't neglect yourself and your health to avoid feeling selfish. Selfishness doesn't have to be a bad thing. It can be good to be a little selfish to take care of your emotional, mental, and physical well-being. Many people who focus entirely on give, give, give end up overwhelmed, fatigued, and stressed. And chronic stress has been linkedTrusted Source to a number of health risks, including conditions like diabetes, cancer, and mental illnesses. You can reduce your stress by being a little selfish now and then and practicing some good ol' self-care. HERE ARE SOME WAYS TO START SELF-CARE TONIGHT: Try out some relaxing yoga poses. Practice mindfulness. Get outside. Take a bath. Make some soothing tea. Get better sleep. Practice a hobby, like gardening, crafting, or baking. Whatever you do, remember to take care of yourself. And don't forget, it's never selfish to do so. (Source: healthline)

What's something that sucks about being a genius?

Start with Harvard not hiring prodigies Many parents want their children to be "geniuses" and "prodigies". Only 3 percent of respondents who followed Middlesex University's "high level" students ended up as "prodigies," with a 3 percent chance of eventually becoming "prodigies." Corresponding to this is an extreme case. A Harvard psychology professor conducted a "training experiment" on his son, Sydars, by teaching him to recognize English letters at birth and replacing toys with textbooks. "Early education" is effective at six months. He can read 26 letters of English. By the time he was 2, he was reading a middle school textbook, writing an anatomy paper by the time he was 6, and at 12, he was admitted to Harvard. Just when people aren't jealous of their children, Suddarth shows some abnormal behavior, such as giggling when he shouldn't be. Eventually, his "early education" gave him neurological abnormalities, and at 14 he was committed to a mental institution. In this extreme case, Harvard does not recruit "young geniuses". Although it is a rule that no applicant will be discriminated against by the school to which he or she applies because of his or her age, the world's leading proofreaders are cautious about accepting child prodigies. Because modern science has found that those who never forget, or whose innate IQ is well above average, tend to suffer from mental disorders, such as sensory association disorder, autism, etc. Scientists have concluded that humans cannot have a perfect 'superbrain'. Why is that? A person can acquire superhuman intelligence, extraordinary memory or extraordinary attention, but when he makes a breakthrough in one cognitive function, he has to pay the price elsewhere. Genius is often flawed In the human brain, regular resources account for only one-tenth of the brain's capacity, and the remaining nine-tenths of the brain's resources are generally dormant. Many people believe that geniuses become geniuses because their brain resources are more developed than the average person. A genius is a person whose brain is extremely developed and very intelligent. However, scientific research has shown that this is actually a misconception. Many of the world's geniuses have extremely special skills and are otherwise intellectually inferior to the average person. Experts in neurophysiology have concluded over a long period of time that talented people show exceptional ability in a certain field because the brain regions responsible for this ability are isolated. Isolated areas of the brain are particularly well developed, giving them extraordinary abilities in that area. In other respects, geniuses are generally average or even below average. Einstein, with an IQ of more than 160, developed a theory of relativity that many still consider profound. But he also suffers from speech problems and dyslexia. There is a fine line between genius and madness English poet John Dryden said, "Genius is next to madness. It's a short step from genius to madness." Another ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, had a similar view: "There is no mad genius." Newton and Kant had schizophrenia, Caesar and Napoleon had epilepsy, Pushkin and Goethe had manic depression, as if genius had a recessive gene for schizophrenia. Dr Bruce Miller of the University of California has successfully discovered the "genius button" in the human brain. It is an internal "preventive mechanism" in the brain that inhibits geniuses and prevents people from deviating from normal daily behaviors. Every time a new idea comes to mind, the "error detector" goes into a restricted state of "this is not allowed", causing people to lose interest as the idea is not very interesting. However, if the constraints go wrong or are compromised from the outside, the extraordinary genius of ideas and theories will continue to emerge, and the person will become a genius, but at the same time, he will take great risks. Many experts believe that the brain of most geniuses is "liberated" because of its defects. Irish psychiatrist, "asperger's syndrome" expert and professor Michael Fitzgerald history's most imaginative artist psychiatry analyses, put forward: "contact" with mad a great, "asperger's syndrome" has a great influence on people's social relations, but it have an impact on people's social relations intelligence is not important. People with this condition often have extraordinary artistic creativity and excellent mathematical talent. Many talented people around the world suffer from Asperger's syndrome and behave in one word: weird. Einstein had difficulty communicating with people in everyday life; Michelangelo had autism; William Yeats, English poet, was always scowling. British writer George Orwell was "very rude" to his wife, "abnormal" and "prone to abuse". The researchers found that high achievers were four times more likely to develop mania. The study was published in the British Journal of Psychiatry. The article said. Mania may help improve people's intelligence and academic performance, promoting proximity to genius. People with mild mania tend to be resourceful and creative, showing "greater verbal control, better memory, and other cognitive advantages." They tend to exaggerate their emotional responses, which may help them "develop their talents in art, literature or music." In a state of madness, a person has "extraordinary endurance and sustained focus". Genius is not so happy as ordinary people Geniuses are often more fragile than ordinary people. The "King of Music" Schubert has died at the age of 31. His works are full of melancholy, the piano music of 35-year-old "musical prodigy" Mozart has a trace of sadness; Then there are Bellini, 34, Bizet, 37, Weber, 40, Mussorgsky, 42, Wolff, 43, in a more sensitive and fragile state of mind than the average person. Is this a coincidence or an inevitable consequence? Researchers at the University of Washington genetically engineered a group of smart mice and then used smart mice and normal mice as controls. They injected a solution that produced pressure and pain into the tiny PAWS of smart and normal mice. In an hour. There was no significant difference in the number of PAWS licked between the two groups. But over time. The number of intelligent mice licking their PAWS gradually increased, significantly more than the normal mice. The results showed that acute pain in smart mice was almost the same as in normal mice. However, smart mice were far less tolerant of chronic pain than normal mice. Genetic changes are also responsible for this painful toll. Because smart mice have too many NMDA receptors. This receptor not only promotes memory and learning, but also makes intelligent mice more sensitive to pain and injury than normal mice. Geniuses are often more sensitive to harm than ordinary scientists infer. Their innate vulnerability makes them more likely to suffer than the average person, so they are less likely to be happy. That's why so many geniuses suffer from mental illness. From this point of view, it may be happier to be an ordinary person than to be a genius. There will never be perfect people in the world, because God will never create perfect people. He gave gifted people gifts that ordinary people don't have, and flaws that ordinary people don't have. (Source: Quora)

What should I know about existential dread?

What to Know About Existential Dread If you've ever thought about the meaning of life, you have something in common with the great historical philosophers. Perhaps you have concluded that humans must make their lives meaningful. If so, you agree with the existentialist philosophers. Being responsible for your own life, though, can be scary. It may make you anxious or worried. Some people label these feelings existential dread. What Is Existentialism? Existentialism is not an organized movement. It has roots in ancient philosophy but came into its own around the time of the two world wars. Thinkers tried to make sense of the horrors of war. It's no wonder that the answers they came up with weren't easy or comfortable. Existentialism holds that life is initially meaningless. Individuals must create their own meaning. They do this by leading an authentic life, a life that is true to their own beliefs and values. A philosophy that regards life as meaningless may seem incompatible with religious beliefs. Still, while some important existentialists were atheists, others were deeply religious. Many people who struggle with the big questions of existentialism are able to resolve them with their religious beliefs. What Is Existential Dread? If you feel despair and uncertainty when you think about your life, you are experiencing what some call existential dread. Symptoms of existential dread include: Anxiety. You may worry about the future or have anxiety that isn't tied to a particular concern. Depression. You may feel guilty about the past or hopeless about the future. Loneliness or isolation. You may feel that no one understands you or really cares about you. Lack of motivation or energy. Due to feeling that nothing has meaning, you may pass on activities you once enjoyed. Obsessive thoughts. You may ask yourself the same questions over and over without arriving at any answers. What Is an Existential Crisis? If you question the meaning of life without finding good answers, you may be in an existential crisis. An existential crisis is not a mental health condition, but you may need to seek treatment if you feel especially anxious or depressed as a result of your crisis. If you experience suicidal thoughts, seek help immediately. Specific events can trigger an existential crisis, especially events in these two categories: Events that change your life. Major life events can lead you to rethink your beliefs and values. Even positive events can have an impact. You may experience a crisis after: Marriage Divorce Other breakups Loss of a friendship Birth of a child Job loss Career change Retirement Death of a loved one Events that threaten your life. If you have had a serious illness, you may question your approach to life. Sometimes, going through the illness of a loved one has the same effect. Accidents and injuries can also be impactful, as can living through a natural disaster or a great societal change. Crises Related to Life Stages Some experts classify existential crises according to the life stages when they occur. Sophomore Crisis. This crisis occurs during the late teens or early 20s. It may involve career paths or personal relationships. High-achieving people may be more likely to have a sophomore crisis. Adult existential crisis. This crisis usually occurs with people with well-established careers. It can involve complex issues. You may question your religious beliefs or lack of such beliefs. You may have doubts about your sexual identity or how you express your sexuality. Later existential crisis. As you enter your later years, you may wonder what legacy you will leave behind. You may question whether you achieved anything really worthwhile. Illness or approaching death may trigger a late existential crisis, but the existential crisis is not truly about those events. Instead, it is about evaluating your life as a whole. Examples of Existential Dread These examples show how life events and life stages can trigger feelings of existential dread: An older person who is no longer needed by family members may lose motivation and no longer feel inner joy. A person diagnosed with cancer may fear death and feel anxiety about undergoing treatment. A person who has made mistakes in the past may feel guilt and the pain of knowing that the past can't be altered. A person fighting substance abuse may feel isolated from others. Treatment for an Existential Crisis Some people can work through an existential crisis on their own. Sometimes, you will adjust to the changes that have occurred in your life. Sometimes, you make changes that bring your life more in line with your values. Others need help to get through a crisis. If you continue to have anxiety, depression, and other symptoms, you may need counseling or psychiatric help. There is no one best type of therapy for an existential crisis, but a variety of counseling approaches may work. Self-Help Strategies You can do many things on your own to ease existential dread, though finding the ones that help can take some time. Try these strategies and stick with the ones that work: Understand that an existential crisis can be a chance for growth. Reach out to others and strengthen your social connections. Write in a journal. A gratitude journal may be especially helpful. Be sure that you have a work-life balance and that you make time for hobbies, too. Don't relive old mistakes. Practice mindfulness by fully experiencing the present. Does Existential Dread Go Away? Most people are able to manage their feelings of existential dread. Sometimes, the feelings may even go away completely. Many times, however, they return, especially during life changes. If your feelings persist, you could have an underlying condition that complicates your situation. Bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are two conditions that could make it harder to get over an existential crisis. (Source: WebMD)

What are some benefits to crying?

Eight benefits of crying: Why it's good to shed a few tears Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Lana Burgess on October 7, 2017 Why do people cry? Benefits of crying When to see a doctor Takeaway Crying is a natural response humans have to a range of emotions, including sadness, grief, joy, and frustration. But does crying have any health benefits? It is not unusual to cry, and both sexes cry more than people may assume. In the United States, women cry an average of 3.5 times per month and men cry an average of 1.9 times a month. Interestingly, humans are the only animals to cry tears. This article explores why we cry and what health benefits crying may have. Why do people cry? Crying is a natural response to emotions or irritants like dust in the eyes. Humans produce three types of tears: Basal: The tear ducts constantly secrete basal tears, which are a protein-rich antibacterial liquid that help to keep the eyes moist every time a person blinks. Reflex: These are tears triggered by irritants such as wind, smoke, or onions. They are released to flush out these irritants and protect the eye. Emotional: Humans shed tears in response to a range of emotions. These tears contain a higher level of stress hormones than other types of tears. When people talk about crying, they are usually referring to emotional tears. Benefits of crying People may try to suppress tears if they see them as a sign of weakness, but science suggests that doing so could mean missing out on a range of benefits. Researchers have found that crying: 1. Has a soothing effect Self-soothing is when people: regulate their own emotions calm themselves reduce their own distress A 2014 studyTrusted Source found that crying may have a direct, self-soothing effect on people. The study explained how crying activates the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which helps people relax. 2. Gets support from others As well as helping people self-soothe, crying can help people get support from others around them. As this 2016 studyTrusted Source explains, crying is primarily an attachment behavior, as it rallies support from the people around us. This is known as an interpersonal or social benefit. 3. Helps to relieve pain Research has foundTrusted Source that in addition to being self-soothing, shedding emotional tears releases oxytocin and endorphins. These chemicals make people feel good and may also ease both physical and emotional pain. In this way, crying can help reduce pain and promote a sense of well-being. 4. Enhances mood Crying may help lift people's spirits and make them feel better. As well as relieving pain, oxytocin and endorphins can help improve mood. This is why they are often known as "feel good" chemicals. 5. Releases toxins and relieves stress When humans cry in response to stress, their tears contain a number of stress hormones and other chemicals. Researchers believe that crying could reduce the levels of these chemicals in the body, which could, in turn, reduce stress. More research is needed into this area, however, to confirm this. 6. Aids sleep A small study in 2015 found that crying can help babies sleep better. Whether crying has the same sleep-enhancing effect on adults is yet to be researched. However, it follows that the calming, mood-enhancing, and pain-relieving effects of crying above may help a person fall asleep more easily. 7. Fights bacteria Crying helps to kill bacteria and keep the eyes clean as tears contain a fluid called lysozyme. A 2011 studyTrusted Source found that lysozyme had such powerful antimicrobial properties that it could even help to reduce risks presented by bioterror agents, such as anthrax. 8. Improves vision Basal tears, which are released every time a person blinks, help to keep the eyes moist and prevent mucous membranes from drying out. As the National Eye InstituteTrusted Source explains, the lubricating effect of basal tears helps people to see more clearly. When the membranes dry out, vision can become blurry. When to see a doctor Crying has a number of health benefits, but frequent crying may be a sign of depression. Crying in response to emotions such as sadness, joy, or frustration is normal and has a number of health benefits. However, sometimes frequent crying can be a sign of depression. People may be depressed if their crying: happens very frequently happens for no apparent reason starts to affect daily activities becomes uncontrollable Other signs of depression include: having trouble concentrating, remembering things, or making decisions feeling fatigued or without energy feeling guilty, worthless, or helpless feeling pessimistic or hopeless having trouble sleeping or sleeping too much feeling irritable or restless not enjoying things that were once pleasurable overeating or undereating unexplained aches, pains, or cramps digestive problems that do not improve with treatment persistent anxiety suicidal thoughts or thoughts of self-harm If a person is experiencing symptoms of depression, or someone they know is, then they should talk to a doctor. Should a person feel suicidal, or know someone who is feeling that way, they should call: emergency services the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline on 800-273-8255 (if in the U.S.). Takeaway Crying is a normal human response to a whole range of emotions that has a number of health and social benefits, including pain relief and self-soothing effects. However, if crying happens frequently, uncontrollably, or for no reason, it could be a sign of depression. If this is the case, it is a good idea to speak to a doctor. (Source: medical news today)

What is Existential crisis and the awareness of dying?

Existential crisis and the awareness of dying: the role of meaning and spirituality Abstract An existential crisis may occur in cancer patients when they realize that their death may be imminent. We explore the ways in which patients deal with this crisis, in which the meaning of life itself is at stake. In dealing with an existential crisis, it is important to have the courage to confront the loss of meaning and security. Then, a new sense of meaning may emerge which is essentially a receptive experience of connectedness with an ego-transcending reality, such as mankind, nature, or God. This reduces existential fear and despair and leads to acceptance of "life-as-it-is", including its finitude. The article concludes with implications for healthcare workers. (Source: National institute of health)

How selfish are people?

How Selfish Are People—Really? by David Warsh From the Magazine (May-June 1989) For the Manager's Bookshelf The Evolution of Cooperation, Robert Axelrod (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 241 pages, $8.95. Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions, Robert H. Frank (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1988), 304 pages, $19.95. Events of the last ten years have sparked considerable controversy about the teaching and learning of ethics. But relatively little has been said concerning the deep-down underpinnings of our feelings about insider trading, malfeasance, and other betrayals of trust. This is too bad, because some important new thinking about our conception of ourselves as human beings is going on—thinking that so far has attracted only a small audience outside the technical precincts where it is taking place. Two broad historical streams contribute to our ideas of right and wrong. One is the ancient tradition of religious, philosophical, and moral discourse, the province of the Golden Rule, the Ten Commandments, the Sermon on the Mount. Call this the humanist tradition. The other is the comparatively young tradition of the biological and social sciences. Chief among these is economics, with its central tenet that people, when they are able, tend to look out for themselves, choosing to maximize their advantage. Perhaps because it is cloaked in the mantle of science, the rhetoric and content of the latter tradition has become increasingly influential in our public life, often eclipsing religion and other traditional sources of instruction. This eclipse began with two disarmingly simple sentences published by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations in 1776. "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves not to their humanity but to their self-love and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages," Smith wrote. He then cobbled up his shrewd view of persons as calculating and self-interested into the familiar "invisible hand," a sweeping vision of the interdependence of all markets everywhere. In Smith's world, competition among persons who pursue their own interest promotes the general welfare of society more effectively than the efforts of any individual who might deliberately set out to promote it. Better to open a shop, then, or manufacture a product than to curse the darkness; the market will harmonize self-interests more surely than usury laws and regulatory bodies. Some 80 years later, Charles Darwin offered a second and perhaps even more powerful justification for selfish behavior—his theory of natural selection. Aptly described as "survival of the fittest," Darwin's evolutionary account of biological diversity was a powerful story of adaptation through the continuous variation of traits and the selection of those that improved "fitness." Differential reproduction and survival rates determined who survived and prospered and who didn't. Those who were capable of "looking out for number one" in a biological sense would survive, while natural selection would quickly sweep away the less fit. Darwin's insights were immediately translated into a coarse social gospel that was itself quickly swept away. In a far more sophisticated and compelling form, his theory returned 100 years later as sociobiology. But in economics, the self-interest model of Adam Smith immediately acquired a deep hold on the popular imagination. Critics like Thorstein Veblen railed at the assumption of rational self-interest that was at the heart of the new conception—the view of man as "a lightning calculator of pleasures and pains, who oscillates like a homogenous globule of desire," as Veblen snorted. But the successes of the new approach were very great. The universal "laws" of supply and demand could explain relative prices, differing wage rates, the composition of production: people really did build smaller houses if the price of fuel went up! And as economists refined their analyses, they extended their searchlight into new and unfamiliar areas. For example, the American astronomer-turned-economist Simon Newcomb appalled outsiders in 1885 when he discussed the willingness of citizens to give dimes to the homeless in terms of the "demand for beggars," no different in principle from children giving pennies to organ-grinders in exchange for their services. "Mendicity will exist according to the same laws that govern the existence of other trades and occupations," Newcomb wrote. And, after all, who could doubt that plentiful alms might have an effect on the size of the street population? The emotion of pity was thus recast as a taste for a warm glow that the consumer included in his or her utility function. Indeed, a word must be said here about the "utility function" that economists build into their models of consumer behavior. The idea of a single mathematical function capable of expressing complex systems of psychological motivation is an old one in economics; at the hands of statisticians and theorists it has been refined to a remarkable extent as something called "subjective expected utility" theory. As Nobel laureate Herbert Simon has explained, the model assumes that decision makers contemplate, in one comprehensive view, everything that lies before them; that they understand the range of alternative choices open to them, not only at the moment but also in the future; that they understand the consequences of every possible choice; and that they have reconciled all their conflicting desires into a single undeviating principle designed to maximize their gain in any conceivable situation. Emotions such as love, loyalty, and outrage, like a sense of fairness, have little or no place in most of today's utility functions; a narrow selfishness is pervasive. Undoubtedly, as Simon says, this construction is one of the impressive intellectual achievements of the first half of the twentieth century; after all, he is one of its architects. It is an elegant machine for applying reason to problems of choice. Equally certainly, however (and again following Simon), this Olympian stereotype is also a wildly improbable account of how human beings actually operate, and a preoccupation with it is doing economists more harm than good. Nevertheless, so powerful is the optimizing cost-benefit approach that economists have applied it to an ever-increasing range of human experience in the years since World War II, always with illuminating results. Education has become human capital. Job hunting is now a matter of search costs, tacit contracts, and a desire for leisure. Segregation laws are explained as a preference for discrimination and a willingness to pay the higher prices it entails. Love is an exchange relationship; decisions to bear children are analyzed as the purchase of "durable goods" of varying quality. Addiction, terrorism, arms control, the pace of scientific discovery—all have come under the economic magnifying glass. Gary Becker, the foremost of the theorists who extended economic analysis into new areas, some years ago staked the claim that economics was the universal social science that could explain everything. George Stigler, himself an economics Nobel prizewinner, joked that he looked forward to the day when there would be only two Nobel prizes, "one for economics, and one for fiction." At a certain point, all this rhetoric began to have real repercussions on everyday life. It's one thing just to talk about the demand for beggars; it's another actually to calculate the lifetime "consumption of pleasure" for an accident victim. One group has extended the calculus of costs and benefits into law, seeking to substitute them for "fuzzy" notions of fairness and justice. Another group has analyzed the motives of interest groups and laid the foundations for deregulation. Still another has discovered what it calls "the market for corporate control" and touched off the restructuring of American industry. "Public choice" economics has brought to bear a withering analysis of self-interest in political and bureaucratic behavior. Indeed, there is hardly an area into which the steady gaze of economics has failed to penetrate—all of it a vision built on a conception of man as inherently, relentlessly self-aggrandizing. Long before there was a "Me-decade," academics had taught us to see ourselves as Economic Man. But how realistic is this conception? How selfish are people, really? For the most part, humanists have simply ignored the spread of the new economic ideas. Instead, they have continued to talk about right and wrong in their accustomed frameworks—everything from sermons to novels to TV scripts. With the exception of the brilliant 30-year campaign against perfect rationality by Herbert Simon (and the guerrilla war of John Kenneth Galbraith), the major universities have produced no sustained criticism by economists of the central tenets of utility theory. Psychologists and sociologists, confronted with ubiquitous theorizing about the economics of decisions they previously considered their domain, have been quick to complain of "economic imperialism" but rather slow to launch counterattacks. In the last few years, however, a small but growing number of persons has begun to come to grips with assumptions underlying economic interpretations of human nature. Robert B. Reich and Jane Mansbridge have grappled with the significance of the self-interest paradigm for political philosophy, for example. Howard Margolis and Amitai Etzioni have propounded theories of a dual human nature, competitive and altruistic by turns. Sometimes these disagreements come to the attention of outsiders in the press, like me, on the reasonable grounds that arguments over what constitutes human nature are too important to be left entirely to the experts. There is, however, also a reexamination of rationality going on inside the economics business. This effort seeks not so much to overturn the idea of universal competition as to take it to a new and subtler level of understanding. If history is any guide, this is the development to watch, for as Paul Samuelson likes to say, economics will be changed by its friends, not its critics. Change there certainly is. Efforts to produce a theory of cooperation or of altruism suggest that much of the certitude about the nature of man that economists have advanced these last 100 years may have been misleading. There may be a good and logical foundation for doctrines of loyalty and sympathetic understanding after all. Perhaps the best-known book to have opened up new avenues in the study of human behavior (at least along the economic axis) is Robert Axelrod's The Evolution of Cooperation. From its beginnings nine years ago as a report published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution on a computer tournament among diverse strategies, the argument grew to become a highly successful article in Science magazine (it won the Newcomb Cleveland prize in 1981), then a book published to wide acclaim in 1984, then a paperback issued a year later. Since then, it has been extensively discussed, taught in business schools, employed in arms limitation talks, consulted by labor negotiators. Axelrod begins his analysis with the familiar prisoners' dilemma, an illustrative exercise that has been one of the dominating features of the landscape since game theory first brought considerations of strategic behavior to economic theory 40 years ago. In this situation, two prisoners are accused of a crime, which they did in fact commit. The jailers structure the payoffs to encourage each prisoner to confess: if neither prisoner confesses, both are given light jail sentences of, say, one year. If one prisoner confesses while the other remains silent, the first goes free while the other receives a heavy sentence of, say, ten years. If both prisoners confess, both get the heavy sentence, but with time off for good behavior—say, five years. Neither one knows what the other is going to do. Clearly, each player does better by confessing than by remaining silent: if he confesses and his partner doesn't, he goes home immediately, while if he and his partner both confess, they each get five years instead of ten. So the question is, why would either ever stand pat and say nothing? How is it that cooperation ever gets started? The answer, it turns out, lies in repeated play. Researchers before Axelrod had noted that the tendency to cooperate in prisoners' dilemma games increased dramatically whenever a player was paired repeatedly with the same partner. In these circumstances, a strategy called Tit for Tat quickly emerged: cooperate on the first move, then follow suit on each successive move; cooperate if your partner cooperates, defect if he defects, at least until the end of the game is in sight (then defect no matter what). This strategy has, of course, been known at least since Biblical times as "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." What Axelrod forcefully contributed was the much-prized quality of robustness. He showed that Tit for Tat players in reiterated games would find each other and accumulate higher scores than meanies who always defected. He demonstrated how clusters of Tit for Tat players might invade an evolutionary game and win. He generalized the strategy and found that Tit for Tat worked well against a wide range of counterstrategies simulated on computers as well as in biological systems from bacteria to the most complex species. He published his computer tournament results and proofs of his theoretical propositions. For nonexperts, the real persuasive power of Axelrod's argument lay in the variety of real world situations he found to which Tit for Tat applied. Businesses really did cooperate, extending each other reciprocal credit, until liquidation loomed. Then trust fell apart, and even old associates vied with each other to see who could file the quickest writs. Elected representatives really did learn to cooperate, for if they didn't learn to produce legislative results through logrolling, they weren't reelected. But the dramatic centerpiece of Axelrod's book is a long analysis of the live-and-let-live system that evolved in between the large battles of World War I. Generals could force soldiers into battle whenever they could directly monitor their behavior; but when headquarters wasn't watching, the soldiers restored tacit truces. The key to the system was that soldiers in the trenches rarely moved; they got to know each other, and became, in essence, partners in an oft-repeated prisoners' dilemma game. When one player "defected," the common penalty response was an exchange of two-for-one or three-for-one. A French soldier explained, "We fire two shots for every one fired at us, but we never fire first." This brief historical excursion is a convincing proof that cooperation could evolve among even the most desperate of egoists, those who had been issued rifles and ordered to kill. In a recent survey of the work since the publication of his book, Axelrod wrote that cooperation based on reciprocity had been noted in everything from vampire bats to vervet monkeys to stickleback fish, and that advice based on the theory had been offered for problems in breaches of contract, child custody arrangements, superpower negotiations, and international trade. We were constantly gaining a better understanding of the conditions in which cooperation would arise, he said; light had been cast on the significance of variations in the number of players, the payoff structure, population structure and dynamics, and the "shadow of the future," meaning the prospect of retaliation. The study of cooperation was well established and growing, Axelrod said; cooperative behavior could be taught. For humanists, however, and those scientists who are troubled by the conviction that there is more to human nature than the purely selfish, even this description of cooperation through reciprocity is disappointing. Axelrod's work is built firmly on the foundation of self-interest. In a sense, his prisoners' dilemma is no dilemma at all to those who see human choice as strictly rational. There is no divided loyalty here, no painful choice, just a simple calculation. Choose the course with the bigger payoff now: cooperate if you think you are going to play again, stiff your partner if you think you won't see him again. There is no reason to feel embarrassment; cheating is the rational thing to do as long as you don't expect to be caught. The trouble is that there is a wide range of familiar, everyday behavior that we all know doesn't square with this logic. Travelers still leave the requisite tip in restaurants in cities to which they will never return. Citizens vote in elections even though they know that their vote is extremely unlikely to make a difference. People help strangers in trouble. They willingly bear costs in the name of fair play. They remain married in situations in which it would clearly pay to cut and run. A highly imaginative approach for dealing with such instances, and for extending economics to the realm of the emotions in general, is proposed in a new book by Robert H. Frank. Frank, a Cornell University professor, spent ten years performing the comparatively humdrum duties of a teacher before going to Washington, D.C. as Alfred Kahn's chief economist at the Civil Aeronautics Board. Kahn moved on to serve as President Jimmy Carter's "anti-inflation czar" and Frank remained behind to help close up the CAB. When he returned to Cornell, a couple of remarkable books tumbled out, sufficient to place Frank on leading lists of the half-dozen most interesting mid-life economists working in the United States today. Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status is an exploration of status fairly bursting with novel ideas about why people tend to organize themselves into leagues. It is the kind of book that any reader, perhaps especially readers of this magazine, can pick up and browse with pleasure. Now, with Passions Within Reason, Frank has written a somewhat tighter and more demanding book. But it is the one that is destined to help change the way we think about the basis of ethical behavior. Frank's starting point is to take emotions as a given. They exist, he says. They're probably not the "fuzzy thinking" that most economists believe them to be. We see a homeless person, we are moved to pity; we see a child in danger, we are moved to help; we see a sterling baseball play, we are stirred and excited; we imagine our mate with another person, we burn with jealously and rage; we contemplate stealing from an unattended change box, we blush with shame. Thinking as an evolutionist, Frank asks, what useful purpose might these feelings serve? The answer he gives is that the highly useful function of the emotions is precisely to short-circuit narrowly self-interested behavior, because honest and helpful people are those whom everyone wants for partners, and because nobody messes with people who get angry when they are crossed. It is well known that the ball hog doesn't make the team, that, in the end, the utter egoist doesn't win at romance; the existence of mitigating emotions is evolution's way of making us more "fit" partners. For Frank, emotions are a way of solving the "commitment problem"—the fact that, for society to work, people have to make binding commitments that can later require otherwise rational actors to behave in ways that seem contrary to their self-interest. There are any number of everyday situations where common sense dictates that it helps to have one's hands tied by emotional predispositions. If you want people to trust you, it helps, not hurts, to blush when you tell a lie. If you want people not to take advantage of you, it helps, not hurts, to be known as someone who will fly into an irrational rage if you are cheated. The self-interest model counsels that opportunists have every reason to break the rules when they think no one is looking. Frank says his commitment model challenges this view "to the core," because it suggests a compelling answer to the question, "What's in it for me if I'm honest?" Frank writes, "I am still annoyed if a plumber asks me to pay cash; but now my resentment is tempered by thinking of (my own) tax compliance as an investment in maintaining an honest predisposition. Virtue is not only its own reward here; it may also lead to material rewards in other contexts." The trick here is that, in order to work, your emotional predisposition must be observable; in order for evolutionary processes to produce the kind of emotionally based, altruistic behavior that interests Frank, cooperators have to be able to recognize each other. Moreover, an emotional commitment must be costly to fake; the Quakers grew rich on the strength of their reputation for honest dealing, partly because it takes just too much time and energy to become a Quaker in order to take advantage of the opportunity to cheat. Any Quaker you meet is almost bound to be honest. The same principle applies to the rich set of linkages between the brain and the rest of the body, according to Frank. Posture, the rate of breathing, pitch and timbre of the voice, facial muscle tone and expression, eye movement—all these offer clues to a speaker's emotional state. An actor can fake them for a few minutes, but not more. Even a baby can discriminate between a real smile and a forced one. Humans have evolved this complicated signaling apparatus because it is useful in communicating information about character. And forming character and recognizing it is what emotions are all about. For Frank, moral sentiments are like a spinning gyroscope: they are predisposed to maintain their initial orientation. Nature's role is to provide the gyroscope, in the form of "hard wiring" between the body and brain; culture's role is to provide the spin. In the end, Frank sees his commitment model as a kind of secular substitute for the religious glue that for centuries bound people together in a compact of mutuality and civility. To the question, "Why shouldn't I cheat when no one is looking?" Frank notes that religion always had a compelling answer: "Because God will know!" But the threat of damnation has lost much of its force in the last century or so, and "Smith's carrot and Darwin's stick have by now rendered character development an all but forgotton theme in many industrial countries." The commitment model offers a way back to good behavior based on the logic of self-interest: gains will accrue almost immediately to those who become trustworthy characters. In this view, no man is an island, entire of himself, for each is a part of the other fellow's utility function, thanks to the biological adaptation of the emotions. Does this make sense? Of course it does. What Axelrod and Frank have in common is that each has offered an account of how "nice" people survive and thrive in the economic world—why they aren't automatically competed out of existence by persons who are more relentlessly self-seeking. What makes Frank's approach more appealing is that it treats emotions as observed facts of life and attempts to account for them rather than immediately rationalizing them away as a regrettable imperfection of the spirit. He gets at what we really mean by "honest"—as opposed to merely prudent behavior. There are still other explanatory approaches to this situation, in some cases even more promising. Herbert Simon, for example, has proposed a trait he calls "docility"—meaning susceptibility to social influence and instruction—that would contribute to individual fitness and so explain altruism within the framework of natural selection. Such evolutionary approaches may yield more understanding of the rise of the complex organizations that populate the modern world economy than reasoning about the equilibrium of the firm. Whatever way you cut it, the "news" from economics is beginning to confirm what most working people know in their bones: that integrity and fellow-feeling are highly effective forms of individual fitness. When you consider the amount of time and effort that goes into the moral education of the child, the claim of the economists that there is self-interest and only self-interest is preposterous. In general, children learn the Golden Rule in kindergarten. Religious traditions introduce them to the absolute prohibitions of the Ten Commandments. In families they learn the role of the conscience and are introduced to many forms of cooperation, including frequent self-sacrifice in the interest of the group. In schools they learn to be members of cliques, dividing their loyalties between friends inside and outside their gangs. In sports they learn teamwork, including the lesson that nice guys finish all over the standings; as spectators, they learn that fan loyalty may pay off, as may the lack of it. In love and war they learn sympathetic understanding, and they return constantly to the narrative arts (TV, movies, talk shows, novels, and biographies) to exercise and replenish their understanding. They may even go to military academies or business schools to learn more intricate forms of cooperation before going out into the world of large organizations to practice it. Character development, in other words, is far from "forgotten" in industrialized countries. Instead, it is simply ignored by most economists while practiced by nearly everyone else—including most economists. If practitioners may now turn to economics to learn that the conscious pursuit of self-interest is often incompatible with its attainment, so much the better—for economics. Most of us will continue to disregard the utterly premature claims of economics to "scientific" certainty about the intricacies of human nature. We will continue looking to the humanistic tradition for our instruction in ethics, as we have all along. (Source: Harvard busiusiness review)

What is an identity crisis according to MedicalNewsToday?

Psychoanalyst and psychologist Erik Erikson developed the concept of the identity crisis to characterize the experimentation and identity development phase that people experience during their teen years. The period of identity crisis happens during the fifth stage of Erikson's stages of development. During the crisis, a person experiments with different roles and identities. At the end of this stage of development, a person either resolves the crisis and has a firm identity or has identity confusion. In Erikson's theory, an identity crisis is a normal, predictable part of healthy development. The concept has since become popular, and many people now use it to describe any phase in which a person questions themselves. For example, people may say that a midlife crisis is an identity crisis, that they are having an identity crisis if they cannot decide on a career, or may report an identity crisis after graduating college or another major life change. That is to say, the term now has two distinct meanings, and in popular usage, it has changed considerably from its original meaning. Keep reading to learn more about identity crisis, the importance of identity, causes and symptoms, coping tips, and advice on when to consult a doctor. What is an identity crisis? A checkered out face to represent how a person may feel during an identity crisis Share on Pinterest According to Erik Erikson's eight stages of development, an identity crisis happens as a part of normal development. Each of Erikson's eight stages features a conflict between two opposing values. During the fifth stage, in adolescence, a person must choose between identity and identity confusion. This stage features an identity crisis. During an identity crisis, a person "tries on" different identities and ways of being. They may question their family's values and cultural norms, and begin developing their own system of values and unique personality, separate from their family. The term has evolved with time. In its popular use, people use it to refer to any time a person's identity shifts or they question their identity. For example, cultural or occupational changes might spur a professional identity crisis. The importance of identity A sense of identityTrusted Source helps people interact with the world around them. A consistent identity may reduce confusion and anxiety, guide a person's choices, and nurture meaningful self-esteem. Erikson argued that identity certainty helps a person reject incongruent self-evaluations. For example, a person with a strong sense of identity may be better equipped to ignore or reject bullying. Identity confusion or uncertainty may lead to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. Erikson believed it was important to be flexible and not to strive solely for a strong identity. Doing so can nurture fanaticism and inflexibility. Instead, a person must be open to shifts in identity. Causes In Erikson's understanding, development centers around eight stages of psychosocial developmentTrusted Source, which follow one another in a predictable order. Stage five happens in adolescence, when a person faces an identity crisis and must choose between ego identity and confusion. In the popular conception of an identity crisis, an identity crisis can occur after a major life change or following a trauma. Some potential causes might include: graduating high school or college getting married starting a job losing a spouse or parent becoming a parent retirement changes in one's job duties or career path Symptoms In both Erikson's understanding and the popular conception, identity crises share several features. Those include: exploring new identities and ways of being trying different ways of thinking being uncertain of one's identity and values thinking about one's role in the world and in relationships Importantly, in the Eriksonian understanding of an identity crisis, these behaviors are a feature of adolescence, not other stages of development. Healthy identity development requires a teenager to resolve the crisis with a sense of identity. This does not require treatment. In the popular conception of an identity crisis, an identity crisis may have additional features: major life change, such as graduating from college or experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic a shift in a person's values or life path a developmental change outside of adolescence, such as getting married or entering midlife a shift in gender identity As with Erikson's understanding, this popular understanding resolves when a person understands and accepts their identity. However, unlike in the Eriksonian understanding, this is not a usual part of development. A person might need treatment for mental health support to work through it. Treatment An identity crisis, in Erikson's understanding, does not require treatment. Erikson did believe that certain behaviors and emotions may be signs of developmental issues and identity confusion. For example, depression, anxiety, and other widespread issues among young people may result from an unresolved identity crisis. People experiencing identity issues may find support in therapy. During therapy, a person can clarify their values, discuss their history, reclaim or develop a new identity, and receive support for the anxiety and stress that sometimes accompany an identity crisis. An identity crisis is not a mental health diagnosis and does not require medication. However, some people may develop mental health conditions during an identity crisis or find that their identity crisis intensifies a preexisting mental health condition. Medication, especially along with therapy, may help. Linked conditions Some conditions that are similar to an identity crisis include: Midlife crisis: A crisis of identity in midlife. Quarterlife crisis: A crisis of identity that often happens in a person's 20s, as they begin a career or graduate college. Professional identity crisis: A crisis occurring when a person is unsure of their career. Gender dysphoria: Feeling uncomfortable with the gender a person is assigned at birth, which may include the desire to live as another gender. Adjustment disorder: An intense stress reaction to a stress or trauma. Coping tips Some strategies for coping with an identity crisis include: Learning about different identities and ways of being. Reading new books, watching TV, attending different religious ceremonies, and other strategies to explore identity may help. This strategy can also make diverse identities feel more accepted. Interacting with many different people. Learn about their lives and ask about their experiences. This may help with cultivating a meaningful identity. Considering how cultural and family norms affect a person's identity. Weigh which aspects a person would like to accept and reject. Seeking support from trusted loved ones or a therapist. Understanding that no one else can, or should, determine a person's identity. Embracing the crisis as a chance to develop a meaningful sense of identity and purpose. When to contact a doctor An identity crisis is not a mental health diagnosis or a medical problem. In the Eriksonian understanding, it is a natural stage of development. It does not need treatment if a person resolves the crisis and does not develop identity confusion. A person might consider talking with a doctor or mental health professional if they: experience intense dissatisfaction with or confusion about their identity would like mental health support to navigate an identity crisis develop intense anxiety or depression have thoughts of self-harm Suicide prevention If you know someone at immediate risk of self-harm, suicide, or hurting another person: Ask the tough question: "Are you considering suicide?" Listen to the person without judgment. Call 911 or the local emergency number, or text TALK to 741741 to communicate with a trained crisis counselor. Stay with the person until professional help arrives. Try to remove any weapons, medications, or other potentially harmful objects. If you or someone you know is having thoughts of suicide, a prevention hotline can help. The 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline is available 24 hours a day at 988. During a crisis, people who are hard of hearing can use their preferred relay service or dial 711 then 988. Click here for more links and local resources. Summary An identity crisis is a typical stage of development that, in Erikson's understanding, everyone must face. Outside of Erikson's conception, identity crises remain common, and some people experience several during their lives. An identity crisis is not necessarily a negative. It may encourage a person to question their values and place in the world, embrace new values, and understand their relationships with others. However, the process can feel stressful, and people who feel stuck may develop identity confusion. If this occurs, they should seek mental health advice. Talking with supportive loved ones or a therapist may also help people navigate an identity crisis. (Source: Medicaalnewstoday)

Is double-majoring a good idea in college?

When double majors are two completely different subjects with virtually nothing in common, then yes it's really detrimental as they will double the course load. Thus either extending the time in school by nearly 4 years, OR by forcing the student to take too many courses at once. The second one means having no time to properly study and learn the material, thus definitely causing low grades. BUT double majors work well when they are subjects with many overlapping class requirements. Mathematics and computer science, physics and mathematics, Biology and chemistry, psychology and sociology, mathematics and economics, International Relations and History, etc. These are subjects that have so much overlap in their course requirements it's about the same amount of course load as a major and a minor.

Is Internet Pornography Causing Sexual Dysfunctions?

Traditional factors that once explained men's sexual difficulties appear insufficient to account for the sharp rise in erectile dysfunction, delayed ejaculation, decreased sexual satisfaction, and diminished libido during partnered sex in men under 40. This review (1) considers data from multiple domains, e.g., clinical, biological (addiction/urology), psychological (sexual conditioning), sociological; and (2) presents a series of clinical reports, all with the aim of proposing a possible direction for future research of this phenomenon. Alterations to the brain's motivational system are explored as a possible etiology underlying pornography-related sexual dysfunctions. This review also considers evidence that Internet pornography's unique properties (limitless novelty, potential for easy escalation to more extreme material, video format, etc.) may be potent enough to condition sexual arousal to aspects of Internet pornography use that do not readily transition to real-life partners, such that sex with desired partners may not register as meeting expectations and arousal declines. Clinical reports suggest that terminating Internet pornography use is sometimes sufficient to reverse negative effects, underscoring the need for extensive investigation using methodologies that have subjects remove the variable of Internet pornography use. In the interim, a simple diagnostic protocol for assessing patients with porn-induced sexual dysfunction is put forth. 1.1. Trends in Sexual Dysfunction—Unanswered Questions Up until the last decade, rates of ED were low in sexually active men under 40, and did not begin to rise steeply until thereafter [1,2]. A 1999 major cross-sectional study reported erectile dysfunction in 5%, and low sexual desire in 5% of sexually active men, ages 18 to 59 [3], and a 2002 meta-analysis of erectile-dysfunction studies reported consistent rates of 2% in men under 40 (except for the preceding study) [2]. These data were gathered before Internet "porn tube sites" enabled wide access to sexually explicit videos with no download required. The first of these "tube sites" appeared in September 2006 [4]. In contrast, recent studies on ED and low sexual desire document a sharp increase in prevalence of such dysfunctions in men under 40. One clear demonstration of this phenomenon relates to ED, and compares very large samples, all of which were assessed using the same (yes/no) question about ED as part of the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behavior (GSSAB). In 2001-2002, it was administered to 13,618 sexually active men in 29 countries [5]. A decade later, in 2011, the same (yes/no) question from the GSSAB was administered to 2737 sexually active men in Croatia, Norway and Portugal [6]. The first group, in 2001-2002, were aged 40-80. The second group, in 2011, were 40 and under. Based on the findings of historical studies cited earlier, older men would be expected to have far higher ED rates than the negligible rates of younger men [2,7]. However, in just a decade, things changed radically. The 2001-2002 rates for older men 40-80 were about 13% in Europe [5]. By 2011, ED rates in young Europeans, 18-40, ranged from 14%-28% [6]. In the last few years, research using a variety of assessment instruments has revealed further evidence of an unprecedented increase in sexual difficulties among young men. In 2012, Swiss researchers found ED rates of 30% in a cross-section of Swiss men aged 18-24 using the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF-5) [8]. A 2013 Italian study reported one in four patients seeking help for new onset ED were younger than 40, with rates of severe ED nearly 10% higher than in men over 40 [9]. A 2014 study on Canadian adolescents reported that 53.5% of males aged 16-21 had symptoms indicative of a sexual problem [10]. Erectile dysfunction was the most common (26%), followed by low sexual desire (24%), and problems with orgasm (11%). The results took the authors by surprise, "It is unclear why we found such high rates overall, but especially the high rates among both male and female participants rather than female participants alone, as is common in the adult literature" [10] (p.638). A 2016 study by this same group assessed sexual problems in adolescents (16-21 years) in five waves over a two-year period. For males, persistent problems (in at least one wave) were low sexual satisfaction (47.9%), low desire (46.2%), and problems in erectile function (45.3%). The researchers noted that over time rates of sexual problems declined for females, but not for males [11]. A 2014 study of new diagnoses of ED in active duty servicemen reported that rates had more than doubled between 2004 and 2013 [12]. Rates of psychogenic ED increased more than organic ED, while rates of unclassified ED remained relatively stable [12]. A 2014 cross-sectional study of active duty, relatively healthy, male military personnel aged 21-40 employing the five-item IIEF-5 found an overall ED rate of 33.2% [13], with rates as high as 15.7% in individuals without posttraumatic stress disorder [14]. The researchers also noted that sexual dysfunctions are subject to underreporting biases related to stigmatization [14], and that only 1.64% of those with ED had sought prescriptions for phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors through the military [13]. A second analysis of the military cross-sectional data revealed that the increased sexual functioning problems were associated with "sexual anxiety" and "male genital self-image" [14]. A 2015 "Brief Communication" reported ED rates as high as 31% in sexually active men and low sexual desire rates as high as 37% [6]. Finally, another 2015 study on men (mean age approximately 36), reported that ED accompanied by a low desire for partnered sex is now a common observation in clinical practice among men seeking help for their excessive sexual behavior, who frequently "use pornography and masturbate" [15]. Traditionally, ED has been seen as an age-dependent problem [2], and studies investigating ED risk factors in men under 40 have often failed to identify the factors commonly associated with ED in older men, such as smoking, alcoholism, obesity, sedentary life, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and hyperlipidemia [16]. ED is usually classified as either psychogenic or organic. Psychogenic ED has been related to psychological factors (e.g., depression, stress, generalized anxiety, or performance anxiety) while organic ED has been attributed to physical conditions (e.g., neurological, hormonal, anatomical, or pharmacologic side effects) [17]. For men under 40 the most common diagnosis is psychogenic ED, and researchers estimate that only 15%-20% of cases are organic in origin [18]. However, none of the familiar correlative factors suggested for psychogenic ED seem adequate to account for a rapid many-fold increase in youthful sexual difficulties. For example, some researchers hypothesize that rising youthful sexual problems must be the result of unhealthy lifestyles, such as obesity, substance abuse and smoking (factors historically correlated with organic ED). Yet these lifestyle risks have not changed proportionately, or have decreased, in the last 20 years: Obesity rates in U.S. men aged 20-40 increased only 4% between 1999 and 2008 [19]; rates of illicit drug use among US citizens aged 12 or older have been relatively stable over the last 15 years [20]; and smoking rates for US adults declined from 25% in 1993 to 19% in 2011 [21]. Other authors propose psychological factors. Yet, how likely is it that anxiety and depression account for the sharp rise in youthful sexual difficulties given the complex relationship between sexual desire and depression and anxiety? Some depressed and anxious patients report less desire for sex while others report increased sexual desire [22,23,24,25]. Not only is the relationship between depression and ED likely bidirectional and co-occurring, it may also be the consequence of sexual dysfunction, particularly in young men [26]. While it is difficult to quantify rates of other psychological factors hypothesized to account for the sharp rise in youthful sexual difficulties, such as stress, distressed relationships, and insufficient sex education, how reasonable is it to presume that these factors are (1) not bidirectional and (2) have mushroomed at rates sufficient to explain a rapid multi-fold increase in youthful sexual difficulties, such as low sexual desire, difficulty orgasming, and ED? 1.2. Is Internet Pornography Use a Factor In Today's Sexual Dysfunctions? Kinsey Institute researchers were among the first to report pornography-induced erectile-dysfunction (PIED) and pornography-induced abnormally low libido, in 2007 [27]. Half of subjects recruited from bars and bathhouses, where video pornography was "omnipresent", were unable to achieve erections in the lab in response to video porn. In talking to the subjects, researchers discovered that high exposure to pornography videos apparently resulted in lower responsivity and an increased need for more extreme, specialized or "kinky" material to become aroused. The researchers actually redesigned their study to include more varied clips and permit some self-selection. A quarter of the participants' genitals still did not respond normally [27]. Since then, evidence has mounted that Internet pornography may be a factor in the rapid surge in rates of sexual dysfunction. Nearly six out of 10 of 3962 visitors seeking help on the prominent "MedHelp.org ED Forum", who mentioned their ages, were younger than 25. In that analysis of eight years of posts and comments, among words commonly linked with the mental aspect of ED (non-organic ED), "porn" appeared most frequently by far [28]. A 2015 study on high school seniors found that Internet pornography use frequency correlated with low sexual desire [29]. Of those who consumed Internet pornography more than once a week, 16% reported low sexual desire, compared with 0% in non-consumers (and 6% for those who consumed less than once a week). Another 2015 study of men (average age 41.5) seeking treatment for hypersexuality, who masturbated ("typically with very frequent pornography use") seven or more hours per week, found that 71% had sexual dysfunctions, with 33% reporting difficulty orgasming [30]. Anxiety about sexual performance may impel further reliance on pornography as a sexual outlet. In a 2014 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, 11 of the 19 compulsive Internet pornography users (average age 25), whose brains were scanned for evidence of addiction, reported that as a result of excessive use of Internet pornography they had "experienced diminished libido or erectile function specifically in physical relationships with women (although not in relationship to the sexually explicit material)" [31]. Clinicians have also described pornography-related sexual dysfunctions, including PIED. For example, in his book The New Naked, urology professor Harry Fisch reported that excessive Internet pornography use impairs sexual performance in his patients [32], and psychiatry professor Norman Doidge reported in his book The Brain That Changes Itself that removal of Internet pornography use reversed impotence and sexual arousal problems in his patients [33]. In 2014, Bronner and Ben-Zion reported that a compulsive Internet pornography user whose tastes had escalated to extreme hardcore pornography sought help for low sexual desire during partnered sex. Eight months after stopping all exposure to pornography the patient reported experiencing successful orgasm and ejaculation, and succeeded in enjoying good sexual relations [34]. To date, no other researchers have asked men with sexual difficulties to remove the variable of Internet pornography use in order to investigate whether it is contributing to their sexual difficulties. While such intervention studies would be the most illuminating, our review of the literature finds a number of studies that have correlated pornography use with arousal, attraction, and sexual performance problems [27,31,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43], including difficulty orgasming, diminished libido or erectile function [27,30,31,35,43,44], negative effects on partnered sex [37], decreased enjoyment of sexual intimacy [37,41,45], less sexual and relationship satisfaction [38,39,40,43,44,45,46,47],a preference for using Internet pornography to achieve and maintain arousal over having sex with a partner [42], and greater brain activation in response to pornography in those reporting less desire for sex with partners [48]. Again, Internet pornography use frequency correlated with low sexual desire in high school seniors [29]. Two 2016 studies deserve detailed consideration here. The first study claimed to be the first nationally-representative study on married couples to assess the effects of pornography use with longitudinal data. It reported that frequent pornography consumption at Wave 1 (2006) was strongly and negatively related with participants' marital quality and satisfaction with their sex life at Wave 2 (2012). The marriages most negatively affected were those of men who were viewing pornography at the highest frequencies (once a day or more). Assessing multiple variables, the frequency of pornography use in 2006 was the second strongest predictor of poor marital quality in 2012 [47]. The second study claimed to be the only study to directly investigate the relationships between sexual dysfunctions in men and problematic involvement in OSAs (online sexual activities). This survey of 434 men reported that lower overall sexual satisfaction and lower erectile function were associated with problematic Internet pornography use [44]. In addition, 20.3% of the men said that one motive for their pornography use was "to maintain arousal with my partner" [44]. In a finding that may indicate escalation of pornography use, 49% described sometimes "searching for sexual content or being involved in OSAs that were not previously interesting to them or that they considered disgusting" [44] (p.260). Finally, a significant percentage of the participants (27.6%) self-assessed their consumption of OSAs as problematic. While this rate of problematic pornography use may appear to be high, another 2016 study on 1298 men who had viewed pornography in the last six months reported that 28% of participants scored at or above the cutoff for hypersexuality disorder [49]. Our review also included two 2015 papers claiming that Internet pornography use is unrelated to rising sexual difficulties in young men. However, such claims appear to be premature on closer examination of these papers and related formal criticism. The first paper contains useful insights about the potential role of sexual conditioning in youthful ED [50]. However, this publication has come under criticism for various discrepancies, omissions and methodological flaws. For example, it provides no statistical results for the erectile function outcome measure in relation to Internet pornography use. Further, as a research physician pointed out in a formal critique of the paper, the papers' authors, "have not provided the reader with sufficient information about the population studied or the statistical analyses to justify their conclusion" [51]. Additionally, the researchers investigated only hours of Internet pornography use in the last month. Yet studies on Internet pornography addiction have found that the variable of hours of Internet pornography use alone is widely unrelated to "problems in daily life", scores on the SAST-R (Sexual Addiction Screening Test), and scores on the IATsex (an instrument that assesses addiction to online sexual activity) [52,53,54,55,56]. A better predictor is subjective sexual arousal ratings while watching Internet pornography (cue reactivity), an established correlate of addictive behavior in all addictions [52,53,54]. There is also increasing evidence that the amount of time spent on Internet video-gaming does not predict addictive behavior. "Addiction can only be assessed properly if motives, consequences and contextual characteristics of the behavior are also part of the assessment" [57]. Three other research teams, using various criteria for "hypersexuality" (other than hours of use), have strongly correlated it with sexual difficulties [15,30,31]. Taken together, this research suggests that rather than simply "hours of use", multiple variables are highly relevant in assessment of pornography addiction/hypersexuality, and likely also highly relevant in assessing pornography-related sexual dysfunctions. A second paper reported little correlation between frequency of Internet pornography use in the last year and ED rates in sexually active men from Norway, Portugal and Croatia [6]. These authors, unlike those of the previous paper, acknowledge the high prevalence of ED in men 40 and under, and indeed found ED and low sexual desire rates as high as 31% and 37%, respectively. In contrast, pre-streaming Internet pornography research done in 2004 by one of the paper's authors reported ED rates of only 5.8% in men 35-39 [58]. Yet, based on a statistical comparison, the authors conclude that Internet pornography use does not seem to be a significant risk factor for youthful ED. That seems overly definitive, given that the Portuguese men they surveyed reported the lowest rates of sexual dysfunction compared with Norwegians and Croatians, and only 40% of Portuguese reported using Internet pornography "from several times a week to daily", as compared with the Norwegians, 57%, and Croatians, 59%. This paper has been formally criticized for failing to employ comprehensive models able to encompass both direct and indirect relationships between variables known or hypothesized to be at work [59]. Incidentally, in a related paper on problematic low sexual desire involving many of the same survey participants from Portugal, Croatia and Norway, the men were asked which of numerous factors they believed contributed to their problematic lack of sexual interest. Among other factors, approximately 11%-22% chose "I use too much pornography" and 16%-26% chose "I masturbate too often" [60]. Again, intervention studies would be the most instructive. However, with respect to correlation studies, it is likely that a complex set of variables needs to be investigated in order to elucidate the risk factors at work in unprecedented youthful sexual difficulties. First, it may be that low sexual desire, difficulty orgasming with a partner and erectile problems are part of the same spectrum of Internet pornography-related effects, and that all of these difficulties should be combined when investigating potentially illuminating correlations with Internet pornography use. Second, although it is unclear exactly which combination of factors may best account for such difficulties, promising variables to investigate in combination with frequency of Internet pornography use might include (1) years of pornography-assisted versus pornography-free masturbation; (2) ratio of ejaculations with a partner to ejaculations with Internet pornography; (3) the presence of Internet pornography addiction/hypersexuality; (4) the number of years of streaming Internet pornography use; (5) at what age regular use of Internet pornography began and whether it began prior to puberty; (6) trend of increasing Internet pornography use; (7) escalation to more extreme genres of Internet pornography, and so forth. 2. Clinical Reports While correlation studies are easier to conduct, the difficulty in isolating the precise variables at work in the unprecedented rise of sexual dysfunction in men under 40 suggests that intervention studies (in which subjects removed the variable of Internet pornography use) would better establish whether there is a connection between its use and sexual difficulties. The following clinical reports demonstrate how asking patients with diverse and otherwise unexplained dysfunctions to eradicate Internet pornography use helps to isolate its effects on sexual difficulties. Below we report on three active duty servicemen. Two saw a physician for their non-organic erectile dysfunction, low sexual desire, and unexplained difficulty in achieving orgasm with partners. The first mentioned variables (1), (6) and (7), listed in the preceding paragraph. The second mentioned (6) and (7). Both were free of mental health diagnoses. We also report a third active duty serviceman who saw a physician for mental health reasons. He mentioned variable (6). 2.1. First Clinical Report A 20-year old active duty enlisted Caucasian serviceman presented with difficulties achieving orgasm during intercourse for the previous six months. It first happened while he was deployed overseas. He was masturbating for about an hour without an orgasm, and his penis went flaccid. His difficulties maintaining erection and achieving orgasm continued throughout his deployment. Since his return, he had not been able to ejaculate during intercourse with his fiancée. He could achieve an erection but could not orgasm, and after 10-15 min he would lose his erection, which was not the case prior to his having ED issues. This was causing problems in his relationship with his fiancée. Patient endorsed masturbating frequently for "years", and once or twice almost daily for the past couple of years. He endorsed viewing Internet pornography for stimulation. Since he gained access to high-speed Internet, he relied solely on Internet pornography. Initially, "soft porn", where the content does not necessarily involve actual intercourse, "did the trick". However, gradually he needed more graphic or fetish material to orgasm. He reported opening multiple videos simultaneously and watching the most stimulating parts. When preparing for deployment about a year ago, he was worried about being away from partnered sex. So, he purchased a sex toy, which he described as a "fake vagina". This device was initially so stimulating that he reached orgasm within minutes. However, as was the case with Internet pornography, with increased use, he needed longer and longer to ejaculate, and eventually he was unable to orgasm at all. Since returning from deployment, he reported continued masturbation one or more times per day using both Internet pornography and toy. Although physically and emotionally attracted to his fiancée, the patient reported that he preferred the device to actual intercourse because he found it more stimulating. He denied any other relationship issues. He also denied any personal and/or vocational stressors. He described his mood as "concerned" because he was worried there was something wrong with his genitals and he wanted his relationship with his fiancée to work. She was starting to think that he was no longer attracted to her. Medically, he had no history of major illness, surgery, or mental health diagnoses. He was not taking any medications or supplements. He denied using tobacco products but drank a few drinks at parties once or twice a month. He had never blacked out from alcohol intoxication. He reported multiple sexual partners in the past, but since his engagement a year ago his fiancée had been his sole sexual partner. He denied a history of sexually transmitted diseases. On physical examination, his vital signs were all normal, and his genital exam was normal appearing without lesions or masses. At the conclusion of the visit, it was explained to him that use of a sex toy had potentially desensitized his penile nerves and watching hardcore Internet pornography had altered his threshold for sexual stimulation. He was advised to stop using the toy and watching hardcore Internet pornography. He was referred to urology for further evaluation. By the time he was seen by the urologist a few weeks later, he had cut down on Internet pornography use significantly, although he said he could not completely stop. He ceased using the toy. He was having orgasms again through intercourse with his fiancée, and their relationship had improved. The urologist's evaluation was normal. 2.2. Second Clinical Report A 40-year old African American enlisted serviceman with 17 years of continuous active duty presented with difficulty achieving erections for the previous three months. He reported that when he attempted to have sexual intercourse with his wife, he had difficulty achieving an erection and difficulty maintaining it long enough to orgasm. Ever since their youngest child left for college, six months earlier, he had found himself masturbating more often due to increased privacy. He formerly masturbated every other week on average, but that increased to two to three times per week. He had always used Internet pornography, but the more often he used it, the longer it took to orgasm with his usual material. This led to him using more graphic material. Soon thereafter, sex with his wife was "not as stimulating" as before and at times he found his wife "not as attractive". He denied ever having these issues earlier in the seven years of their marriage. He was having marital issues because his wife suspected he was having an affair, which he adamantly denied. His medical history was only significant for hypertension, which was diagnosed more than two years earlier and had been well controlled with a diuretic: 25mg of chlorthalidone daily. He took no other medications or supplements. His only surgery was an appendectomy performed three years prior. He had no sexually transmitted diseases or mental health diagnoses. He endorsed smoking three packs of cigarettes per week for over ten years and drinking one to two drinks per week. Physical exam revealed vital signs within normal ranges, normal cardiovascular exam, and normal appearing genitals without lesions or masses. At the end of the exam, his issues were attributed to heightened sexual stimulation threshold from exposure to hardcore Internet pornography and frequent masturbation. He was advised to stop watching hardcore Internet pornography and decrease masturbation frequency. Three months later, the patient reported that he tried "really hard" to avoid hardcore Internet pornography and to masturbate less, but he "just couldn't do it". He said whenever he was home alone, he found himself watching Internet pornography, which would eventually lead to masturbation. Not watching made him feel like he was "missing out", which made him irritable and made him want to do it even more, to the point where he looked forward to his wife leaving the house. He was offered a referral to sex behavioral therapy, but he declined. He wanted to try to work on his behavior on his own. 2.3. Third Clinical Report A 24-year old junior Enlisted Sailor was admitted to the inpatient mental health unit after a suicide attempt by overdose. During his evaluation and treatment he admitted to drinking alcohol even though he was advised to not use alcohol while being treated with antidepressant medications. His history and increasing tolerance were consistent with mild Alcohol Use Disorder due to his use while taking antidepressants. As part of the addictions portion of his history he was asked about gambling, Internet gaming and pornography addiction. He revealed that he had become concerned over his use of pornography, spending an excessive amount of time (5+ h a day) viewing online pornography for about six months. He also realized that he had diminished sexual interest in his wife, manifested by his inability to maintain sustained erections, preferring to view pornography where he had no erectile issues. When he became aware of his excessive use of pornography, he stopped viewing it completely, telling his interviewer he was afraid that if he viewed it to any extent he would find himself overusing it again. He reported that after he ceased using pornography his erectile dysfunction disappeared. In summary, intervention studies designed to reveal causation by removing the variable of Internet pornography use are much needed to investigate unexplained sexual difficulties in Internet pornography users under 40. As suggested by our clinical reports, as well as the successes of clinicians Doidge [33] and Bronner and Ben-Zion [34] above, such research might ask study participants with possible PIED, difficulty achieving orgasm with a partner, and/or low sexual desire/satisfaction to eliminate Internet pornography. 3. Discussion 3.1. Male Sexual Response in the Brain While male sexual response is complex, several key brain regions are critical for achieving and maintaining erections [61]. Hypothalamic nuclei play an important role in regulating sexual behavior and erections by acting as an integration center for brain and peripheral input [62]. The hypothalamic nuclei that facilitate erections receive pro-erectile input from the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which comprises the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) [62]. The VTA-NAc circuit is a key detector of rewarding stimuli, and forms the core of a broader, more complex set of integrated circuits commonly called the "reward system" [63]. An individual's response to natural rewards, such as sex, is largely regulated by the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which receives excitatory and inhibitory input from other limbic structures and the prefrontal cortex [64]. Erections are dependent upon activation of dopaminergic neurons in VTA and dopamine receptors in the NAc [65,66]. Excitatory glutamate inputs from other limbic structures (amygdala, hippocampus) and the prefrontal cortex facilitate dopaminergic activity in the VTA and NAc [62]. Reward responsive dopamine neurons also project into the dorsal striatum, a region activated during sexual arousal and penile tumescence [67]. Dopamine agonists, such as apomorphine, have been shown to induce erection in men with both normal and impaired erectile function [68]. Thus, dopamine signaling in the reward system and hypothalamus plays a central role in sexual arousal, sexual motivation and penile erections [65,66,69]. We propose that chronic Internet pornography use resulted in erectile dysfunction and delayed ejaculation in our servicemen reported above. We hypothesize an etiology arising in part from Internet pornography-induced alterations in the circuits governing sexual desire and penile erections. Both hyper-reactivity to Internet pornography cues via glutamate inputs and downregulation of the reward system's response to normal rewards may be involved. These two brain changes are consistent with chronic overconsumption of both natural rewards and drugs of abuse, and are mediated by dopamine surges in the reward system [70,71,72]. 3.2. Internet Pornography as Supernormal Stimulus Arguably, the most important development in the field of problematic sexual behavior is the way in which the Internet is influencing and facilitating compulsive sexual behavior [73]. Unlimited high-definition sexual videos streaming via "tube sites" are now free and widely accessible, 24 h a day via computers, tablets and smartphones, and it has been suggested that Internet pornography constitutes a supernormal stimulus, an exaggerated imitation of something our brains evolved to pursue because of its evolutionary salience [74,75]. Sexually explicit material has been around for a long time, but (1) video pornography is significantly more sexually arousing than other forms of pornography [76,77] or fantasy [78]; (2) novel sexual visuals have been shown to trigger greater arousal, faster ejaculation, and more semen and erection activity compared with familiar material, perhaps because attention to potential novel mates and arousal served reproductive fitness [75,79,80,81,82,83,84]; and (3) the ability to self-select material with ease makes Internet pornography more arousing than pre-selected collections [79]. A pornography user can maintain or heighten sexual arousal by instantly clicking to a novel scene, new video or never encountered genre. A 2015 study assessing Internet pornography's effects on delay discounting (choosing immediate gratification over delayed rewards of greater value) states, "The constant novelty and primacy of sexual stimuli as particularly strong natural rewards make internet pornography a unique activator of the brain's reward system. ... It is therefore important to treat pornography as a unique stimulus in reward, impulsivity, and addiction studies" [75] (pp. 1, 10). Novelty registers as salient, enhances reward value, and has lasting effects on motivation, learning and memory [85]. Like sexual motivation and the rewarding properties of sexual interaction, novelty is compelling because it triggers bursts of dopamine in regions of the brain strongly associated with reward and goal-directed behavior [66]. While compulsive Internet pornography users show stronger preference for novel sexual images than healthy controls, their dACC (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) also shows more rapid habituation to images than healthy controls [86], fueling the search for more novel sexual images. As co-author Voon explained about her team's 2015 study on novelty and habituation in compulsive Internet pornography users, "The seemingly endless supply of novel sexual images available online [can feed an] addiction, making it more and more difficult to escape" [87]. Mesolimbic dopamine activity can also be enhanced by additional properties often associated with Internet pornography use such as, violation of expectations, anticipation of reward, and the act of seeking/surfing (as for Internet pornography) [88,89,90,91,92,93]. Anxiety, which has been shown to increase sexual arousal [89,94], may also accompany Internet pornography use. In short, Internet pornography offers all of these qualities, which register as salient, stimulate dopamine bursts, and enhance sexual arousal. 3.3. Internet Pornography Use as Self-Reinforcing Activity As the reward system encourages organisms to remember and repeat critical behaviors, such as sex, eating, and socializing, chronic Internet pornography use may become a self-reinforcing activity [95]. The reward system is vulnerable to pathological learning [96], particularly in adolescents, such as greater risk of addiction [97,98] and greater future use of "deviant pornography" (bestiality and child pornography) [99]. Several lines of research have begun to elucidate the overlap in the neural substrates of sexual learning and addiction [100,101]. For example, sexual behaviors and addictive drugs activate the same sets of neurons within the same reward system structures (NAc, basolateral amygdala, anterior cingulated area) [102]. In contrast, very little overlap exists between other natural rewards (food, water) and addictive drugs, such as cocaine and methamphetamine [102]. Thus, methamphetamine use recruits the same mechanisms and neural substrates as does the natural reward of sexual stimulation [103]. In another study, cocaine addicts had nearly identical brain activation patterns when viewing pornography and cues related to their addiction, but brain activation patterns when viewing nature scenes were completely different [104]. Furthermore, both repeated sexual behaviors and repeated psychostimulant administration induce up regulation of Delta FosB, a transcription factor that promotes several neuroplastic changes that sensitize the mesolimbic dopamine system to the activity in question [103]. In both addictive drug use and sexual reward, this up regulation in the same NAc neurons is mediated via dopamine receptors [103]. This process renders the individual hyper-sensitized to stimuli associated with the activity (increased incentive salience) [105]. Exposure to related cues then triggers cravings to engage in the behavior (increased "wanting"), and may lead to compulsive use [106]. In comparing sexual reward to substances of abuse, researchers Pitchers et al. concluded that, "Natural and drug rewards not only converge on the same neural pathway, they converge on the same molecular mediators, and likely in the same neurons in the NAc, to influence the incentive salience and the "wanting" of both types of rewards" [103]. In the same vein, a 2016 review by Kraus, Voon and Potenza affirmed that, "Common neurotransmitter systems may contribute to [compulsive sexual behavior] and substance use disorders, and recent neuroimaging studies highlight similarities relating to craving and attentional biases" [107]. To date, the potential health risks of Internet pornography are not as well understood as those for alcohol and tobacco use, and Internet pornography use is widely portrayed as both ordinary behavior and increasingly socially acceptable [108,109]. Perhaps this is why men are slow to connect their pornography viewing with their sexual difficulties. After all, "Who doesn't watch porn these days?" as one of our servicemen asked his physician. He regarded his problematic progression as normal, perhaps even evidence of high libido [110]. However, there is growing evidence that it was an indication of addiction-related processes [31,52,54,73,86,107,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122]. Finnish researchers found "adult entertainment" to be the most common reason for compulsive Internet use [123], and a one-year longitudinal study of Internet applications revealed that Internet pornography may have the highest potential for addiction [124], with Internet gaming a close second in both studies. To date, Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has been slated for further study in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) [125], while Internet pornography addiction disorder has not. However, in the view of UK researcher Griffiths, "the empirical base for sex addiction is arguably on a par with IGD" [73]. In fact, various addiction experts are calling for Internet addiction to be recognized as a generalized problem with more specific subtypes such as gaming and pornography [118,126,127,128]. A 2015 review also concluded that Internet pornography addiction should be recognized as a subtype of Internet addiction, which belongs in the DSM [118]. Interestingly, our second serviceman meets many of the criteria proposed for IGD in the DSM-5, adjusted for Internet pornography use. He exhibited the following: (1) preoccupation with Internet pornography; (2) loss of interest in sex with his real-life partner as a consequence; (3) withdrawal symptoms such as irritability and resentment; (4) seeking pornography to relieve his bad feelings; (5) inability to quit despite severe problems; and (6) escalation to more graphic material. 3.4. Neuroadaptations Related to Internet Pornography-Induced Sexual Difficulties We hypothesize that pornography-induced sexual difficulties involve both hyperactivity and hypoactivity in the brain's motivational system [72,129] and neural correlates of each, or both, have been identified in recent studies on Internet pornography users [31,48,52,53,54,86,113,114,115,120,121,130,131,132,133,134]. We have broken this portion of our discussion into three somewhat interrelated sections. 3.4.1. Increased Incentive Salience for Internet Pornography (Hyperactivity) Hyperactivity refers to a sensitized, conditioned response to cues associated with use. Sensitized learning involves an enhanced mesolimbic dopamine system response that results in attribution of potentially pathological levels of incentive salience to cue-evoked seeking of drugs and natural rewards [135,136,137]. The mesolimbic dopamine system receives glutamate inputs from various cortical and limbic regions. Current theory suggests glutamatergic synapses associated with seeking and obtaining a particular reward undergo modifications, which enhance the response of the mesolimbic dopamine system to that same reward [100,138]. These powerful new learned associations underlie the "incentive-salience" (or "incentive motivation") theory of addiction. With respect to our servicemen's contact with partners, it is possible that as they sensitized their sexual arousal to Internet pornography, partnered sex no longer met their conditioned expectations and no longer triggered the release of sufficient dopamine to produce and sustain erections [50,62,139]. As Prause and Pfaus note, "Erectile problems may occur when real-life sexual stimulation does not match the broad content [accessible online]" [50]. Human and animal studies suggest that when expectations are unmet (a negative prediction error), activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway is inhibited [140,141,142,143]. Addiction studies have reported that cues explicitly paired with the absence of drug reward can have marked inhibitory effects on dopamine release [72]. Consistent with a negative prediction error, Banca et al. reported a decrease in ventral striatal activity in response to the omission of an expected sexual image (following a conditioned cue) [86]. Banca et al. also reported that, compared to healthy controls, compulsive Internet pornography users had enhanced preference for conditioned cues (abstract patterns) related to sexual images [86]. This finding suggests that Internet pornography users can become sensitized to cues that are unrelated to sexual content, associations that can be extremely challenging to extinguish [87]. A 2014 fMRI study by Voon et al. provides support for the incentive-salience (sensitization) model with respect to compulsive Internet pornography users [31]. Compared to healthy controls, compulsive Internet pornography users had enhanced activity to sexually explicit films in the ventral striatum, amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. This same core network is activated during cue reactivity and drug craving in substance abusers [144]. Voon et al. also reported that, "Compared to healthy volunteers, [compulsive internet pornography users] had greater subjective sexual desire or wanting to explicit cues and had greater liking scores to erotic [less explicit] cues, thus demonstrating a dissociation between wanting and liking" [31] (p. 2). In the incentive-sensitization model of addiction, dissociation between "wanting" and "liking" is considered an indication of pathological learning [106]. As the addiction to explicit Internet pornography progresses, motivation and cravings to use ("wanting") increase, while pleasure from its use ("liking") decreases. Here, Internet pornography viewers "liked" the tamer erotic stimuli, but "wanted" the explicit cues disproportionately. Similar to our servicemen, the majority of Voon et al.'s subjects (mean age 25) "had greater impairments of sexual arousal and erectile difficulties in intimate relationships but not with sexually explicit materials highlighting that the enhanced desire scores were specific to the explicit cues and not generalized heightened sexual desire" [31] (p. 5). A related study on most of the same subjects found enhanced attentional bias in compulsive Internet pornography users similar to that observed in studies of drug cues in addiction disorders [111]. The research team concluded that, "These studies together provide support for an incentive motivation theory of addiction underlying the aberrant response towards sexual cues in CSB [compulsive sexual behavior]" [111]. A 2015 fMRI study on male hypersexuals by Seok and Sohn replicated and expanded upon the findings of Voon et al. [31] and Mechelmans et al. [111] , just described [120]. Seok and Sohn reported that compared to controls hypersexuals had significantly greater brain activation when exposed to sexual images for 5 s. While Voon et al [31] examined cue-induced activity in the dACC-ventral striatal-amygdala functional network, Seok and Sohn assessed activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), caudate nucleus, inferior parietal lobe, dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus, and the thalamus. Seok and Sohn added that the severity of sexual addiction directly correlated with cue-induced activation of the DLPFC and thalamus. A third finding was that compared to controls hypersexuals had far greater DLPFC activation to sexual cues, yet far less DLPFC activation to neutral stimuli. This mirrors abnormal prefrontal cortex functioning in individuals with addiction where increased sensitivity to addiction cues is coupled with less interest in normal rewarding activities [145]. This finding aligns with our hypothesis that both hyperactivity and hypoactivity of the brain's motivational system are involved in compulsive pornography use, and may be related to pornography-induced sexual dysfunctions. A 2016 fMRI cue-reactivity study on male heterosexual pornography users expanded on previous findings [54]. Brand et al. reported that ventral striatum activity was greater for preferred pornographic material as compared to non-preferred pornographic material. In addition, stronger ventral striatum activity for preferred pornographic material was related to self-reported symptoms of addictive use of Internet pornography. In fact, symptoms of Internet pornography addiction (as assessed by the s-IATsex) were the only significant predictor of ventral striatum response to preferred versus non-preferred pornographic pictures. Other variables, such as weekly amount of cybersex, sexual excitability, hypersexual behavior in general, symptoms of depression and interpersonal sensitivity, and indicators of intensity of current sexual behavior, did not relate to cue-induced ventral striatum activity. Put simply, it was sensitization that best predicted symptoms of Internet pornography addiction. Brand et al. concluded that, "The findings emphasize parallels between IPA [internet pornography addiction] and other behavioral addictions and substance-related disorders" [54]. A 2016 fMRI study (Klucken et al.) [121] compared two groups of heterosexual males: subjects with compulsive sexual behaviors (CSB) and healthy controls. The mean time typically spent watching sexually explicit material weekly was 1187 min for the CSB group and 29 min for the control group. Researchers exposed all subjects to a conditioning procedure in which previously neutral stimuli (colored squares) predicted the presentation of an erotic picture. Compared to controls the subjects with CSB displayed increased activation of the amygdala during presentation of the conditioned cue predicting the erotic picture. This finding aligns with studies reporting increased amygdala activation when substance abusers are exposed to cues related to drug use [146]. Voon et al. also reported that explicit videos induced greater amygdala activation in CSB subjects than in healthy controls. This research converges with animal research linking the amygdala to appetitive conditioning. For example, stimulating opioid circuitry in the amygdala magnifies incentive salience intensity towards a conditioned cue, accompanied by a simultaneous reduction of the attractiveness of an alternative salient target [147]. While the CSB group in Klucken et al. [121] had greater amygdala activation to a cue predicting a sexual image, their subjective sexual arousal was no higher than controls. Interestingly, three of the twenty CSB subjects reported "orgasmic-erection disorder" when interviewed to screen for Axis I and Axis II diagnoses, while none of the control subjects reported sexual problems. This finding recalls Voon et al., in which CSB subjects had greater amygdala-ventral striatum-dACC activation to explicit sexual videos, yet 11 of 19 reported erectile or arousal difficulties with sexual partners. Klucken et al. also found decreased coupling between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex in subjects with CSB compared with controls. Decreased ventral striatal-PFC coupling has been reported in substance disorders and is believed to be related to impaired impulse control [145]. A 2013 EEG study by Steele et al. reported higher P300 amplitude to sexual images, relative to neutral pictures, in individuals complaining of problems regulating their Internet pornography use [48]. Substance abusers also exhibit greater P300 amplitude when exposed to visual cues associated with their addiction [148]. In addition, Steele et al. reported a negative correlation between P300 amplitude and desire for sex with a partner [48]. Greater cue reactivity to Internet pornography paired with less sexual desire for partnered sex, as reported by Steele et al., aligns with the Voon et al. finding of "diminished libido or erectile function specifically in physical relationships with women" in compulsive Internet pornography users [31]. Supporting these findings, two studies assessing sexual desire and erectile function in "hypersexuals" and compulsive Internet pornography users reported associations between measures of hypersexuality, and reduced desire for partnered sex and sexual difficulties [15,30]. Additionally, the 2016 survey of 434 men who viewed Internet pornography at least once in the last three months reported that problematic use was associated with higher levels of arousabilty, yet lower sexual satisfaction and poorer erectile function [44]. These results should be viewed in light of the multiple neuropsychology studies that have found that sexual arousal to Internet pornography cues and cravings to view pornography were related to symptom severity of cybersex addiction and self-reported problems in daily life due to excessive Internet pornography use [52,53,54,113,115,149,150]. Taken together, multiple and varied studies on Internet pornography users align with the incentive-salience theory of addiction, in which changes in the attraction value of an incentive correspond with changes in activation of regions of the brain implicated in the sensitization process [31,106]. To sum up, in alignment with our hypothesis, various studies report that greater reactivity toward pornographic cues, cravings to view, and compulsive pornography use are associated with sexual difficulties and diminished sexual desire for partners. 3.4.2. Decreased Reward Sensitivity (Hypoactivity) In contrast with the hyperactive response to Internet pornography cues just described, hypoactivity is a concomitant decrease in reward sensitivity to normally salient stimuli [70,151,152,153], such as partnered sex [31,48]. This decrease is also behind tolerance [70], and has been implicated in both substance and behavioral addictions [153,154,155,156], including other types of Internet addictions [157,158,159].Our servicemen's tolerance to Internet pornography increased fairly quickly, leading to viewing more extreme material. The fact that self-selected pornography video is more arousing than other pornography may contribute to habituation or tolerance [27,75,79,81,160]. For example, men who viewed a sexual film rather than a neutral film later showed less response to sexual images, a possible indication of habituation [161]. Not long after pornography videotapes became available, researchers also discovered that when viewers were given ad libitum access to pornography videotapes of varying themes they swiftly escalated to more extreme pornography [162]. The more video pornography viewed, the greater the desire for hardcore themes [27,43,162], indicative of declining sexual responsiveness. (Again, half of Kinsey Institute subjects who regularly consumed video pornography showed little erectile responsiveness in the lab, and reported a need for more novelty and variety [27], and half of pornography users surveyed recently also had moved to material that did not interest them previously or which they found disgusting [44] (p. 260).) In another study, sexual satisfaction with partners, as measured by affection, physical appearance, sexual curiosity, and sexual performance, was inversely related to pornography use [43]. In pair-bonding mammals extreme stimulation with amphetamine impairs pair-bonding via activation of mesolimbic dopamine receptors [163], and it is possible that today's supernormally stimulating Internet pornography brings about a similar effect in some users. In line with the suggestion that some Internet pornography users' reward systems may be hypoactive in response to partnered sex (as well as hyper-reactive to cues for Internet pornography use), a 2014 fMRI study of non-compulsive Internet pornography users by Kühn and Gallinat found that the right caudate of the striatum was smaller with more hours and years of Internet pornography viewing [134].The caudate appears to be involved in approach-attachment behaviors and is strongly implicated in motivational states associated with romantic love [164,165]. Also, the greater the subjects' Internet pornography use, the lower the activation in the left putamen when viewing sexually explicit still photos (0.530 s exposure). Activation of the putamen is associated with sexual arousal and penile tumescence [67,166]. The authors suggested both findings were "in line with the hypothesis that intense exposure to pornographic stimuli results in a downregulation of the natural neural response to sexual stimuli" [134]. Interestingly, men with a "higher interest in degrading or extreme pornography" report greater concerns about their sexual performance, penis size, and ability to sustain an erection than other Internet pornography users [42]. As hypothesized, extreme pornography viewing may decrease sexual responsiveness in some users, thus driving a spiraling need for more extreme or novel material to perform [27]. Again, a 2016 study reported that half of men surveyed had moved to material "not previously interesting to them or that they considered disgusting" [44]. A 2015 EEG study by Prause et al. compared frequent viewers of Internet pornography (mean 3.8 h/week) who were distressed about their viewing to controls (mean 0.6 h/week) as they viewed sexual images (1.0 s exposure) [130]. In a finding that parallels Kühn and Gallinat, frequent Internet pornography viewers exhibited less neural activation (LPP) to sexual images than controls [130]. The results of both studies suggest that frequent viewers of Internet pornography require greater visual stimulation to evoke brain responses when compared with healthy controls or moderate Internet pornography users [167,168]. In addition, Kühn and Gallinat reported that higher Internet pornography use correlated with lower functional connectivity between the striatum and the prefrontal cortex. Dysfunction in this circuitry has been related to inappropriate behavioral choices regardless of potential negative outcome [169]. In line with Kühn and Gallinat, neuropsychological studies report that subjects with higher tendency towards cybersex addiction have reduced executive control function when confronted with pornographic material [53,114]. A 2015 fMRI study by Banca et al. reported that, compared to healthy controls, compulsive Internet pornography subjects had a greater choice preference for novel sexual images [86]. While novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking are associated with greater risk for several types of addictions [170], Banca et al. found no differences in sensation-seeking scores between compulsive Internet pornography users and healthy controls. The authors suggest that the preference for novelty was specific to Internet pornography use, and not generalized novelty- or sensation-seeking [86]. These results align with Brand et al. (2011), which found that "the number of sex applications used" was a significant predictor of addiction using the IATsex questionnaire, while personality facets were not related to cybersex addiction [53]. Banca et al. also reported that compulsive Internet pornography users showed greater habituation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) to repeated viewing of the same sexual images [86]. Generally speaking, the degree of dACC habituation to sexual images was associated with greater preference for novel sexual stimuli [86]. The dACC is implicated in drug cue reactivity and craving, as well as the assessment of expected versus unexpected rewards [144,171]. Voon et al. reported enhanced dACC activity in compulsive Internet pornography subjects in response to sexually explicit videos [31]. Banca et al.'s findings strongly suggest that greater novelty seeking in compulsive Internet pornography users is driven by more rapid habituation to sexual stimuli. The researchers concluded, "We show experimentally what is observed clinically that [compulsive internet pornography use] is characterized by novelty-seeking, conditioning and habituation to sexual stimuli in males" [86]. In a related study, many of these same subjects had also reported sexual arousal and erectile difficulties in partnered sexual activity, but not during Internet pornography use [31]. This implies that Internet pornography-induced sexual difficulties may be partly due to conditioned expectations of novelty that are not matched in partnered sexual activity. Taken together, Kühn and Gallinat [134], Prause et al. [130] and Banca et al. [86] demonstrated that frequent Internet pornography users exhibit (1) less brain activation in response to brief exposure to sexual images; (2) greater preference for novel sexual stimuli; (3) faster dACC habituation to sexual stimuli; and (4) less grey matter volume in the caudate. These findings support the hypothesis that Internet pornography use may decrease reward sensitivity, leading to increased habituation and tolerance as well as the need for greater stimulation to become sexually aroused. Studies investigating psychogenic ED provide further support for the role of reward system hypoactivity in erectile dysfunction and low libido. Dopamine agonist apomorphine elicits penile erections in men with psychogenic ED [172]. When a 2003 fMRI study monitored brain patterns while men with psychogenic ED and potent controls viewed sexual films, those with psychogenic ED differed significantly from potent controls in the degree of activation of cortical and subcortical regions. When dopamine agonist apomorphine was administered to men with psychogenic ED, it produced brain activation patterns similar to those seen in potent controls: significantly increased striatal and hypothalamic activity combined with cortical deactivation [173]. Moreover, a 2012 MRI study found a strong correlation between a reduction of striatal and hypothalamic grey matter and psychogenic ED [174]. A 2008 study reported men with psychogenic ED exhibited blunted hypothalamic activity in response to a sexual film [175]. 3.4.3. Internet Pornography and Sexual Conditioning Given that our servicemen reported that they experienced erections and arousal with Internet pornography, but not without it, research is needed to rule out inadvertent sexual conditioning as a contributing factor to today's rising rates of sexual performance problems and low sexual desire in men under 40. Prause and Pfaus have hypothesized that sexual arousal may become conditioned to aspects of Internet pornography use that do not readily transition to real-life partner situations. "It is conceivable that experiencing the majority of sexual arousal within the context of VSS [visual sexual stimuli] may result in a diminished erectile response during partnered sexual interactions...When high stimulation expectations are not met, partnered sexual stimulation is ineffective" [50]. Such inadvertent sexual conditioning is consistent with the incentive-salience model. Several lines of research implicate increased mesolimbic dopamine in sensitization to both drugs of abuse and sexual reward [100,103]. Acting through dopamine D1 receptors, both sexual experience and psychostimulant exposure induce many of the same long-lasting neuroplastic changes in the NAc critical for enhanced wanting of both rewards [103]. Today's Internet pornography user can maintain high levels of sexual arousal, and concomitant elevated dopamine, for extended periods due to unlimited novel content. High dopamine states have been implicated in conditioning sexual behavior in unexpected ways in both animal models [176,177] and humans. In humans, when Parkinson's patients were prescribed dopamine agonists, some reported uncharacteristic compulsive pornography use and demonstrated greater neural activity to sexual picture cues, correlating with enhanced sexual desire [178]. Two recent fMRI studies reported that subjects with compulsive sexual behaviors are more prone to establish conditioned associations between formally neutral cues and explicit sexual stimuli than controls [86,121]. With repeated Internet pornography exposure, "wanting" may increase for Internet pornography's expected novelty and variety, elements difficult to sustain during partnered sex. In line with the hypothesis that Internet pornography use can condition sexual expectations, Seok and Sohn found that compared to controls hypersexuals had greater DLPFC activation to sexual cues, yet less DLPFC activation to non-sexual stimuli [120]. It also appears that Internet pornography use can condition the user to expect or "want" novelty. Banca et al. reported that subjects with compulsive sexual behaviors had greater preference for novel sexual images and showed greater habituation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex to repeated viewing of the same sexual images [86]. In some users, a preference for novelty arises from the need to overcome declining libido and erectile function, which may, in turn, lead to new conditioned pornographic tastes [27]. When a user has conditioned his sexual arousal to Internet pornography, sex with desired real partners may register as "not meeting expectations" (negative reward prediction) resulting in a corresponding decline in dopamine. Combined with the inability to click to more stimulation, this unmet prediction may reinforce an impression that partnered sex is less salient than Internet pornography use. Internet pornography also offers a voyeur's perspective generally not available throughout partnered sex. It is possible that if a susceptible Internet pornography user reinforces the association between arousal and watching other peoplehave sex on screens while he is highly aroused, his association between arousal and real-life partnered sexual encounters may weaken. Research on conditioning of sexual response in humans is limited, but shows that sexual arousal is conditionable [179,180,181], and particularly prior to adulthood [182]. In men, arousal can be conditioned to particular films [183], as well as to images [184]. Sexual performance and attraction in male (non-human) animals can be conditioned to an array of stimuli that are not typically sexually salient for them, including fruit/nut scents, aversive scents, such as cadaverine, same-sex partners, and the wearing of rodent jackets [177,185,186,187]. For example, rats that had learned sex with a jacket did not perform normally without their jackets [187]. In line with these conditioning studies, the younger the age at which men first began regular use of Internet pornography, and the greater their preference for it over partnered sex, the less enjoyment they report from partnered sex, and the higher their current Internet pornography use [37]. Similarly, men reporting increased consumption of bareback anal pornography (in which actors do not wear condoms) and its consumption at an earlier age, engage in more unprotected anal sex themselves [188,189]. Early consumption of pornography may also be associated with conditioning tastes to more extreme stimulation [99,190]. A review by Pfaus points to early conditioning as critical for sexual arousal templates: "It is becoming increasingly clear that there is a critical period of sexual behavior development that forms around an individual's first experiences with sexual arousal and desire, masturbation, orgasm, and sexual intercourse itself" [191] (p. 32). The suggestion of a critical developmental period is consistent with the report of Voon et al. that younger compulsive Internet pornography users showed greater activity in the ventral striatum in response to explicit videos [31]. The ventral striatum is the primary region involved in sensitization to natural and drug reward [103]. Voon et al. also reported that compulsive Internet pornography subjects first viewed Internet pornography much earlier (mean age 13.9) than healthy volunteers (mean age 17.2) [31]. A 2014 study found that nearly half of college-age men now report they were exposed to Internet pornography prior to age 13, as compared with only 14% in 2008 [37]. Could increased Internet pornography use during a critical developmental phase increase the risk of Internet pornography-related problems? Might it help explain the 2015 finding that 16% of young Italian men who used Internet pornography more than once a week reported low sexual desire, compared with 0% in non-consumers [29]? Our first serviceman was only 20 and had been using Internet pornography since he gained access to high-speed Internet. Males can successfully condition their sexual response in the laboratory with instructional feedback, but without further reinforcement, such laboratory-induced conditioning disappears in later trials [176]. This inherent neuroplasticity may suggest how two of our servicemen restored attraction and sexual performance with partners after abandoning a sex toy and/or cutting back on Internet pornography. Decreasing or extinguishing conditioned responses to artificial stimuli potentially restored attraction and sexual performance with partners. 4. Conclusions and Recommendations Traditional factors that once explained sexual difficulties in men appear insufficient to account for the sharp rise in sexual dysfunctions and low sexual desire in men under 40. Both the literature and our clinical reports underscore the need for extensive investigation of Internet pornography's potential effects on users, ideally by having subjects remove the variable of Internet pornography in order to demonstrate potential effects of behavioral modification. A 2015 study, for example, found that rates of delay discounting (choosing immediate gratification over delayed rewards of greater value) decreased when healthy participants endeavored to give up Internet pornography use for just three weeks (compared with a control group who endeavored to give up their favorite food for the same time period) [75]. Both behavior and the nature of the stimuli given up were key variables. While non-organic sexual dysfunctions have been presumed psychological in origin, and therefore the province of mental health experts, the unexplained sexual dysfunctions now rising sharply in young men (ED, difficulty orgasming, low sexual desire) are, to the extent they are reversible by quitting Internet pornography, not arising from "performance anxiety" (that is, psychosexual dysfunction, ICD-9 code 302.7), although performance anxiety may certainly accompany them. Future researchers will need to take into account the unique properties and impact of today's streaming Internet delivery of pornography. In addition, Internet pornography consumption during early adolescence, or before, may be a key variable. Our review and clinical reports also highlight the need for validated screening tools to identify the possible presence of non-organic sexual difficulties, as well as Internet pornography-related difficulties in otherwise healthy men. The latter may often be reversible simply by modifying behavior. Because Internet pornography-related sexual difficulties are not yet specifically encompassed in an official diagnosis, healthcare providers do not routinely screen for them, leaving patients vulnerable. In this regard, in order to assess patients correctly, it may be critical to distinguish pornography-free from pornography-assisted masturbation. Traditionally, if patients had no difficulty with erections, arousal and climax while masturbating, but reported problems during partnered sex, they were presumed to have psychogenic, not organic, problems. However, young patients asked about their capabilities may assume "masturbation" refers to "masturbation with the aid of internet pornography", and therefore be assessed as having "performance anxiety", when their partnered-sex difficulties are actually Internet pornography-related. One simple test healthcare providers might employ is to ask, "whether the patient can achieve and sustain a satisfactory erection (and climax as desired) when masturbating without using Internet pornography". If he cannot, but can easily achieve these goals with Internet pornography, then his sexual dysfunction may be associated with its use. Without employing such a test, there is a risk of false diagnoses of "performance anxiety", and a consequent risk of prescribing needless psychoactive medications and (ultimately perhaps ineffective) phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors. Other indications of Internet pornography-related performance difficulties may be loss of nocturnal erections and/or spontaneous erections. Additional research in this area is warranted. Additionally, while healthcare providers must certainly screen for relationship problems, low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, PTSD, stress and other mental health problems, they should be cautious of assuming that poor mental health is the cause of otherwise unexplained sexual dysfunction in men under 40. The relationship between these factors and sexual dysfunction in young men may be bidirectional and co-occurring, or may be the consequence of sexual dysfunction [26]. Abbreviations The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript: CSB Compulsive sexual behaviors DLPFC dorsolateral prefrontal cortex DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ED erectile dysfunction fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging IIEF International Index of Erectile Function MRI magnetic resonance imaging NAc nucleus accumbens OSAs online sexual activities PTSD posttraumatic stress disorder PIED pornography-induced erectile dysfunction VTA ventral tegmental area Author Contributions Brian Y. Park and Warren P. Klam collected patient case data; all authors contributed to writing the paper. Conflicts of Interest Gary Wilson is the author of Your Brain on Porn: Internet Pornography and the Emerging Science of Addiction. He holds an unremunerated, honorary position at The Reward Foundation, the Registered Scottish Charity to which his book proceeds are donated. The authors declare no other conflicts of interest. Opinions and points of view expressed are those of the authors' and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. NAVY or the Department of Defense.

What is PC (Political Correctness)?

political correctness (PC), term used to refer to language that seems intended to give the least amount of offense, especially when describing groups identified by external markers such as race, gender, culture, or sexual orientation. The concept has been discussed, disputed, criticized, and satirized by commentators from across the political spectrum. The term has often been used derisively to ridicule the notion that altering language usage can change the public's perceptions and beliefs as well as influence outcomes. The term first appeared in Marxist-Leninist vocabulary following the Russian Revolution of 1917. At that time it was used to describe adherence to the policies and principles of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (that is, the party line). During the late 1970s and early 1980s the term began to be used wittily by liberal politicians to refer to the extremism of some left-wing issues, particularly regarding what was perceived as an emphasis on rhetoric over content. In the early 1990s the term was used by conservatives to question and oppose what they perceived as the rise of liberal left-wing curriculum and teaching methods on university and college campuses in the United States. By the late 1990s the usage of the term had again decreased, and it was most frequently employed by comedians and others to lampoon political language. At times it was also used by the left to scoff at conservative political themes. Linguistically, the practice of what is called "political correctness" seems to be rooted in a desire to eliminate exclusion of various identity groups based on language usage. According to the Sapir-Whorf, or Whorfian, hypothesis, our perception of reality is determined by our thought processes, which are influenced by the language we use. In this way language shapes our reality and tells us how to think about and respond to that reality. Language also reveals and promotes our biases. Therefore, according to the hypothesis, using sexist language promotes sexism and using racial language promotes racism. Those who are most strongly opposed to so-called "political correctness" view it as censorship and a curtailment of freedom of speech that places limits on debates in the public arena. They contend that such language boundaries inevitably lead to self-censorship and restrictions on behaviour. They further believe that political correctness perceives offensive language where none exists. Others believe that "political correctness" or "politically correct" has been used as an epithet to stop legitimate attempts to curb hate speech and minimize exclusionary speech practices. Ultimately, the ongoing discussion surrounding political correctness seems to centre on language, naming, and whose definitions are accepted. (Source: Britannica)

What is sleepwalking?

Overview Sleepwalking — also known as somnambulism — involves getting up and walking around while in a state of sleep. More common in children than adults, sleepwalking is usually outgrown by the teen years. Isolated incidents of sleepwalking often don't signal any serious problems or require treatment. Sleepwalking in adults has a higher chance of being confused with or coexisting with other sleep disorders as well as medical conditions. If anyone in your household sleepwalks, it's important to protect him or her from potential injuries related to sleepwalking. Symptoms Sleepwalking usually occurs early in the night — often one to two hours after falling asleep. It's unlikely to occur during naps. A sleepwalking episode can occur rarely or often, and an episode generally lasts several minutes, but can last longer. Someone who is sleepwalking may: Get out of bed and walk around Sit up in bed and open his or her eyes Have a glazed, glassy-eyed expression Not respond or communicate with others Be difficult to wake up during an episode Be disoriented or confused for a short time after being awakened Not remember the episode in the morning Have problems functioning during the day because of disturbed sleep Have sleep terrors in addition to sleepwalking Sometimes, a person who is sleepwalking will: Do routine activities, such as getting dressed, talking or eating Leave the house Drive a car Engage in unusual behavior, such as urinating in a closet Engage in sexual activity without awareness Get injured, for example, by falling down the stairs or jumping out a window Become violent during the period of brief confusion immediately after waking or, occasionally, during sleepwalking When to see a doctor Occasional episodes of sleepwalking aren't usually a cause for concern and typically resolve on their own. You can simply mention the sleepwalking at a routine physical or well-child exam. However, consult your doctor if the sleepwalking episodes: Occur often — for example, more than one to two times a week or several times a night Lead to dangerous behavior or injury to the person who sleepwalks or to others Cause significant sleep disruption to household members or the person who sleepwalks Result in daytime symptoms of excessive sleepiness or problems functioning Start for the first time as an adult Continue into your child's teen years Causes Sleepwalking is classified as a parasomnia — an undesirable behavior or experience during sleep. Sleepwalking is a disorder of arousal, meaning it occurs during N3 sleep, the deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Another NREM disorder is sleep terrors, which can occur together with sleepwalking. Many factors can contribute to sleepwalking, including: Sleep deprivation Stress Fever Sleep schedule disruptions, travel or sleep interruptions Sometimes sleepwalking can by triggered by underlying conditions that interfere with sleep, such as: Sleep-disordered breathing — a group of disorders featuring abnormal breathing patterns during sleep (for example, obstructive sleep apnea) Taking certain medications, such as hypnotics, sedatives or certain medications used for psychiatric disorders Substance use, such as alcohol Restless legs syndrome Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) Risk factors Factors that may increase the risk of sleepwalking include: Genetics. Sleepwalking appears to run in families. It's more common if you have one parent who has a history of sleepwalking, and much more common if both parents have a history of the disorder. Age. Sleepwalking occurs more often in children than adults, and onset in adulthood is more likely related to other underlying conditions. Complications Sleepwalking itself isn't necessarily a concern, but a person who sleepwalks can: Hurt themselves — especially if they walk near furniture or stairs, wander outdoors, drive a car or eat something inappropriate during a sleepwalking episode Experience prolonged sleep disruption, which can lead to excessive daytime sleepiness and possible school or behavior issues Be embarrassed or experience problems with social relationships Disturb others' sleep Rarely, injure someone else nearby (Source: Mayo Clinic)

What it means to be 'canceled'?

What It Means to Get 'Canceled' Show's over, folks. Time to go home. What to Know Cancel is getting a new use. Canceling and cancel culture have to do with the removing of support for public figures in response to their objectionable behavior or opinions. This can include boycotts or refusal to promote their work. Update: These words were added in January 2021. Things get canceled (or cancelled, especially in British English) all the time, for different reasons. That meeting you weren't looking forward to attending anyway got canceled because people couldn't coordinate their schedules. A postage stamp gets canceled with a marking from the post office to show that it has been used and shouldn't be used again. You cancel an order after you change your mind and don't want the item anymore. A TV show gets canceled when it doesn't bring in good ratings. When something is canceled, it goes away. What Does 'Canceling' Mean Today? But in the latest use of the word, you can cancel people—in particular, celebrities, politicians, or anyone who takes up space in the public consciousness. If you don't know, there's discourse about how Cardi B and Nicki Minaj should be cancelled for previous homophobic and transphobic comments. (Whether or not they are actually "cancelled" is a different matter entirely.) — Victoria Hou, The Columbia Daily Spectator, 6 Feb. 2019 Even now, he doesn't seem to have the decency to resign. He's going to make the very people he offended do "the hard work" of canceling him. He's going to make people of color running for president stop what they're doing to own him. — Elie Mystal, The Nation, 2 Feb. 2019 West may not possess much self-control, but he is more self-aware than his detractors give him credit for. He's certainly aware that public opinion has soured on him this year, and that more people advocate for "canceling" him every day. — Bryan Rolli, Forbes.com, 14 Dec. 2018 That's all it takes, folks. Listen to disenfranchised voices when they have a concern, learn, acknowledge, move on. We don't have to cancel anyone. They don't need to step down. There is no long and winding process of penance. — Zach Johnston, Uproxx, 18 Jan. 2019 To cancel someone (usually a celebrity or other well-known figure) means to stop giving support to that person. The act of canceling could entail boycotting an actor's movies or no longer reading or promoting a writer's works. The reason for cancellation can vary, but it usually is due to the person in question having expressed an objectionable opinion, or having conducted themselves in a way that is unacceptable, so that continuing to patronize that person's work leaves a bitter taste. The Origin of 'Cancel Culture' The idea of canceling—and as some have labeled it, cancel culture—has taken hold in recent years due to conversations prompted by #MeToo and other movements that demand greater accountability from public figures. The term has been credited to black users of Twitter, where it has been used as a hashtag. As troubling information comes to light regarding celebrities who were once popular, such as Bill Cosby, Michael Jackson, Roseanne Barr, and Louis C.K.—so come calls to cancel such figures. The cancellation is akin to a cancelled contract, a severing of the relationship that once linked a performer to their fans. As Jonah Engel Bromwich writes in the New York Times, the word echoes the trend of on-demand subscriptions of content, from which a user can opt out just as easily as they opt in. There is a performative aspect to canceling, one that (it could be argued) paradoxically amplifies that which it seeks to squelch, if only for the moment. To cancel someone publicly often requires broadcasting that act, which then makes the target of one's canceling a subject of attention. The objective behind canceling is often to deny that attention, so that the person loses cultural cachet. Bromwich quotes Lisa Nakamura, a professor in the Department of American Cultures at the University of Michigan, who says, "People talk about the attention economy — when you deprive someone of your attention, you're depriving them of a livelihood." (Source: Merriam Webster Dictionary)

Can you fall in love platonically?

Platonic love involves deep affection, but no romantic or sexual attraction. It's absolutely possible for people of any gender to maintain a friendship without sexual tension or attraction. When you love someone platonically, you might notice some basic signs of love.

How do I break through an existential crisis?

Overview Most people experience anxiety, depression, and stress at some point in their lives. For many, these emotions are short-term and don't interfere too much with their quality of life. But for others, negative emotions can lead to deep despair, causing them to question their place in life. This is known as an existential crisis. The idea of an existential crisis has been studied by psychologists and psychiatrists such as Kazimierz Dabrowski and Irvin D. Yalom for decades, starting as early as 1929. Yet even with the abundance of old and new research on the topic, you might be unfamiliar with this term, or not understand how it differs from normal anxiety and depression. Here's what you need to know about an existential crisis, as well as how to overcome this turning point. Existential crisis definition "People can have an existential crisis when they start to wonder what life means, and what their purpose or the purpose to life as a whole is," explains Katie Leikam, a licensed therapist in Decatur, Georgia, who specializes in working with anxiety, relationship stress, and gender identity. "It can be a break in thinking patterns where you suddenly want answers to life's big questions." It's not uncommon to search for meaning and purpose in your life. With an existential crisis, however, the problem lies in being unable to find satisfying answers. For some people, the lack of answers triggers a personal conflict from within, causing frustration and loss of inner joy. An existential crisis can affect anyone at any age, but many experience a crisis in the face of a difficult situation, perhaps the struggle to succeed. Causes Everyday challenges and stresses may not provoke an existential crisis. This type of crisis is likely to follow deep despair or a significant event, such as a major trauma or a major loss. A few causes of an existential crisis may include: guilt about something losing a loved one in death, or facing the reality of one's own death feeling socially unfulfilled dissatisfaction with self history of bottled up emotions Existential crisis questions The different types of existential crises include: Crisis of freedom and responsibility You have the freedom to make your own choices, which can change your life for the better or worse. Most people prefer this freedom, as opposed to having someone make decisions for them. But this freedom also comes with responsibility. You have to accept the consequences of the choices you make. If you use your freedom to make a choice that doesn't end well, you can't put the blame on anyone else. For some, this freedom is too overwhelming and it triggers existential anxiety, which is an all-encompassing anxiety about the meaning of life and choices. Crisis of death and mortality An existential crisis can also strike after turning a certain age. For example, your 50th birthday may force you to confront the reality of your life being half over, leading you to question the foundation of your life. You might reflect on the meaning of life and death, and ask questions like, "What happens after death?" Fear of what may follow death can trigger anxiety. This type of crisis can also occur after being diagnosed with a serious illness or when death is imminent. Crisis of isolation and connectedness Even if you enjoy periods of isolation and solitude, humans are social beings. Strong relationships can give you mental and emotional support, bringing satisfaction and inner joy. The problem is that relationships aren't always permanent. People can drift apart physically and emotionally, and death often separates loved ones. This can lead to isolation and loneliness, causing some people to feel that their life is pointless. Crisis of meaning and meaninglessness Having a meaning and purpose in life can provide hope. But after reflecting on your life, you may feel that you didn't accomplish anything significant or make a difference. This can lead people to question their very existence. Crisis of emotion, experiences, and embodiment Not allowing yourself to feel negative emotions can sometimes lead to an existential crisis. Some people block out pain and suffering, thinking this will make them happy. But it can often lead to a false sense of happiness. And when you don't experience true happiness, life can feel empty. On the other hand, embodying emotions and acknowledging feelings of pain, discontentment, and dissatisfaction can open the door to personal growth, improving an outlook on life. Existential crisis symptoms Experiencing anxiety and depression when your life is off track doesn't always mean that you're going through an existential crisis. These emotions, however, are tied to a crisis when accompanied by a need to find meaning in life. Existential crisis depression During an existential crisis, you may experience normal feelings of depression. These symptoms might include loss of interest in favorite activities, fatigue, headaches, feelings of hopelessness, and persistent sadness. In the case of existential depression, you may also have thoughts about suicide or the end of life, or feel that your life doesn't have purpose, Leikam says. Hopelessness with this type of depression is deeply related to feelings of a meaningless life. You might question the purpose of it all:"Is it only to work, pay bills, and eventually die?" Existential crisis anxiety "Existential anxiety can present itself as being preoccupied with the afterlife or being upset or nervous about your place and plans in life," Leikam says. This anxiety differs from everyday stress in the sense that everything can make you uncomfortable and anxious, including your very existence. You may ask yourself, "What is my purpose and where do I fit in?" Existential obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) Sometimes, thoughts about the meaning of life and your purpose may weigh heavily on your mind and cause racing thoughts. This is known as existential OCD, and it can occur when you are obsessive or have compulsions about the meaning of life. "It can present in the need to ask questions over and over again, or not being able to rest until you have answers to your questions," says Leikam. Existential crisis help Finding your purpose and meaning in life can help you break free of an existential crisis. Here are a few tips to cope: Take control of your thoughts Replace negative and pessimistic ideas with positive ones. Telling yourself that your life is meaningless can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Instead, take steps to live a more meaningful life. Pursue a passion, volunteer for a cause in which you believe, or practice being compassionate. Keep a gratitude journal to overcome negative feelings Your life probably has more meaning than you think. Write down everything for which you're grateful. This might include your family, work, talents, qualities, and accomplishments. Remind yourself of why life has meaning Taking the time to self-explore can also help you break through an existential crisis, Leikam says. If you have difficulty seeing the good in yourself, ask friends and family to identify your positive qualities. What positive impact have you had on their lives? What are your strongest, most admirable qualities? Don't expect to find all the answers This doesn't mean that you can't seek answers to life's big questions. At the same time, understand that some questions won't have answers. To get through an existential crisis, Leikam also suggests breaking down questions into smaller answers, and then working to become satisfied with learning the answers to the smaller questions that make up the bigger picture. When to see a doctor You might be able to break through an existential crisis on your own, without a doctor. But if symptoms don't go away, or if they worsen, see a psychiatrist, psychologist, or therapist. These mental health experts can help you cope with a crisis through talk therapy or cognitive behavioral therapy. This is a type of therapy that aims to change patterns of thinking or behavior. Seek immediate help if you have suicidal thoughts. Keep in mind, however, you don't have to wait until a crisis reaches this point before speaking with a doctor or other healthcare provider. Even if you don't have thoughts about suicide, a therapist can help with severe anxiety, depression, or obsessive thoughts. Takeaway An existential crisis can happen to anyone, leading many to question their existence and purpose in life. Despite the potential seriousness of this pattern of thinking, it is possible overcome a crisis and move past these dilemmas. The key is understanding how an existential crisis differs from normal depression and anxiety, and getting help for any feelings or thoughts that you can't shake. (Source: healthline)

what does laying on the floor do for your back?

It May Improve Your Posture Good posture supports the natural curvature of your spine. Sleeping on the floor can make it easier for you to keep your spine straight during sleep, since you don't have to worry about sinking too deeply into a mattress. (Source: sleepfoundation)

Why is the sky blue?

Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases [(mostly nitrogen and oxygen)] and particles in the air. Blue light is scattered more than the other colors because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a blue sky most of the time. It's easy to see that the sky is blue. Have you ever wondered why? A lot of other smart people have, too. And it took a long time to figure it out! The light from the Sun looks white. But it is really made up of all the colors of the rainbow. When white light shines through a prism, the light is separated into all its colors. A prism is a specially shaped crystal. If you visited The Land of the Magic Windows, you learned that the light you see is just one tiny bit of all the kinds of light energy beaming around the universe--and around you! Like energy passing through the ocean, light energy travels in waves, too. Some light travels in short, "choppy" waves. Other light travels in long, lazy waves. Blue light waves are shorter than red light waves. All light travels in a straight line unless something gets in the way and does one of these things:— reflect it (like a mirror) bend it (like a prism) or scatter it (like molecules of the gases in the atmosphere) Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all directions by the tiny molecules of air in Earth's atmosphere. Blue is scattered more than other colors because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a blue sky most of the time. Closer to the horizon, the sky fades to a lighter blue or white. The sunlight reaching us from low in the sky has passed through even more air than the sunlight reaching us from overhead. As the sunlight has passed through all this air, the air molecules have scattered and rescattered the blue light many times in many directions. Also, the surface of Earth has reflected and scattered the light. All this scattering mixes the colors together again so we see more white and less blue. What makes a red sunset? As the Sun gets lower in the sky, its light is passing through more of the atmosphere to reach you. Even more of the blue light is scattered, allowing the reds and yellows to pass straight through to your eyes. Sometimes the whole...sky seems to glow. The sky appears red because small particles of dust, pollution, or other aerosols also scatter blue light, leaving more purely red and yellow light to go through the atmosphere. Is the sky blue on other planets, too? It all depends on what's in the atmosphere! For example, Mars has a very thin atmosphere made mostly of carbon dioxide and filled with fine dust particles. These fine particles scatter light differently than the gases and particles in Earth's atmosphere. Photos from NASA's rovers and landers on Mars have shown us that at sunset there is actually the opposite of what you'd experience on Earth. During the daytime, the Martian sky takes on an orange or reddish color. But as the Sun sets, the sky around the Sun begins to take on a blue-gray tone. (Source: NASA)

What is the prefrontal cortex?

What Is the Prefrontal Cortex? Prefrontal cortex definition: The prefrontal cortex is the portion of the brain that plays a large role in higher-level cognitive functions such as emotions, personality, and decision making. Where is the prefrontal cortex? The brain is divided into four lobes which include: Frontal lobe: The frontal lobe at the front of the brain right behind the forehead. Temporal lobe: The temporal lobe is located at each side of the brain near the ear canal. Parietal lobe: The occipital lobe is located at the back, top of the brain. Occipital lobe: The occipital lobe is located at the back, base of the brain. The prefrontal cortex is in the frontal lobe of the brain, and it is located in front of the premotor cortex which plays a role in the planning of physical movements of the body. Prefrontal Lobe and Prefrontal Cortex Structure The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain, and it is the largest of the four lobes. Like the other lobes of the brain, the frontal lobe has a wrinkled appearance due to the sulci and gyri. Sulci are the grooves of the brain, while the gyri are the ridges of the brain. The prefrontal cortex is located at the very front of the frontal lobe, and it makes up a little more than 10% of the total volume of the brain. Some neuroscientists (scientists that study the brain and nervous system) have divided the prefrontal cortex into three regions which include the medial prefrontal cortex (which includes the dorsomedial and ventromedial areas), lateral prefrontal cortex (which includes the dorsolateral and ventrolateral areas), and orbital prefrontal cortex. The frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex have interconnections with other parts of the brain which include the amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and pons. This means that these parts of the brain communicate with each other through electrical impulses. For example, the medial prefrontal cortex communicates with areas of the brain that are responsible for higher-level brain functioning such as the amygdala (plays a role in emotions) and hippocampus (plays a role in memory). The prefrontal cortex is divided into three sections which include the medial prefrontal cortex, and it communicates with other areas of the brain such as the amygdala. Prefrontal Cortex Function What does the prefrontal cortex do? The prefrontal cortex functions to perform many higher-level executive functions such as making important decisions. The prefrontal cortex also has a role in other cognitive activities which include: Planning Managing emotions Impulse control Personality Social cognition Motivation Concentration Damaged or underdeveloped areas of the prefrontal cortex can lead to many different behaviors, and the specific behaviors depend on which region of the prefrontal cortex is damaged for underdeveloped. The following charts describe the behaviors that often occur when a specific region of the prefrontal cortex is damaged or underdeveloped. Region that is Damaged or Underdeveloped Behaviors Medial prefrontal cortex Lack of interest in things that normally excite or interest a person; Loss of concentration or ability to focus; Decreased memory Lateral prefrontal cortex Difficulty organizing activities in order; Inability to adapt to rule changes; Trouble switching from one activity to another Orbital prefrontal cortex Change in personality; Lack of impulse control; Not able to follow through with plans (Source: Study.com)

Can u be psychologist if your bad at math?

... Not really. Sorry. You might possibly graduate with a BA in psychology - that doesn't cover much, if any, statistics. You'll find it difficult to graduate from a BSc in psychology, which does cover statistics quite intensively. Nowadays, computers do the heavy number-crunching, but you have to understand what you're doing on those computers, and why. If you want to WORK as a psychologist, you will need at least a Master's degree (for, e.g., occupational psychology/human resources), but for most psychology professions like clinical psychology you will need a PhD. Both MSc and PhD require advanced skills in statistical analysis, and some (like my PhD) require advanced mathematical modelling skills. Pro-tip: if you graduate with a BA, even a first-class honours BA, you will find it difficult to get into a MSc or PhD. There are ways to improve your maths skills for statistics. One way is to work harder in your maths classes at school. Another, getting additional tuition. Third, there's a very good book which explains most of the statistics you need, in simple, easy-to-understand language, and has a "recipe page" explaining what statistical procedure to use, when, and how to interpret the results: Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology https://www.amazon.co.uk/Research-Methods-Statistics-Psychology-Coolican/dp/0340983442 It probably won't see you all the way through to your PhD, but it'll boost your confidence with statistics which is half the battle, so you should be able to tackle more complex analyses. Fourthly, when you're in university, try to set up a statistics study group with your class mates. Many of them will be in the same difficulties as you, but each of you will understand some things that the others don't, so you'll be able to support each other. (Source: Quora)

How Do I Know if I Need Therapy?

Most of us face struggles at some point in our lives. These struggles may include stress at work, difficulty with a romantic partner, or problems with a family member. Alternatively, struggles may include emotional symptoms such as depression or anxiety, behavioral problems such as having difficulty throwing useless items away or drinking alcohol too often, and cognitive symptoms such as repetitive upsetting thoughts or uncontrolled worry. Sometimes, life's struggles can be eased by taking better care of yourself, and perhaps talking about the issues with a supportive friend or family member. But there may be times when these steps don't resolve the issue. When this happens, it makes sense to consider seeking the help of a qualified licensed psychologist. How do you know if therapy is needed? Two general guidelines can be helpful when considering whether you or someone you love could benefit from therapy. First, is the problem distressing? And second, is it interfering with some aspect of life? When thinking about distress, here are some issues to consider: Do you or someone close to you spend some amount of time every week thinking about the problem?Is the problem embarrassing, to the point that you want to hide from others?Over the past few months, has the problem reduced your quality of life? When thinking about interference, some other issues may deserve consideration: Does the problem take up considerable time (e.g., more than an hour per day)?Have you curtailed your work or educational ambitions because of the problem?Are you rearranging your lifestyle to accommodate the problem? A "yes" response to any of these questions suggests that you might wish to consider seeking professional help. Remember that sometimes a problem might be less upsetting to you than it is to the people around you. This does not automatically mean that you are in the know and your friends or family are over-reacting to you. Rather, this situation suggests that you may wish to think about why the people who care about you are upset. Clearly, the decision to enter into therapy is a very personal one. Numerous advances have been made in the treatment of psychological disorders in the past decade and many therapies have been shown scientifically to be helpful. As you think about whether therapy might be helpful to you, remember that many psychological problems have been shown to be treatable using short-term therapy approaches. Learning more about different approaches to therapy might also help you to discern if one of them sounds like a good fit with your personality and approach to life. Given the range of therapeutic options that are available, you don't need to continue to struggle with a problem that is upsetting and/or getting in the way of other parts of your life. Help is available. (Source: APA (American Lsychological Association)

Where is the soul?

Where is the soul? If there is such as thing as the human soul, it has to be somewhere, surely...? By Len Fisher For those who believe in the soul, the question of its location has a perennial interest. The ancient Egyptians thought that it was found in the heart, and tomb pictures from around 2000BCE (before the common era) show the god Anubis weighing the soul-laden heart against the Feather of Truth. In 1515 Leonardo da Vinci was denounced as a sorcerer for attempting to find the soul by dissecting the brain, following the belief of the time that it existed in the centre of the head. Some believers claim that the soul is an insubstantial entity (derisively labelled by Cambridge philosopher Gilbert Ryle as 'the ghost in the machine'), but this begs the classic philosophical question how an insubstantial entity can ever affect a material body. American doctor Duncan MacDougall concluded from this that the soul, if it exists, must have weight, and in 1907 reported experiments where he measured the change in weight of dying tuberculosis patients. His answer, encapsulated in a later film title, was that the soul weighed 21g. Make of that what you will. (Source: https: BBC Science Focus Magazine)

Can we rely on our intuition?

We face decisions all day long. Intuition, some believe, is an ability that can be trained and can play a constructive role in decision-making. Economics Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman theorizes that intuitive thinking has both advantages and disadvantages: it is faster than a rational approach but more prone to error. Whether we rely on our gut or turn to sober analysis to make a decision seems to depend on a variety of factors, such as our past experiences with similar situations and the complexity of the problem. Many cognitive scientists argue that intuitive and analytic thinking should not be viewed as opposites. Studies indicate that our decision-making often works best when we blend both strategies. Decisions made intuitively are not necessarily based on simple rules. "I go with my gut feelings," says investor Judith Williams. Sure, you might think, "so do I,"— if the choice is between chocolate and vanilla ice cream. But Williams is dealing with real money in the five and six figures. Williams is one of the lions on the program The Lions' Den, a German television show akin to Shark Tank. She and other participants invest their own money in business ideas presented by contestants. She is not the only one who trusts her gut. Intuition, it seems, is on a roll: bookstores are full of guides advising us how to heal, eat or invest intuitively. They promise to unleash our inner wisdom and strengths we do not yet know we have. But can we really rely on intuition, or is it a counsel to failure? Although researchers have been debating the value of intuition in decision-making for decades, they continue to disagree. Intuition can be thought of as insight that arises spontaneously without conscious reasoning. Daniel Kahneman, who won a Nobel prize in economics for his work on human judgment and decision-making, has proposed that we have two different thought systems: system 1 is fast and intuitive; system 2 is slower and relies on reasoning. The fast system, he holds, is more prone to error. It has its place: it may increase the chance of survival by enabling us to anticipate serious threats and recognize promising opportunities. But the slower thought system, by engaging critical thinking and analysis, is less susceptible to producing bad decisions. Kahneman, who acknowledges that both systems usually operate when people think, has described many ways that the intuitive system can cloud judgment. Consider, for example, the framing effect: the tendency to be influenced by the way a problem is posed or a question is asked. In the 1980s Kahneman and his colleague Amos Tversky presented a hypothetical public health problem to volunteers and framed the set of possible solutions in different ways to different volunteers. In all cases, the volunteers were told to imagine that the U.S. was preparing for an outbreak of an unusual disease expected to kill 600 people and that two alternative programs for combating the disease had been proposed. For one group, the choices were framed by Tversky and Kahneman in terms of gains—how many people would be saved: If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If Program B is adopted, there is 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and 2/3 probability that no people will be saved. The majority of volunteers selected the first option, Program A. For another group, the choices were framed in terms of losses—how many people would die: If Program C is adopted 400 people will die. If Program D is adopted there is 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and 2/3 probability that 600 people will die. In this case, the vast majority of volunteers were willing to gamble and selected the second option, Program D. In fact, the options presented to both groups were the same: The first program would save 200 people and lose 400. The second program offered a one-in-three chance that everyone would live and a two-in-three chance that everyone would die. Framing the alternatives in terms of lives saved or lives lost is what made the difference. When choices are framed in terms of gains, people often become risk-averse, whereas when choices are framed in terms of losses, people often became more willing to take risks. Other cognitive scientists argue that intuition can lead to effective decision-making more commonly than Kahneman suggests. Gerd Gigerenzer of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin is among them. He, too, says that people rarely make decisions on the basis of reason alone, especially when the problems faced are complex. But he thinks intuition's merit has been vastly underappreciated. He views intuition as a form of unconscious intelligence. Intuitive decisions can be grounded in heuristics: simple rules of thumb. Heuristics screen out large amounts of information, thereby limiting how much needs to be processed. Such rules of thumb may be applied consciously, but in general we simply follow them without being aware that we are doing so. Although they can lead to mistakes, as Kahneman points out, Gigerenzer emphasizes that they can be based on reliable information while leaving out unnecessary information. For example, an individual who wants to buy a good pair of running shoes might bypass research and brain work by simply purchasing the same running shoes used by an acquaintance who is an experienced runner. In 2006 a paper by Ap Dijksterhuis and his colleagues, then at the University of Amsterdam, came to a similarly favorable view of intuition's value. The researchers tested what they called the "deliberation without attention" hypothesis: although conscious thought makes the most sense for simple decisions (for example, what size skillet to use), it can actually be detrimental when considering more complex matters, such as buying a house. In one of their experiments, test subjects were asked to select which of the four cars was the best, taking into account four characteristics, among them gas consumption and luggage space. One set of subjects had four minutes to think about the decision; another set was distracted by solving brainteasers. The distracted group made the wrong choice (according to the researchers' criteria for the best car) more often than those who were able to think without being distracted. But if participants were asked to assess 12 characteristics, the opposite happened: undisturbed reflection had a negative effect on decision-making; only 25 percent selected the best car. In contrast, 60 percent of the subjects distracted by brainteasers got it right. Investigators have been unable to replicate these findings, however. And in a 2014 review Ben R. Newell of the University of New South Wales and David R. Shanks of University College London concluded that the effect of intuition has been overrated by many researchers and that there is little evidence that conscious thought arrives at worse solutions in complex situations. Of course, problems in the real world can be considerably more complicated than the artificially constructed ones often presented in laboratory experiments. In the late 1980s this difference sparked the Naturalistic Decision Making movement, which seeks to determine how people make decisions in real life. With questionnaires, videos and observations, it studies how firefighters, nurses, managers and pilots use their experience to deal with challenging situations involving time pressure, uncertainty, unclear goals and organizational constraints. Researchers in the field found that highly experienced individuals tend to compare patterns when making decisions. They are able to recognize regularities, repetitions and similarities between the information available to them and their past experiences. They then imagine how a given situation might play out. This combination enables them to make relevant decisions quickly and competently. It further became evident that the certainty of the decider did not necessarily increase with an increase in information. On the contrary: too much information can prove detrimental. Gary Klein, one of the movement's founders, has called pattern matching "the intuitive part" and mental simulation "the conscious, deliberate and analytical part." He has explained the benefits of the combination this way: "A purely intuitive strategy relying only on pattern matching would be too risky because sometimes the pattern matching generates flawed options. A completely deliberative and analytic strategy would be too slow." In the case of firefighters, he notes, if a slow, systematic approach were used, "the fires would be out of control by the time the commanders finished deliberating." Kamila Malewska of the Poznán University of Economics and Business in Poland has also studied intuition in real-world settings and likewise finds that people often apply a combination of strategies. She asked managers at a food company how they use intuition in their everyday work. Almost all of them stated that, in addition to rational analyses, they tapped gut feelings when making decisions. More than half tended to lean on rational approaches; about a quarter used a strategy that blended rational and intuitive elements; and about a fifth generally relied on intuition alone. Interestingly, the more upper-level managers tended more toward intuition. Malewska thinks that intuition is neither irrational nor the opposite of logic. Rather it is a quicker and more automatic process that plumbs the many deep resources of experience and knowledge that people have gathered over the course of their lives. Intuition, she believes, is an ability that can be trained and can play a constructive role in decision-making. Field findings published in 2017 by Lutz Kaufmann of the Otto Beisheim School of Management in Germany and his co-workers support the view that a mixture of thinking styles can be helpful in decision-making. The participants in their study, all purchasing managers, indicated how strongly they agreed or disagreed with various statements relating to their decision-making over the prior three months. For example: "I looked extensively for information before making a decision" (rational), "I did not have time to decide analytically, so I relied on my experience" (experience-based), or "I was not completely sure how to decide, so I decided based on my gut feeling" (emotional). The researchers, who consider experience-based and emotional processes as "two dimensions of intuitive processing," also rated the success of a manager based on the unit price the person negotiated for a purchased product, as well as on the quality of the product and the punctuality of delivery. Rational decision-making was associated with good performance. A mixture of intuitive and rational approaches also proved useful; however, a purely experience-based and a purely emotional approach did not work well. In other words, a blending of styles, which is frequently seen in everyday life, seems beneficial. Economists Marco Sahm of the University of Bamberg and Robert K. von Weizsäcker of the Technical University of Munich study the extent to which our background knowledge determines whether rationality or gut feeling is more effective. Both Sahm and Weizsäcker are avid chess players, and they brought this knowledge to bear on their research. As children, they both learned intuitively by imitating the moves of their opponents and seeing where they led. Later, they approached the game more analytically, by reading chess books that explained and illustrated promising moves. Over time Weizsäcker became a very good chess player and has won international prizes. These days he bases his play mainly on intuition. The two economists developed a mathematical model that takes the costs and benefits of both strategies into account. They have come to the conclusion that whether it is better to rely more on rational assessments or intuition depends both on the complexity of a particular problem and on the prior knowledge and cognitive abilities of the person. Rational decisions are more precise but entail higher costs than intuitive ones—for example, they involve more effort spent gathering and then analyzing information. This additional cost can decrease over time, but it will never disappear. The cost may be worth it if the problem is multifaceted and the decision maker gains a lot of useful information quickly (if the decision maker's "learning curve is steep"). Once a person has had enough experience with related problems, though, intuitive decision-making that draws on past learning is more likely to yield effective decisions, Sahm and Weizsäcker say. The intuitive approach works better in that case because relying on accumulated experience and intuitive pattern recognition spares one the high costs of rational analysis. One thing is clear: intuition and rationality are not necessarily opposites. Rather it is advantageous to master both intuition and analytic skills. Let us not follow our inner voice blindly, but let us not underestimate it either. (Source: Scientific American)

Why shouldn't I tell someone to relax?

Why You Should Never Tell Someone to Relax Instructing people to calm down typically has the reverse effect; how to help people de-stress without ordering them around Being directed to 'relax' or 'calm down' at work can have the reverse effect, with the listener only feeling more tense and pressured. WSJ's Sue Shellenbarger joins Lunch Break with Tanya Rivero with ways to calm people without ordering them around. Photo: iStock By Sue ShellenbargerFollow Updated Aug. 16, 2016 6:50 pm ET It's a paradoxical fact: When someone is getting stressed out, one of the least effective (and perhaps most annoying) things to say is "Relax." The directive has exactly the opposite effect on most people. People who instruct a colleague, subordinate or loved one to relax may have good intentions. But it is usually better to resist ordering people to change their emotional state and try a different strategy. If you are on the receiving end of an order to relax, there are countermoves that can keep your blood pressure from soaring higher. Anna Runyan was working hard on a previous job as a consultant several years ago when her boss approached her desk and told her to relax, adding, "you don't have to be perfect," says Ms. Runyan of San Diego. Anna Runyan of San Diego felt angry when a former boss told her to ​​stop working so hard, suggesting that he didn't understand what she faced. She felt her face flush with anger. She wanted some acknowledgment of her hard work and tight deadlines, but "he really didn't understand all the things I was doing," says Ms. Runyan, founder of ClassyCareerGirl.com, a career and business site for women. "I wanted to shut down." Afterward, she tried updating her boss more frequently on her workload but left the company the following year. Relaxing on command is physiologically impossible if "the body is already too acutely stressed to turn it around," says Wendy Mendes, a professor of emotion at the University of California, San Francisco, and a researcher on stress. While the body responds rapidly to stress, returning to a relaxed state can take 20 to 60 minutes, she says. Other research shows that trying to hide or suppress an emotion, called "emotion suppression," typically backfires. When people are told to hide how they feel and try to clamp down on the emotion, "it actually leaks out more," Dr. Mendes says. Such misfires can open a deep divide between an employee and a boss. Brandon Smith was extremely stressed on a previous job as a retailing manager years ago, after his boss ordered him on his first day to start laying off several co-workers, says Mr. Smith, now an adjunct professor of business at Emory University in Atlanta. Brandon Smith of Atlanta ​says a former boss's dismissive remark that laying off co-workers wasn't a 'big deal' motivated him to build a new career as an executive coach. When his boss passed his desk and remarked "just settle down, it's not a big deal," Mr. Smith says, "I wanted to explode with anger." He was so shaken that he emerged with a new career purpose. After leaving that job, he earned two master's degrees, in clinical therapy and business, and became an executive coach and team-building consultant, says Mr. Smith, founder of TheWorkplaceTherapist.com. Advising someone to relax can mask a variety of motives. The underlying message may be, "I can't stand the way you're making me feel, so stop it," says Joseph Burgo, a clinical psychologist and writer best known for his work on narcissism. If it is a loved one giving the order to relax, it may reflect a genuine need—for instance, for calm time together. Nina Batson of Tinton Falls, N.J., sometimes rushes to get laundry and other housework done in the evening after work. If her 13-year-old daughter Tati tells her, "Oh, Mom, relax, slow down," Ms. Batson stops to watch TV with her for a while, talk, laugh and have a cup of tea, even though she knows it will take her longer to finish the chores. Left: 'Calm down!' can be well meant, but when a boss makes this command, an employee can feel even more stressed as well as defensive or angry. Right: Open-ended questions like 'How's it going?' or 'Would you like to talk?' invite the employee to describe the pressures she is under, helping her to shake her stress and feel better. If you're criticized for appearing stressed, pause and take a deep breath before responding, says Debra Burdick, an Enfield, Conn., speaker and author of books on mindfulness. Try not to take it personally, and regard it as a cue to address the underlying problems. Consider starting a conversation about reducing the causes of stress, says Jordan Friedman, a New York City stress coach. Acknowledge that you're feeling the strain, and then add, "It would be great if we could sit down at the beginning of next week and figure out how to make this process less stressful for me and everyone else." Also, take a moment to "hold up a mirror and take a look" at whether your style of working might be stressful to others, says Nancy Ancowitz, a New York City presentation and career coach. If so, say thanks for the feedback, and try reducing stress through exercise, more frequent breaks, deep breathing or other techniques. New York City graduate student ​Adam Ma says a professor's order to 'calm down' before giving a major presentation ​unnerved him at first​ but helped him perform better in the end​. Embracing more realistic expectations of yourself can help in some situations. Adam Ma of New York City, a graduate student whose first language is Mandarin, was extremely nervous several years ago when he stepped up to give a presentation to 40 fellow students. He wanted his English to be perfect, and he had memorized rigid rules about maintaining good posture and constant eye contact with listeners. When his professor told him in front of the whole class to "calm down," Mr. Ma says, at first, "it just made me feel worse." But then, "I decided to adjust my expectations to be more comfortable," he says. He allowed himself to use his notes and to pause now and then to look away from the audience, have a sip of water and take a breath. "I felt such relief," he says. He felt he made an emotional connection with listeners, who applauded warmly, and he scored an A for the course. Mr. Ma, who also works full-time as a project and process manager, says telling colleagues before making a presentation that he is feeling stressed helps him relax and "helps prepare people for what they're going to get and how they can help me," he says. "And probably, people will make a couple of jokes, and we will have some laughs." To help calm someone who is stressed, acknowledge his or her feelings first by saying, "Looks like you're having a tough day," Ms. Ancowitz says. Show empathy and ask open-ended questions such as "Tell me what's going on," to give the person a chance to talk about his or her feelings. You could acknowledge that it's been a stressful time for everybody, saying, "Other people are feeling the pressure too. Let's try to figure this out as a group," Mr. Friedman says. If a discussion is getting heated, suggest taking a break for a walk, a cup of coffee or lunch. In New York City, Glenn Chiarello, who has been a dentist for 30 years, says he never tells his patients to relax, even though most new ones are nervous. "Instead, I become inquisitive. 'How do you feel about having this work done today?' " he says. Most patients start talking, and as he listens, "they do in fact do what we want them to do: They start to relax." (Source: WSJ)

What causes horniness?

Why am I hornier at certain times of the month? Medically reviewed by Janet Brito, Ph.D., LCSW, CST — By Lowri Daniels on September 21, 2020 When does it happen? Menstrual cycle Strongest sexual desire Testosterone When to see a doctor Summary Sexual desire, which people commonly refer to as horniness, may change throughout the month. Hormones relating to the menstrual cycle fluctuate over time, which often increases or decreases a person's libido. People may experience fluctuations in sexual desire throughout pregnancy, too. The environment can also play a role in influencing libido, with some people feeling hornier during the weekend. This article explores some of the reasons why sexual desire in females changes throughout the month. When does a person feel hornier? a couple in bed but one person may wonder why am i hornier at certain times of the month Share on Pinterest A person may feel more or less horny, according to where they are in the menstrual cycle. Sex drive in females can change throughout the month for a variety of reasons, including: Ovulation The authors of a 2015 reviewTrusted Source observed that females tended to initiate sex more and showed greater interest in sex just before ovulation. They estimated that a midcycle peak in estrogen occurs about 24 hours after ovulation. According to the review, scientists believe that estradiol, one of the three types of estrogen hormone, increases sexual arousal in females. The fact that postmenopausal females who report a lack of sexual desire have lower levelsTrusted Source of estradiol circulating in their blood supports this idea. Second trimester of pregnancy As hormone levels change vastly during pregnancy, different people may experience different levels of sexual desire. According to a 2020 studyTrusted Source, some hormonal changes may cause people to desire more attention and affection from their partners in the first stages of pregnancy. However, this does not necessarily mean that they have an increased sex drive, as they may be experiencing nausea and other discomforts from early pregnancy. In the second trimester, the authors note that sexual desire may increase as the person gets used to their pregnancy and feels more comfortable and at ease. Typically though, as the pregnancy develops and reaches the third trimester, sex drive declines rapidly. During the weekend Research shows that timing can be an important factor in determining when a person feels horny. At the weekend, the likelihood of college-age females having sexual contact was double or even triple that on weekdays. The average probability of a female having sex was 22% on weekend days vs. 9% on other days. However, the researchers do note that the conflicting schedules of cohabiting partners during the week may have played some role in increasing the odds of sexual contact at the weekend. The menstrual cycle and feeling horny Sexual arousal is closely linked to hormone levels, especially those of hormones relating to the menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle begins on day 1 of a periodTrusted Source and consists of two main phases: the follicular phase and the luteal phase. Learn more about the menstrual cycle here. Follicular phase The first half of the cycle is called the follicular phase. During this phase, estrogen levels are higher than progesterone levels. Females tend to feel more sexual arousal toward the end of the follicular phase when there is a surge of the luteinizing hormone (LH). This point in the cycle marks the start of ovulation and is the time when conception is more likely to happenTrusted Source. Luteal phase The second phase of the cycle, after ovulation, is the luteal phase. In this part of the cycle, progesterone levels begin to overtake estrogen levels. However, both start to decline toward the end of the cycle to allow for menstruation, which signals the beginning of a new cycle. As well as feeling less horny during this part of the cycle, females may also process emotions differently. A 2018 studyTrusted Source found that in the late luteal phase, females are sadder and experience less amusement in comparison with males. Attitudes to kissing A 2013 studyTrusted Source found that attitudes toward romantic kissing vary with the menstrual cycle. Females in the follicular phase rated the importance of kissing in the initial stages of a relationship more highly than females in the luteal phase. As the late follicular phase occurs just before ovulation, this suggests that females value kissing to assess a potential mate, when the chances of conception are at their highest. The luteal phase, on the other hand, occurs after ovulation, when the likelihood of conceiving is starting to decrease. When do females feel most horny? Arousal may peak at slightly different times during the month, especially if ovulation occurs later. A 2019 studyTrusted Source looked at more than 600,000 menstrual cycles that people had entered into an app and found that the majority of females did not ovulate on day 14. The average amount of time spent in the luteal phase was also 12.4 days, not 14. According to a 2013 study, continuously high sexual desire may carry costs, such as increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Therefore, there may be benefits to the libido falling during less fertile phases of the menstrual cycle. Does testosterone increase horniness in females? ResearchTrusted Source shows that both testosterone and estradiol may affect how horny a person feels. However, more research is necessary to determine the full effect of testosterone on sexual arousal in females. In a 2013 study, researchers measured the levels of testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone over one or two menstrual cycles in young females by collecting daily saliva samples. The results showed that progesterone levels negatively predicted sexual desire, whereas estradiol levels positively predicted it. Testosterone did not predict any sexual behavior. When to see a doctor It does not matter whether a person has a low or high sex drive unless it is bothering them. Everyone is different, and there is no "normal." People who are distressed or worried about their libido may wish to speak to their doctor or contact a sexual health advice service. Summary Many females are horniest at or just before they ovulate, due to changes in the levels of hormones relating to the menstrual cycle. People who are worried about or distressed by their sex drive, whether they feel that it is too high or too low, may find talking to a healthcare professional reassuring and helpful. (Source: medical news today)

What's there to know about Wikipedia?

Wikipedia, free Internet-based encyclopaedia, started in 2001, that operates under an open-source management style. It is overseen by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation. Wikipedia uses a collaborative software known as wiki that facilitates the creation and development of articles. Although some highly publicized problems have called attention to Wikipedia's editorial process, they have done little to dampen public use of the resource, which is one of the most-visited sites on the Internet. Origin and growth In 1996 Jimmy Wales, a successful bond trader, moved to San Diego, California, to establish Bomis, Inc., a Web portal company. In March 2000 Wales founded Nupedia, a free online encyclopaedia, with Larry Sanger as editor in chief. Nupedia was organized like existing encyclopaedias, with an advisory board of experts and a lengthy review process. By January 2001 fewer than two dozen articles were finished, and Sanger advocated supplementing Nupedia with an open-source encyclopaedia based on wiki software. On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia was launched as a feature of Nupedia.com, but, following objections from the advisory board, it was relaunched as an independent Web site a few days later. In its first year Wikipedia expanded to some 20,000 articles in 18 languages, including French, German, Polish, Dutch, Hebrew, Chinese, and Esperanto. In 2003 Nupedia was terminated and its articles moved into Wikipedia. By 2006 the English-language version of Wikipedia had more than one million articles, and by the time of its 10th anniversary in 2011 it had surpassed 3.5 million. However, while the encyclopaedia continued to expand at a rate of millions of words per month, the number of new articles created each year gradually decreased, from a peak of 665,000 in 2007 to 374,000 in 2010. In response to this slowdown, the Wikimedia Foundation began to focus its expansion efforts on the non-English versions of Wikipedia, which by 2011 numbered more than 250. With some versions having already amassed hundreds of thousands of articles—the French and German versions both boasted more than one million—particular attention was paid to languages of the developing world, such as Swahili and Tamil, in an attempt to reach populations otherwise underserved by the Internet. One impediment to Wikipedia's ability to reach a truly global audience, however, was the Chinese government's periodic restrictions of access to some or all of the site's content within China. Principles and procedures In some respects Wikipedia's open-source production model is the epitome of the so-called Web 2.0, an egalitarian environment where the web of social software enmeshes users in both their real and virtual-reality workplaces. The Wikipedia community is based on a limited number of standard principles. One important principle is neutrality. Another is the faith that contributors are participating in a sincere and deliberate fashion. Readers can correct what they perceive to be errors, and disputes over facts and over possible bias are conducted through contributor discussions. Three other guiding principles are to keep within the defined parameters of an encyclopaedia, to respect copyright laws, and to consider any other rules to be flexible. The last principle reinforces the project's belief that the open-source process will make Wikipedia into the best product available, given its community of users. At the very least, one by-product of the process is that the encyclopaedia contains a number of publicly accessible pages that are not necessarily classifiable as articles. These include stubs (very short articles intended to be expanded) and talk pages (which contain discussions between contributors). The central policy of inviting readers to serve as authors or editors creates the potential for problems as well as their at least partial solution. Not all users are scrupulous about providing accurate information, and Wikipedia must also deal with individuals who deliberately deface particular articles, post misleading or false statements, or add obscene material. Wikipedia's method is to rely on its users to monitor and clean up its articles. Trusted contributors can also receive administrator privileges that provide access to an array of software tools to speedily fix Web graffiti and other serious problems. Issues and controversies Reliance on community self-policing has generated some problems. In 2005 the American journalist John L. Seigenthaler, Jr., discovered that his Wikipedia biography falsely identified him as a potential conspirator in the assassinations of both John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy and that these malicious claims had survived Wikipedia's community policing for 132 days. The author of this information could not be easily identified, since all that is known about unregistered contributors is their computers' IP, or Internet protocol, addresses (many of which are dynamically generated each time a user goes online). (The contributor later confessed and apologized, saying that he wrote the false information as a joke.) The Seigenthaler case prompted Wikipedia to prohibit unregistered users from editing certain articles. Similar instances of vandalism later led site administrators to formulate a procedure, despite protests from some contributors, by which some edits would be reviewed by experienced editors before the changes could appear online. Although Wikipedia has occasionally come under fire for including information not intended to be widely disseminated—such as images of the 10 inkblots used by psychologists in the Rorschach Test—it has also adapted its philosophy of openness in certain cases. For instance, after New York Times reporter David S. Rohde was kidnapped by Taliban militants in Afghanistan in 2008, his employer arranged with Wikipedia for news of the incident to be kept off the Web site on the grounds that it could endanger Rohde's life. The site's administrators complied, in the face of repeated attempts by users to add the information, until after Rohde's eventual escape. Additionally, in 2010 it was revealed that there was a cache of pornographic images, including illegal depictions of sexual acts involving children, on Wikimedia Commons, a site maintained by the Wikimedia Foundation that served as a repository of media files for use in all Wikimedia products. Although there were no such illegal images on Wikipedia itself, the ensuing scandal prompted Jimmy Wales, who personally deleted many of the Commons files, to encourage administrators to remove any prurient content from Wikimedia sites. Wikipedia administrators also have the power to block particular IP addresses—a power they used in 2006 after it was found that staff members of some U.S. congressional representatives had altered articles to eliminate unfavourable details. News of such self-interested editing inspired Virgil Griffith, a graduate student at the California Institute of Technology, to create Wikipedia Scanner, or WikiScanner, in 2007. By correlating the IP addresses attached to every Wikipedia edit with their owners, Griffith constructed a database that he made available on the Web for anyone to search through. He and other researchers quickly discovered that editing Wikipedia content from computers located within corporations and in government offices was widespread. Although most of the edits were innocuous—typically, individuals working on subjects unrelated to their positions—a pattern did seem to emerge of many articles being edited to reflect more favourably on the editors' hosts. Debates about the utility of Wikipedia proliferated especially among scholars and educators, for whom the reliability of reference materials was of particular concern. While many classrooms, at nearly all grade levels, discouraged or prohibited students from using Wikipedia as a research tool, in 2010 the Wikimedia Foundation recruited several public policy professors in the United States to develop course work wherein students contributed content to the Wikipedia site. As Wikipedia became a seemingly inescapable part of the Internet landscape, its claims to legitimacy were further bolstered by an increasing number of citations of the encyclopaedia in U.S. judicial opinions, as well as by a program administered by the German government to work with the German-language site to improve its coverage of renewable resources. The number of active editors (i.e., those who edit more than 100 articles a month) peaked in 2007 and as of 2017 had declined by about a third. Various factors were blamed for this decline. Wikipedia's bureaucratic culture with its complex norms and its reliance on automated procedures that tended to reject new edits were seen as discouraging to new editors. Editing the articles requires knowledge of a specialized markup language that is difficult to edit on smartphones and tablets. Surveys of Wikipedia editors have revealed a persistent gender gap; only about 10-20 percent of the editors are women. In response to concerns about this gender gap and how it is reflected in the encyclopaedia, Wikipedia began about 2012 to encourage "edit-a-thons," in which editors come together at events devoted to increasing the site's coverage of such subjects as feminism and women's history. Whether or not Wikipedia can solve these demographic problems, it has undoubtedly become a model of what the collaborative Internet community can and cannot do. (Source: Britannica)

What are the different types of doctors?

What Are the Different Types of Doctors? Written by Kathryn Whitbourne Medically Reviewed by Dany Paul Baby, MD on April 22, 2022 You may call them simply doctors. But most doctors have extra expertise in one type of medicine or another. In fact, there are several hundred medical specialties and subspecialties. Here are the most common types of doctors you'll likely see. Allergists/Immunologists They treat immune system disorders such as asthma, eczema, food allergies, insect sting allergies, and some autoimmune diseases. Anesthesiologists These doctors give you drugs to numb your pain or to put you under during surgery, childbirth, or other procedures. They monitor your vital signs while you're under anesthesia. Cardiologists They're experts on the heart and blood vessels. You might see them for heart failure, a heart attack, high blood pressure, or an irregular heartbeat. Colon and Rectal Surgeons You would see these doctors for problems with your small intestine, colon, and bottom. They can treat colon cancer, hemorrhoids, and inflammatory bowel disease. Critical Care Medicine Specialists They care for people who are critically ill or injured, often heading intensive care units in hospitals. You might see them if your heart or other organs are failing or if you've been in an accident. Dermatologists Have problems with your skin, hair, nails? Do you have moles, scars, acne, or skin allergies? Dermatologists can help. Endocrinologists These are experts on hormones and metabolism. They can treat conditions like diabetes, thyroid problems, infertility, and calcium and bone disorders. Emergency Medicine Specialists These doctors make life-or-death decisions for sick and injured people, usually in an emergency room. Their job is to save lives and to avoid or lower the chances of disability. Family Physicians They care for the whole family, including children, adults, and the elderly. They do routine checkups and screening tests, give you flu and immunization shots, and manage diabetes and other ongoing medical conditions. Gastroenterologists They're specialists in digestive organs, including the stomach, bowels, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. You might see them for abdominal pain, ulcers, diarrhea, jaundice, or cancers in your digestive organs. They also do a colonoscopy and other tests for colon cancer. Geriatric Medicine Specialists These doctors care for the elderly. They can treat people in their homes, doctors' offices, nursing homes, assisted-living centers, and hospitals. Hematologists These are specialists in diseases of the blood, spleen, and lymph glands, like sickle cell disease, anemia, hemophilia, and leukemia. Hospice and Palliative Medicine Specialists They work with people who are nearing death. They're experts in pain management. They work with a team of other doctors to keep up your quality of life. Infectious Disease Specialists They diagnose and treat infections in any part of your body, like fevers, Lyme disease, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and HIV and AIDS. Some of them specialize in preventive medicine or travel medicine. Internists These primary-care doctors treat both common and complex illnesses, usually only in adults. You'll likely visit them or your family doctor first for any condition. Internists often have advanced training in a host of subspecialties, like heart disease, cancer, or adolescent or sleep medicine. With additional training (called a fellowship), internists can specialize in cardiology, gastroenterology, endocrinology, nephrology, pulmonology, and other medical sub-specialties. Medical Geneticists They diagnose and treat hereditary disorders passed down from parents to children. These doctors may also offer genetic counseling and screening tests. Nephrologists They treat kidney diseases as well as high blood pressure and fluid and mineral imbalances linked to kidney disease. Neurologists These are specialists in the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. They treat strokes, brain and spinal tumors, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Obstetricians and Gynecologists Often called OB/GYNs, these doctors focus on women's health, including pregnancy and childbirth. They do Pap smears, pelvic exams, and pregnancy checkups. OB/GYNs are trained in both areas. But some of them may focus on women's reproductive health (gynecologists), and others specialize in caring for pregnant women (obstetricians). Oncologists These internists are cancer specialists. They do chemotherapy treatments and often work with radiation oncologists and surgeons to care for someone with cancer. Ophthalmologists You call them eye doctors. They can prescribe glasses or contact lenses and diagnose and treat diseases like glaucoma. Unlike optometrists, they're medical doctors who can treat every kind of eye condition as well as operate on the eyes. Osteopaths Doctors of osteopathic medicine (DO) are fully licensed medical doctors just like MDs. Their training stresses a "whole body" approach. Osteopaths use the latest medical technology but also the body's natural ability to heal itself. Otolaryngologists They treat diseases in the ears, nose, throat, sinuses, head, neck, and respiratory system. They also can do reconstructive and plastic surgery on your head and neck. Pathologists These lab doctors identify the causes of diseases by examining body tissues and fluids under microscopes. Pediatricians They care for children from birth to young adulthood. Some pediatricians specialize in pre-teens and teens, child abuse, or children's developmental issues. Physiatrists These specialists in physical medicine and rehabilitation treat neck or back pain and sports or spinal cord injuries as well as other disabilities caused by accidents or diseases. Plastic Surgeons You might call them cosmetic surgeons. They rebuild or repair your skin, face, hands, breasts, or body. That can happen after an injury or disease or for cosmetic reasons. Pulmonologists You would see these specialists for problems like lung cancer, pneumonia, asthma, emphysema, and trouble sleeping caused by breathing issues. Radiologists They use X-rays, ultrasound, and other imaging tests to diagnose diseases. They can also specialize in radiation oncology to treat conditions like cancer. Rheumatologists They specialize in arthritis and other diseases in your joints, muscles, bones, and tendons. You might see them for your osteoporosis (weak bones), back pain, gout, tendinitis from sports or repetitive injuries, and fibromyalgia. Sleep Medicine Specialists They find and treat causes behind your poor sleep. They may have sleep labs or give you take-home tests to chart your sleep-wake patterns. Sports Medicine Specialists These doctors diagnose, treat, and prevent injuries related to sports and exercise. General Surgeons These doctors can operate on all parts of your body. They can take out tumors, appendices, or gallbladders and repair hernias. Many surgeons have subspecialties, like cancer, hand, or vascular surgery. Urologists These are surgeons who care for men and women for problems in the urinary tract, like a leaky bladder. They also treat male infertility and do prostate exams. (Source: WebMD)

How do I control crying?

Tips to control crying Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Bethany Cadman on October 22, 2017 Types How much crying is too much? Tips How to avoid triggers Crying and mental health Takeaway Uncontrollable crying can be upsetting, uncomfortable, embarrassing, and exhausting. Understanding what causes crying, and learning how to control it is often a huge relief. Sometimes, people have the urge to cry when they don't want to and while it is important to note that there is nothing wrong with crying, there are some ways to control and prevent it from happening. It is important to remember that crying could be a sign of a deeper problem, and if anyone suspects this is the case, they should visit their doctor. Fast facts on crying: Some people hardly cry at all, even in very sad situations, while others find even small things can set them off. There is no specific cure for crying. Crying is a normal response to a wide range of emotionally charged stimuli. Treatments can help, especially if the person has a mood disorder. Other management techniques and tricks can help control crying. Basal tears are 98 percent water and emotional tears contain proteins and hormones. There are three kinds of tears that humans can produce, each of them has a different purpose. Basal tears Basal tears make sure the eyes do not dry out and are always present in the eyes. Humans produce around 5 to 10 ounces of basal tears each day. Reflex tears Reflex tears are produced to help protect the eye. If smoke or dust gets into the eye, or it is irritated, the nerves in the cornea send a message to the brain and reflex tears occur. Emotional tears Emotional tears. When a person is feeling emotional, the cerebrum (the front part of the brain) registers that emotion and a hormone is triggered causing emotional type tears to form. What are tears made of? Tears are made up of protein, water, mucus, and oil. However, their content will vary depending on what kind of tears they are. Basal tears, for example, are 98 percent water, where emotional tears contain several different chemicals, proteins, and hormones. How much crying is too much? There are no rules on crying too much, but any crying that affects everyday life should be referred to a healthcare professional. There is no rule about how much crying is too much, and whether it is a problem depends on how an individual feels personally, and whether bouts of crying affect daily activities, relationships, and other aspects of everyday life. Crying is normal, as are many of the reasons for crying. Some common reasons why a person might cry are: frustration fear receiving bad news missing someone empathy sad memories anger shock feeling overwhelmed a relationship breakdown happiness Tips for controlling crying Mental approaches 1. Walk away Walking away from a situation, it can be a helpful way to stop getting worked up and bursting into tears. Getting too angry, upset, or frustrated can cause crying so removing themselves and returning when calmer can help a person regain control. 2. Use words Failure to communicate properly can lead to anger and frustration, which can trigger the urge to cry. Learning how to express feelings clearly, staying calm, and using words can help to keep tears at bay. 3. Have props and use distractions Having something to scribble on, a stress ball, or something to look at visually may be of use when heading into a situation that could trigger crying. Distraction is another popular technique. Focusing on an activity or task, listening to uplifting music or starting a conversation can also be helpful. 4. Think about something positive or funny instead Try to replace negative thoughts with positive ones or think about something funny or silly instead. Seeing the lighter, funnier side to a stressful situation can make things easier and stop someone from crying so easily. Physical approaches 5. Concentrate on breathing Taking a deep breath and focusing on breathing slowly and calmly can help regain control. 6. Blink and move the eyes Moving the eyes around and blinking back the tears can prevent them from spilling out. 7. Relaxing facial muscles When a person cries their face tends to tense up. Focusing on the muscles in the face and relaxing them can help prevent crying. 8. Get rid of that throat lump Emotional crying also affects the nervous system. One way it reacts is by opening up the muscle at the back of the throat (called the glottis). This feels as though a lump is forming in the throat. Sipping water, swallowing, and yawning can help make the lump go away. 9. Do some exercise Exercise releases feel-good endorphins and is a great distraction from what is causing the upset too. How to avoid triggers Man and woman chatting at a coffee shop Share on Pinterest Talking to someone may be a recommended strategy to avoid triggers. Avoiding triggers is about knowing the things that make a person cry and being able to identify them. This makes it easier for them to manage their emotions, as they can spot and prevent familiar thought-patterns long before reaching the point of crying. Some strategies include: Acknowledging feelings Sometimes crying can be a reflex because people struggle to acknowledge how they are feeling. Trying to understand the cause of distress and coming up with practical solutions will be more helpful than masking the problem by crying. Modifying behavior Behavioral modification is where a person is asked to try and focus on their thoughts and actions and identify the triggers that cause them to cry. Doing so enables them to come up with coping mechanisms to help. The more a person repeats these, the more control a person will have over their emotions. Talking to someone Talking to someone, whether they are a trusted friend, a family member, or a trained professional such as a therapist, can help a person work out problems, relieve stress and feel freer. Writing it down Some people find keeping a journal or writing their emotions down is a beneficial way to explore their feelings, find patterns, and see if there is a root cause for their problems that needs addressing. Crying and mental health Although crying is a normal part of life, excessive crying can be a sign of several mood or personality disorders that usually need professional help to control. Some common mood disorders are: depression anxiety disorder Pseudobulbar affect (PBA) - intense feelings of anger or sudden, unexplained laughter or crying Takeaway While it is perfectly normal and acceptable to cry, if a person suspects they cry more than normal or crying is getting in the way of their daily life, they should seek help and advice from a medical professional. If they are considering harming themselves or others then seeking immediate help by calling 911, the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline on 1-800-273-8255, or confiding in a trusted adult is the best course of action. Crying in itself can sometimes be helpful and make a person feel much better so people should not try to hide tears, bury emotions, or suffer alone. (Source: Medical News Today)