Reading the Old Testament
Higher Criticism
the study of the literary methods and sources discernible in a text, especially as applied to biblical writings. the interpretation of the corrected text
How did the Babylonian exile affect cultic worship?
From the time of the exile on, the structures become more formal. Ezekiel, writing in exile, distinguishes between priests from the family of Aaron and the Levites, who may assist but not do priestly tasks. Must be from the family of Zadok. Position taken by Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 & 2 Chronicles. After rebuilding of the temple, sacrifices and worship were held there, but also laid greater stress on the study of their tradition, particularly as it was written down officially, Ezra, ~450 BCE, constructs Pentateuch. Sacrifices give way to study, rise to synagogues for study and prayer, rabbis rather than priests were the leaders outside of Jerusalem, observance of Shabbat becomes a major practice, a feast that could be observed by all at home, allowed time for going to synagogue to pray and study
What are some qualities of God that are often repeated in the psalms?
God is holy, greater than all gods, eternal, rock and redeemer, fortress to defend us, compassionate and merciful, just and upright
Exegesis, exegete
reading "from" the text itself, that is getting as close as possible to the original meaning of the text.
What is the five-part order in the present Book of Psalms?
1-41 - early collection of Davidic hymns 42-72 - northern collection of hymns 73-89 collection from the temple singers 90-106 - from a royal collection, perhaps for New Year's celebrations 107-50 - second and expanded Davidic royal collection
Briefly describe how Canaanite myth influenced the Hebrew writers.
Baal subdues the sea god, Yamm, symbolizing the victory of divine order over the chaotic rampages of the untamable ocean. Baal prevails over Mot, death. In doing so Baal (or Anat) gain dominion over wet and dry seasons. While rejecting the multiple gods and the nature myths of Canaan, Israel felt itself free to use many of the images and themes to enhance the power of Yahweh
What are the major types of sacrifice described in Leviticus 1 to 7?
Burnt offerings - totally consumed on the altar, unblemished animal brought to the priest, donor lays hands on its head, transformed into smoke to rise to heaven where God swells. Daily sacrifice for whole community and personal atonement Grain offering - offering of the poor, fruit of their labors, whole offering presented on altar, but only a portion is burnt with oil and incense. Remainder feeds the priest and his family Peace offering or offerings of Well-Being - only small portion of animal is burned, remainder returned to the offerer. Peace offering nourishes the deity and the peace offering nourishes the people. Never serves as expiation or atonement. Offered in thanksgiving, fulfillment of a vow, or a freewill offering. Purification offerings - (sin offering) blood is a decontaminate agent for the sanctuary that had been polluted by sin.
Briefly describe some key characteristics and elements of the Canaanite religion. Why did it seem appealing to the people of Israel?
Every major city in Canaan had its distinctive pantheon and it developed continuously from the second millennium to the first. In the first there emerged chief deities. "Nature religion," - Their religious system was the worship of gods who controlled the forces of nature especially those that affected the climate and annual cycle of rain and drought in the coastal areas. Important gods were those involved in the rhythm of nature. Myths and rituals were developed that tried to reflect an orderly and proper way to bring such natural forces into proper balance during the year. "Cosmological" - focuses on the proper relation between the divine ordering of the universe and the human response. It is the task of human religion to win the gods' favor and bring favorable blessing and order on our small creaturely presence. The Bible emphasises ideal worship. And, many different groups and towns were added to Israel's faith from early times, who brought their pagan customs and beliefs along with them without really changing inside. Common to identify the local gods with new conquering power's gods simply transferring their loyalty and public allegiance. Canaanite Baal → Babylonian Marduk, or Yahweh. Yahweh had no difficulty in adding a practice or two for the same reasons
How would you answer the criticism that the psalms are excessively violent?
Far from being excessively violent, the psalms are filled with devotion and attempted to express God's mysterious goodness that they had experienced in all aspects of their lives.
Describe the best approach in reading the psalms to appreciate their beauty and richness.
In order to truly appreciate the beauty of a psalm, one must understand the particular structure of that psalm. For example, 22 does not swing violently from despair to praise, but rather the first 22 verses mix the psalmist's complaint with words of trust while the last ten verses declare his absolute certainty that God has heard his prayer.
What are the four periods or stages in the cultic aspects of Israel's worship? Briefly describe the characteristics and qualities of worship in each period.
Patriarchs - individual encounters with God as signified by commemorative shrines, usually found associated with natural sites, trees, groves of trees, mountains Moses to David - covenantal experience, revealed name of Yahweh, communal experience, portable shrine of two parts, the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant. After conquest, the major shrines of Shechem, Bethel, Beer-sheba and Gilgal continued to enjoy popularity among the people as places of pilgrimage. David brings together the two components of the later Temple when he brought the ark from the south together with the rementants of the Mishkan from the north to Jerusalem. David dreams of building at Temple Solomon to exile in 586 BCE - Solomon builds a temple in Jerusalem, making it the most significant center of worship. There remained, however smaller shrines scattered around the country. After the death of Solomon, Jeroboam, the rebel kind in the north set up Bethel and Dan as counter shrines to prevent his subjects from looking south to Judah for religious or political leadership. These were not condemned by the prophets who lived during this time, Elijan, Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah. The emphasis on true worship only in Jerusalem comes after the fall of the Northern Kingdom in 722 and the religious reforms of Hezekiah (and Josiah) in the period from 705 to 609 Post Exile - renewed cult and worship
Describe the role and function of the priests and Levites.
Performed sacrifices, sought the will of God and guarded the shrines Distinction between Priests and Levites Descendant of Aaron, and specially consecrated - Kohanim Levites might assist in the care of the temple and its worship but could not be priests (cautionary tale of Korach) Was stipulated after the exile in the 6th c BCE, but not the practice in earlier time Evidenced by Deuteronomy, written in 7th c BCE - all are Levitical priests Samuel was not a Levite, nor a descendant of Aaron Jeroboam set up non-Levitical priests to serve David → Zadok, ancestry unknown
What are the six major types of psalms?
Praise Thanksgiving Individual laments Community laments Royal psalms honoring God as king or the earthly king as his deputy Wisdom or didactic psalms (largest category)
What religious practices did the Canaanite religion and Israelites have in common? Which Canaanite practices did Israelites condemn? Why?
Sacrifices played a large role in both religions and some sacrifices at Ugarit are called by the same terms found in Lev. 1-8, ex peace offerings, burnt and elevation offerings. Altars were often similar in shape, four sharp projections at the corners called horns. Both religions had altars for incense. Both had temples made up of three parts, a porch, a regular sanctuary and a special inner sanctuary that in Israel was called the 'holy of holies." Taking care of parents. Bible condemns child sacrifice, which was widespread in Canaan, the massabah, a Canaanite pillar symbol, phallic symbols of the male fertility gods, and memorial stones used a cult of dead ancestors. Condemned were also the use of 'high places', raised outdoor altars, combining the worship of Yahweh and Baal. Condemned the making of idols or any image of Yahweh as well as priests going before the altar naked
What is the significance of the temple? Describe the importance of temple worship and sacrifice.
Sacrifices were part of a system of honoring and placating Yahweh. A sacrifice is the transference of property from the profane to the sacred realm. The death of the animal itself was not as important as the sprinkling of its life-carrying blood on the altar and the taking the animal out of everyday service to give it back to God. Sacrifices were not considered as a magical ritual to force God to act in a certain way. Always in the spirit of adoration and silent obedience of the people.
What are some of the major feasts in Israel's religious life?
Shalosh Regalim- Passover, Sukkot, Shavuot (Pentecost) Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Rosh Chodesh, Shabbat, Feasts - Purim, Hanukkah
"Canaanite religion and culture were totally inconsistent and abhorrent to the way of life of Israel." Assess the validity of this statement. Do you agree or disagree? Why? Give reasons for your position.
The Canaanite religion and culture were not totally abhorrent to the way of life of Israel. While the religion saw itself as above the need to worship individual gods to have sway upon the natural forces and looked to one God and the creator and controller of all, a God who placed morality above all else, a community based in a farming economy would have easily found itself swayed by annual religious rites of fertility and agricultural success.
Describe the liturgical origins of the psalms
The origins of the psalms is unclear. Some may have been for personal devotion, collected at the Temple for safekeeping while others seem to have been composed specifically for the purpose of being paired with different holidays and special occasions
What are the psalms? How many are contained in the Book of Psalms? Briefly describe some characteristics and major themes of the psalms.
The ideal of Israelite piety A collection of 150 prayer poems to be sung or accompanied by music _Tehillim (praises) Joy and praise of god's goodness Sorrow and lament and a spirit of contrition Motivated by sickness or bad fortune in life Can be used at weddings and special occasions Able to see the depth and width of Israel's attitude toward God Note of confidence and trust in God's goodness always comes through
Ugaritic Tablets
clay tablets discovered in the excavations of the city of Ugarit beginning in 1929 that have given a sampling of northern Canaanite religious beliefs and practices prior to 1200 BCE when Igarit was destroyed by the Sea People (and never rebuilt)
gods and goddesses in the Canaanite religion: El
father of the gods and creator of all creatures, highest god and final judge
gods and goddesses in the Canaanite religion: Astarte
goddess of fertility. Widespread usage of small hand-sized statuettes found throughout Canaanite and Israelite ruins.
gods and goddesses in the Canaanite religion: Asherah
goddess over the sea and wife of El. important voice in influencing El's decisions
gods and goddesses in the Canaanite religion: Baal
the god of the storm who is the day-to-day king of the gods. He controls the annual rainstorm and fertility cycle of the earth, depend on him for agricultural success
Epic of Baal
the most important Ugaritic religious text for understanding Canaanite beliefs. Six fragmentary clay tablets describing the storm god Baal's gaining kingship by overcoming his enemies Sea and Death
gods and goddesses in the Canaanite religion: Anat
the sister of Baal and possibly consort - warrior and sexual charms. (Like Baby. Ishtar) dual role of a goddess of love and war
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: The Tel Zayit Abecedary
- (inscribed alphabet) found in 2005, 10th c. alphabet found 10 miles east of Ashkelon. Found in a remote outpost, points to the substantial organization of Davidic-Solomonic kingdom.
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: The Moabite Stone
- carved for King Mesha of Moab, commemorate freedom from Israel in 9th c. BCE, Moabite writing, god Chemosh, and relation to Israel. Names Omri.
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: The House of David Inscription
- found 1993 in Tell Dan, n. Israel, first mention of King David outside of the Bible. Broken by northern king b/c was a reminder of past Aramaean domination.
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: The Siloam Inscription
- found inside the water tunnel built under the old Davidic city of Jerusalem, during the time of King Hezekiah (715-689), describing the making of the tunnel.
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: The Samaria Ostraca
- later period of the N. Kingdom of Israel, deliveries to Jeroboam II (789-748) or Menahem (748-737)
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: Gezer Calendar
- lists the months and seasons of the year in the 10th c. BCE
nonbiblical finds in Palestine: Lachish Ostraca
- military reports give a vivid picture of the last days of independent Judah before the attack of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.
Textual Criticism
- the science of detecting what is wrong with the text and either looking for a better and more accurate manuscript or suggesting a better reading, aka Lower Criticism
What are the two most common dates suggested for the incidents and events in the exodus story? Briefly describe the evidence supporting each set of dates. Which one would you favor as more probable? Why?
-1450 and 1350 - Amarna Letters - Apiru were already in Palestine by 1350, persecution had to take place shortly after the defeat of the Hyksos, indications of Semitic slaves at Egyptian turquoise mine between 1500 and 1400, and Solomon's dedication of the Temple, 480 years after Exodus, thus 1430 BCE. -1300 and 1250 - Exodus 1:11 state that the Hebrews were forced to build the store cities of Rameses and Pithom, and Ramses is Pi-Ramses = Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE). The other end of the time frame established by the Merneptah Victory Stele "Israel is laid waste, his seed is not." Since Israel is marked with the sign for a tribe or clan, this means the Israelites had not yet settled down fully by 1225 to 1220. Using the measure of 40 years as the lifespan, then this would place the exodus early in the reign of Ramesses II. Between 1279 and 1250 is the most likely date, Exodus 12:40, Israel had been in Egypt four hundred and thirty years, since 1630 when the Hyksos took control of the country.
What have been some significant historical developments in archaeology?
-Napoleon's invasion 1798 - began rage for Egyptian culture -Rosetta Stone discovery - text written in three languages - Greek, Demotic (a late form of Egyptian) and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, -Jean-Francois Champollion - 1821, deciphers Rosetta Stone -Ancient cities of Assyria in Iraq found by Paul Emile Botta (France) and Henry Rawlinson (England). -Cuneiform (wedge-shaped) writing deciphered -George Smith - 1871 gives birth to biblical archaeology - found tablet with a flood story similar to that of Noah but dating hundreds/thousands of years earlier
Briefly describe the different types of law found in the Pentateuch.
1. Law of the covenant - (EX 21 -23) early law reflecting rural life before the city-centered time of the kings 2. Ten Commandments (Ex 20 and Deut 5) Early covenant law 3. Cult commandments (EX 34) early kings or time of judges, kashrut reflect a reaction to pagan customs of the Canaanites Laws on sacrifice and feast days - (Lev 1-16) large sacrificed made in the Temple during Kings. Final form only at the latest period before the exile, but have earlier roots. 4. Holiness code - (Lev 17-26) very moralistic and preachy style, close to the thought of the Ezekiel (593-572 BCE) 5. Deuteronomic laws - sermon style aimed at economic and social conditions typical of the later monarchy, 700-600 BCE
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Jerusalem
2 Samuel 5:6-10 David took the city from Jebusites, 4000 yrs of occupation. Since 1970's archeological digs notably work on the Temple Mount and the Old City of David (Ophel)
How many books are contained in the Old Testament? What are the main divisions according to the Jewish tradition? Why do Christian Bible have different division?
46 (Catholic) /39 (Jewish and Protestant), Laws, Prophets and Writings. Christians have four divisions, adding a category for the historical books (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) separate from the Prophets. Note: In contrast to the Jewish order, which emphasizes the centrality of the Torah, Christians tend to arrange the books to form a narrative that begins with creation in Genesis and ends with the prophets pointing to Christ.
What is the significance of Qumran for Old Testament study?
A community, probaby of Essenes, hid their biblical and sectarian scrolls in caves when the Romans attacked during the First Jewish Revolt of 66-70 CE. The Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a perspective on the diversity of religious practices in Judaism in the first century. Oldest known copies of all the Hebrew books of the Bible except Esther, more than a thousand years older than what was previously known. Vital importance of textural accuracy.
Pharaoh
A king of ancient Egypt, considered a god as well as a political and military leader.
How does the Elohist source differ from the Yahwist? What is distinctive about the Elohist source? What are its major themes? How are they developed?
A reworking of J, from Northern Kingdom after the split, favors northern ideas such as favoring Jacob who lived in Shechem and Bethel accepts a much larger role for all the people in the covenant (as opposed to Moses and the elders) reflecting their suspicion of authorities who claim too much power. Elijah and prophets, referring to Abraham as a prophet (Gen 20:7). Strong stand against foreign gods, Baal is a constant threat in the north. God keeps his divine distance, majesty and communicates through messengers or dreams (Gen 20:3). Opposes to the dynastic claims of David's house, highlighting Yitro's advice to share leadership with able men. Problems with the shrines at Dan and Bethel where the first King Jeroboam put up golden calves = golden calf Fear of God, theme of submission to the divine power and willingness to accept God's will even in a time of testing and leadership, ex, sacrifice of Isaac, midwives, etc. Contrast J and E in the telling of the Abraham passing off Sarah as his sister. J does not condemn Abraham, J has Abraham as the perfect model of a leader, much like King David. E, Abraham realizes he has done wrong in not trusting God Much more concerned with ethical and moral questions than J, like Elijah Favors the ideals of the covenant in the desert where the tribes endured difficulties and temptations until they finally won through to their new home in Palestine. Not as large as J, supplement royalist leanings, feels thin
Testament
A solemn vow and contract to which God is a witness. It is a synonym of covenant.
The Amarna Letters
An archive written on clay tablets found 1887 the letters dating to the time of Akhenaton and his father, Amenhotep III between 1400 and 1350 BCE, describing the conditions of Palestine, the 'invasion' of the Apiru, the ignored pleas for help. Stone tablets that were stored in the royal library at Tell el-Amarna.
Pseudepigrapha
Ancient books from the same time frame as the books of the Bible, especially the New Testament. The Church decided these books were not inspired by God and could not be included in the canon of the Bible.
What are some other ancient translations of which text critics make use? Targum
Aramaic, loose paraphrase to be read alongside during services, date?
"Archaeology can absolutely and unquestionably prove the Bible to be true or false." Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why? State the reasons for your position.
Archaeology does not prove the Bible. Archaeology does provide strikingly helpful evidence for customs and practices mentioned in the Bible. It supports the accuracy of OT writers as observers of daily life in their times. But the literary and religious affirmations of OT faith are not open to being believed because archaeology can support them. The lives of the patriarchs and the like were particular whereas archaeology provides general information about practices and customs, objects and buildings. But, in most cases, the question as to if specific individuals actually lived will not be known.
Briefly describe the historical circumstances and situation in Egypt before the exodus.
Asiatic settlers would head south to Egypt, Goshen a fertile section of the Nile Delta in almost every century, but in the 18th c BCE the flow became intense: possibly warlike, overwhelming the Egyptians. The Hyksos ruled for 200 years and were likely hated by the native Egyptians. King Ahmose of Thebes overthrew the Hyksos and began a the 18th Dynasty (the New Kingdom), expanding the empire to include Sudan, Libya, and Palestine, and most of Syria. Wealth flowed in including craftsmen, traders, ambassadors, and prisoners. Egyptian rule in the period was generally benevolent. One central governor leaving most of the control to local princes and chiefs, army rarely brought in to war, advancements in the arts [Late Bronze Age] There was a threat from the north, the growing empire of the Hittites in Anatolia, (central modern Turkey.)
What were the three major "families" or groupings of Hebrew text types at the time of Jesus?
Babylonian Jews - very short, tightly knit Pentateuch Egyptian Jews - richer and more expanded text, Palestinian Jews - Prophets
Describe what is meant by the term "covenant." What are its essential, constitutive elements?
Brit, any form of binding agreement sworn before the witnessing gods. It assumes that the gods would reward those who kept the agreement and punish those who did not. Can be a contract, alliance, peace pact, bond of marriage, treaty but most commonly referred to the special alliance between Yahweh and Israel. The people Israel is bound to an unbreakable covenant union with their God He has made known His love and His mercy to them He has given them commandments They owe Him worship, fidelity, and obedience They are marked by the sign of that covenant-bond. The covenant created the unity of the nation Israel, based not on blood relationship, but on submission to the divine will and the confession that He alone is God. In turn, God pledges Himself to be Israel's personal protector and helper, not only against foreign enemies, but against sickness, disease, and chaos as well. He will be present whether it is a time of prosperity or of failure, for He has laid claim to this people as His own. Yahweh is a personal God who demands personal loyalty.
Briefly describe and compare the prose and poetic accounts of the crossing of the Red Sea in Exodus 14 and 15. How do they differ? Why?
Chapter 14 (prose) emphasizing the role of the pillars of cloud and fire, the east wind and the Israelites passing dry shod through the waters, which then close upon the pursuing Egyptians. Continues the narrative from chapt 1. Chapter 15 (through 18) (poetry) mentions only the drowning of the Egyptians as the miracle. A poem that celebrates the victory of God, but continues its references up to the conquest of Palestine and the building of the temple in Jerusalem. Acts as a summary and hymn of thanksgiving for the saving deed of God. Doesn't give all the facts, It is a climax, praise, glowing words and epic exaggeration are to be expected. Both: Israel passed through a section of wet land made dry by an east wind, when the Egyptians tried to follow, their chariots were caught in the mud/returning water, and the soldiers drowned. While all events might have occured naturally, it is the timing that is the miracle. God chooses to protect the Israelites. All things were the result of divine will. Note: from study bible, Exodus served to orient Jewish festivals toward God's actions in history, in contrast to polytheistic festivals which focused on the gods' action in nature. Sukkot transforms from an agricultural celebration to a commemoration of Israel dwelling in booths in the desert. Note: Apiru (Hapiru) has been suggested as having a relation to the Hebrews but the connection is problematic since the latter refers to a social class of outcasts, whereas Hebrew refers to an ethnic group (pg 100) Indications that Yahweh was already worshiped at Sinai by the Midianites, and inscription of Amenhotep III (1408-1372), "the land of the Shosu, the tribes of Yhw) - an area just east of the Sinai
Describe oral tradition. What are some of its strengths and weaknesses?
Culture was to listen and master passed-down wisdom of the ancestors Oral tradition is good at preserving main story lines and ideas, but details could vary each time the stories were told, so are less likely to be reliable.
Lower Criticism
Deals with the text itself rather than the interpretation of a corrected text. It is also known as textual criticism because scholar works with the text to find the most accurate possible reading. More rigorous than higher criticism
What are the steps in form criticism?
Defining the unit Naming the form used, lament, letter, saga, etc. Genre? Describing its setting in life (Sitz-im-Leben) - original social context, what kind of thinking gave rise to such an expression. Can we know something about the people from the way they spoke? Identifying its purpose - in its transition from originally oral for final written, what do we learn about Israel in this transition?
Describe the ark of the covenant and the tent of meeting
Essential to the actual living out of the covenant in the desert years Repetition: God instructs and his instructions are followed to the detail Resembled small, portable shrines found in pre-Islamic tribes of Arabia Carried into war Symbolized the presence of Yahweh Combined with the ancient tradition of a tent where God would manifest Himself to Moses Written down after the Temple's existence, therefore the descriptions of the rich furnishings and instruments so unsuited to desert travel is a picture drawn from the Temple of Jerusalem Ark held tablets of the law and not God Ark disappeared with the fall of Jerusalem and the burning of the Temple in 586 BCE by the Babylonians Tent tradition dies with the building of the Temple by Solomon
Describe the method of archaeology.
First select the site for the "dig," well known monuments or large mound hill, "tell," that show signs of long habitation from the past. Use of biblical narrative to find probable location, modern name Factors that affect a dig - Money, accommodations, climate, etc
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Samaria
Founded by king Omri, capital of northern Israel in first half of 9th c. BCE. Captured by Assyrians and destroyed in 722 BCE.
Briefly describe each of the five books that comprise the Pentateuch.
Genesis - history of creation and human societies, God's choice of patriarchs, who receive his promise progeny and land, prepare for exodus from Egypt and Sinai Exodus - God chose Moses to deliver Israel from slavery. Covenant, He their God, they His people. Mishkan, Ark, and signs of God's presence Leviticus - laws and commandments dealing mostly with sacrifices, feasts, priesthood and ritual obligations of worthiness and holiness Numbers - more laws, 12 tribes organization as a holy people on the march. Chapt 10-21 Israel's wanderings, 40 year punishment for rebelling Deuteronomy - reflective speech of Moses, summing up exodus, and desert journey, reaffirms covenant law as a guide for life in the promised land. Moses' farewell speech.
What is contained in the Book of Numbers? What is its purpose or goal?
Gets its name from the census in chapt 1 - Greek word arithmoi Marks a direct change from laws of Leviticus - all regulations and directives are aimed at a community on the move Repeat or elaborates many of the instructions about the Levites, etc Keeps the shape of the journey, laws are mixed in throughout Numbers is gathered from many different ages Balaam : time of judges Song of the Well, Lament over Heshbon : ancient fragments J & E sources Laws are P. Ties the events in Numbers to Exodus, all desert stipping places, 6 from Egypt to Sinai EX 12-19, 6 from, Num 20-22. Tying all together in one narrative Message ensconced within - Israelite grumblings in the desert spoke to the Israelites of the 6th c., those in Exile, God cannot be pushed too far without asserting His own justice and honor. However, He could turn from his anger and spare them. Numbers revels they the Torah came to be the way it is - a gathering of very old traditions and much later developments - * for Israel, each part of the ancient faith tradition had a message for later generations.
How is God depicted in the Exodus story?
God is all powerful and master of events. The drama and tension of the story centers on whether God will act at the moment or not. The story is about God who saves as well as God who fights. He can fight for his people, and receives worship. He is THE warrior, his military prowess is miraculous, leads, defeats enemies, marches triumphantly to His own holy mountain and receives His people's obedience and praise.
What are some other ancient translations of which text critics make use? Septuagint
Greek translation of deuterocanonical books, 3rd c. BCE. Helps to clear up confusing passages in Hebrew
Case Law (Casuistic Law)
If someone does x the receives the punishment y Based on everyday problems, for each offense a penalty or fine is worked out
What are some reasons one may give to justify the value of studying the Bible?
It is a treasure chest of the wisdom and inspiration that guided the generations before us It contains some of the most profound insights into the meaning of human life It is the single most important source of our Western culture, especially of the expressions and words we use It has had the most profound influence on modern religious thought It is the most complete history of the ancient past that we poses
Compare and contrast the J and E accounts of the presentation of the covenant.
J (chapt 33-34) Stresses Moses as the mediator between Yahweh and the people Gives an honored place to the elders and priestly class Highlights the cultic aspects of eating a meal to seal the covenant Importance of following ritual laws in its covenant rules E (chapt 20-24) Separates Moses from all others Accents that all the people together share the ratification in blood and accept the terms. Stresses the ethical and moral rules Warning notes typical of the prophets in later times. Reflect the northern Israelite distaste for the Jerusalem temple ceremonies and the traditional power of priests and elders reflected in J's southern version. Accentuates the position of Moses as a prophet and his direct involvement with all the tribes as equals. Chapt 19 combines two introductions to accommodate both versions
Briefly describe some of the major characteristics of J, E, P, and D.
J - Yahwist - anthropomorphic (walking and talking), magical and mythical details, blessings, streese leaders, narrative and stories, stresses Judah, uses Sinai, calls natives Canaanites Elohist - a deeper awareness of God's distance, Elohim, God speaks in dreams and visions, fear of God, refined speech about God, prophetic, narrative and warnings, northern Israel, Horeb (not Sinai), natives are Amorites Priestly - interested in genealogy, laws, rituals and liturgical matters, complex institutional, cultic and legals aspects of Israelite faith that would support a life of fidelity to the covenant through exile and times of loss, majestic speech about God, favors Judah. Deuteronomist - long speeches and sermons, concerns of the prophets, ethical demands and oneness of God over the whole world, Mosaic obedience, fidelity to Jerusalem, unity of Israel, military images
What is the primary difference between the Jewish and Christian understanding of the Old Testament?
Jews do not see in Jesus a binding revelation from God (therefore the only revelation is to Moses) whereas Christians see in Jesus the continuation and fulfillment of the OT hopes of a Savior and Messiah
Historically, Jews, Protestants, and Catholics disagree on the number of books that comprise the complete canon of the Old Testament. Explain why this occurred.
Jews view books that are not written in Hebrew or Aramaic as not divinely inspired. Most of the Deuterocanonical books are written in Greek. However, during the time of Christ and the early church, the most commonly used book of the Scriptures was the Septuagint written in Greek, thus, the Greek Bible had almost as exalted a status as the Hebrew itself did (making the acceptance of Greek texts more palatable). The canon was open at the end of the OT time and after a time Jewish and Christian tradition parted ways. The Reformers of the 16th c. demanded a return to the Hebrew canon
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Jericho
Joshua 6, oldest known town in the world, dating to at least 7000 BCE.
Briefly describe the contents of the Book of Deuteronomy. When was it written? What is its aim or purpose?
Last speech and warning by Moses to the people on how to live in the land they are about to conquer Composed in 7th c, the troubled times of the last kings of Judah Offers hope to a discouraged people and a chance to obey the covenant, God's punishment was not final Warning speech - distinct structure apart from Gen-Num. Emphasizes how God tested Israel in the early days of its existence, yet did not destroy the people no matter how often they failed.
What are some other ancient translations of which text critics make use? Vulgate
Latin, 5th c. CE, St. Jerome, had help from learned Jews of Palestine
What is the significance of the exodus event in the Bible?
Marks the transition of the Hebrews from clans/family to a nation: a single God and a single people bound together. The escape was not complete but was tied to the conquest of the land. 1) deliverance, 2) binding covenant, and 3) conquest of a promised land.
Describe the role of Moses in the exodus story.
Moses is the instrument of God.
Explain how source criticism and form criticism have contributed to understanding the Pentateuch.
Neither source nor form criticism stands alone. Writing and oral traditions stood side by side. Source criticism gave us the divisions of the 4 books (or types of authorship) and form criticism has allowed us to see that they were more of a flow of narrative rather than 4 distinct divisions. Moses may not have written down the books as we have come to know them, but he may have been the originator of the importance of some of the traditions, legal practices, and covenant forms
What are the two major types of ancient treaties? How do they differ? Give examples to illustrate this difference.
Parity treaty - between equal kings, each with mutual responsibilities, peace treaty between King Ramesses II of Egypt and the Hittite King Hattusilis to end their war in Syria ~1290 BC Vassal treaty - between an overlord and a suzerain (a sovereign or state having some control over another state that is internally autonomous.) the overlord usually does not bind himself to particular duties, but he does promise to be kindly and protective of the vasal, and makes demands. , Assyrian, King Esarhaddon forded the small nations to support his son and successor, in 672 BCE. This type is more like the Covenant of Sinai
What was the significance of Divino Afflante Spiritu for Catholic biblical study?
Pope Pius XII (1943) the main responsibility of biblical scholars is to produce a corrected text. AND it made biblical criticism an acceptable form of scholarship in the catholic church, no longer heretical.
Whis is the best method for obtaining a sequence of dating styles for ancient cities and cultures? Why?
Pottery Typography - an enormous body of shapes and styles have been gathered, catalogued, and arranged in proper sequence, posses a complete "time clock" of pottery from 5000 BCE to Islamic period 600 CE.
Briefly describe the Book of Leviticus. What is its structure? What does it contain?
Priestly legislation - an entire code of conduct for priests and Levites who serve at the Temple in Jerusalem Mixture of narrative and legal passages, rules on proper behavior in acts of divine worship Very detailed list of religious taboos in the areas of food and disease. Each major section is followed by a narrative story telling how Moses set up the liturgical rituals themselves. Taboo laws on diet and sickness show that Israel's idea of proper worship extends to people in everyday life and make every moment fitting for the praise of God. (animals and skin disease - health risk) Things that are not deemed healthy to eat are things that are out of sync with Gen 1, water animals that walk on the ground. These rules teach us that the basic outlook of Israel toward food was not just to gain nourishment but to reflect God's goodness in ordering creation. Holiness Code - stress it places on God as holy and the need for the Levites to imitate God's holiness and to keep themselves separate from merely profane behavior, rules on sex, marriage, touching of blood, violations of moral commandments, upholding of justice, keeping of feast days and celebrations of Yahweh. One of the most advanced expressions of Israel's special relationship to its God Appendenix of vows - shows the need to transition from accepting physical property to a monetary value Note that it must have been written during the Temple period as the sacrifices and offerings demanded for great feast days can only come from a settled farming people, presupposes a large population raising many herds and crops in the promised land.
Eisegesis
Reading meaning into the text, - interpreters read their own ideas into a text or use the text all twisted to defend some modern meaning
How does Israel's covenant with Yahweh compare with Hittite and Assyrian treaties?
Similarities to, but not the exact format of their the Hittite or Assyrian treaties. Hittite: Preamble and historical prologue Stipulations and demands Deposit of the treaty Curses and blessing and divine witnesses are missing Assyrian: Deuteronomy is more like the Assyrian treaty, more formal, stress on extended blessing and curses, the right of inheritance of the land by Israel Other parts of Torah are influenced by the brit, Avraham cutting animals in two, Mari tablet from 28th c. and Sefire in Syria
How does the Priestly source differ from the Yahwist and Elohist? What is distinctive about the Priestly source? What are its major themes? How are they developed?
Supplement J and E with special materials on worship, observance of the covenant in day-to-day life, and social structures of Israelite community. Written in the time of exile, help people maintain their faith in Yahweh even when everything seemed lost Knew of Ezekiel's writings (Lev 17-26) (H - the Holiness Code) Laws that were still valid, keeping Shabbat, origins of circumcision, obey all cultic and religious laws, importance of high priest. Centered around time in the desert where law was given and tent and ark Offers the possibility of practicing one's faith despite conditions of hardship or even loss of the land. Giving Israel a sense of trust in Yahweh's goodness and fidelity so that they would not lose faith in their God. Structured many details of the old tradition into new patterns to emphasize continuity Genealogies - tracing ones goot's gives a sense of stability and strength to a family. Shows God's continuing care over His human creatures Place-names - similar purpose to that of genealogy, P lists the place-names of all the camping sites in the desert years. Laws for future generations - laws are not aimed at those who lived in the past but at those who will come much later. Thus the Israelite will read the ancient traditions as really speaking to the present day. The divine presence in Israel's midst - attention to the building of the tent and ark, the promise of the temple, all the glorious experiences of the temple are present now, God was (and is) to his people when they worshiped and listened to His voice. God's word as primary - God speaks and the divine word creates it. The word of God is proclaimed and heard in every age. The importance of blessing - overlooks the failures of people in favor of God's enduring promise of blessing upon the world. God creates and re-creates, and each time He is prepared to bless humanity anew. Important message for an Israel suffering exile. Grounds for continued hope. Moves story along as a single historical lesson for future generations. At each stage God acts in a deeper or fuller way without losing what was earlier. Woven themes of blessing, promise, covenant and revelation of the divine name and the human response to God around the stories of the major patriarchal figures before Moses.
What are some other ancient translations of which text critics make use? Peshitta
Syriac (dialect of Aramaic) made by Christians in Syria, 2nd c CE, sometimes support the Hebrew, sometimes the Greek,
What does the word Bible mean?
The English word Bible comes from the Greek ta Biblia, which means "The Books," a name well chosen since the Bible is a collection of many individual works, and not the product of a single person.
What does the Yahwist source attempt to do? What are some major themes in the Yahwist source? How are they developed?
The Yahwist forms the basic plot, continuous story. Using these seven steps: 1. Stories of human origins, 2. The promise of the patriarchs, 3. The oppression in Egypt, 4. The exodus from Egypt, 5. The wandering in the wilderness, 6. The covenant at Mount Sinai, and 7. On the edge of the promised land. J's author brought together old poems, stories, and songs of the exodus that were alive in the cult, particularly favoring those from Judah. J put together a complete story of God's actions, all the way to the beginning of the world. With a fine senses of storytelling and a dramatic sense of history, the J epic has the quality of a modern historical novel. The Yahwist created a theology and a purpose that explained the religious faith and special spirit of the nation. With themes such as conflict between brothers and the prevailing of the younger brother, the wife who cannot conceive and, the Yahwist shows the fulfillment of God's promise, that no matter how bad the person, how dire the circumstances, God will come through. The theme of Adam's sin followed by punishment and a new start, or Cain's sin followed by punishment and a new start, or all of humanity's evil, flood, new start with Noah, highlighted an abiding conviction that human freedom to do evil would always play a part even in the midst of God's most generous bountiful blessings to Israel, and to the world as a whole. The divine planning and lordship over all of creation. Israel plays a role, although a special role, in the much greater plan of God for all human beings. And God can use Israel, or any other nation, and David, or any other king with their sins and weaknesses as well as their strengths, to accomplish His will. J reflected many of the ideals of David's kingdom and the hopes of Judah for a lasting and intimate relationship with Yahweh to his temple in Jerusalem
What is the significance of the Sinai Covenant? How do the different sources (J, E, P) treat this event?
The covenant is the central event of the Torah. J and E know of covenants made with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, sealed with Moses and the people at Sinai. But it is P that emphasizes covenant most fully, seeing God's actions in the world as a series of blessing and promises that lead up to fulfillment at Sinai. All of biblical history may be called a theology of the covenant, gives the whole Pentateuch its character as "torah", teaching rather than history, it becomes the standard for judging Israel's national success or failure in Judges, measuring stick for each king, background of the prophets' oracles, shapes the thought of Deuteronomy in interpreting the entire story of Israel in light of fidelity to the covenant of Sinai.
What is tradition history?
The total process of growth, the various time when the biblical texts were edited, and the different circles from which the editors came. Understanding how the redactors were reinterpreting different traditions to speak to a new generation.
Explain the significance and importance of identifying the literary type. Give examples to illustrate this answer.
The type of writing authors select is determined by how they feel that they can best communicate what they want to say. Identifying the type is writing helps us know about the author's purpose, for whom it is intended, and from what situation it has developed. We expect certain types of information by the choice of words and in the form which they are expressed. "Once upon a time..." = fairy tale, "Thus says the Lord,..." = rebuke
What does rhetorical criticism attempt to do?
This is the approach of chazal, sees the text as a whole, repetitions and additions add to the beauty of the text. Text is inspired. Harmony and value of the final written passage serve the useful function of enriching our daily scriptural reading with a deeper appreciation rather than always raising more doubts. Imagination is still the heart of real literary art. The inspired writers created imaginative and carefully chosen phrases to stimulate a response of faith to God's merciful actions for his people.
"Undoubtedly, Moses is the sole author of the first five books of the Bible." Assess the validity of this statement.
While for many centuries it was accepted as a given that Moses wrote the whole of the Pentateuch, there were, even then, passages that cast doubt upon that statement, such as the final verses of Deuteronomy. As source criticism had developed, it has become increasingly clear that there were many hands involved in the writing of the first five books of the Bible.
What are some of the problems and difficulties that one encounters in textual criticism?
Written in Hebrew without vowels, can change the meaning of the word scribal errors All written by hand, no proof readers Copy mistakes, ex: "dittography" - "writing twice", copying a word or whole sentence twice. Scribal error through dictation Sloppy handwriting Running words together to make new words, dividing words Intentional additions - comments and critiques placed directly in the margins of a manuscript that were later added directly to the text
Deuterocanonical
a "second canon" of inspired books besides the Hebrew ones, mostly written in Greek, that Jews and Protestants do not accept.
emendation
a correction; a change in a written text, the decision of a critic to make a change in the Hebrew text of the Bible in order to improve the reading
Hyksos
a group of nomadic invaders from southwest Asia who ruled Egypt from 1640 to 1570 B.C.
Apodictic Law
a law that is set out in the form of a command or prohibition, such as "You shall..." or "You shall not..." The Ten Commandments No conditions and no suggested penalties Strong, dramatic demands made upon the believer with an unstated but threatening hint that disobedience will be severely dealt with Parent to child Amen response Reflect Israel's special character of covenant obedience Not open to compromise or discussion
What were some of the major literary discoveries in Ebla?
aka Tall Mardikh, 50 miles inland from Ugarit, dig began in 1963, named in 1968, and in 1974 part of a library uncovered from a level dating ~2500 and 2400 BCE. 16,000 tablets and fragments, ancient Sumerian and ancient Canaanite (Eblaite) shows continuity from the third millennium Ugaritic in the second millennium to Hebrew in the first.
Form Criticism
analysis of the Bible by tracing the history of its content of parables, psalms, and other literary forms. the attempt to understand the biblical canon based on the earliest oral material identifiable.
Septuagint
ancient Greek translation - called so because of the legend that the Jewish colony living at Alexandria in Egypts needed a Greek translation of the Law and got it from seventy scholars who all worked completely alone yet produced seventy exactly identical translations.
Source criticism? Hermann Gunkel
began 'form criticism,' developed methodology for studying the oral sources for the written biblical text
Potter typology
best method for obtaining a sequence of dating styles for ancient cities and cultures. Fired clay will not disintegrate, but it is cheap and therefore will be easily discarded. Innumerable potshards at tells will leave a lasting record of settlement there.
Apocrypha
biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of Scripture
Canaan
can refer to the culture of the whole Mediterranean coast from Turkey down to the border of Egypt
Carbon-14 dating
checking the radioactive carbon, an unusually heavy carbon molecule of atomic weight of 14, that all living creatures accumulate, and that begins to decay when the creature dies, can date objects to within a general period, gives figures based on the average of all samples, highly accurate for objects that are not too old. Argon and potassium improve accuracy greatly.
What were some of the major literary discoveries in Ugarit?
discovered in 1929, coastal city in northern Syria, Canaanite, destroyed ~1200 BCE, never rebuilt, leaving behind the entire library of the royal palace, hundreds of text in the Ugaritic language, a Northwest Semitic, north Canaanite dialect, economic, political, religious myths and liturgical documents, provides a first hand account of Canaanite religion at the moment of Israel invasion.
What were some of the major literary discoveries in Mari?
discovered in 1933 by Andre Parrot, Syrian border with Iraq, 18th c. BCE. Amorites, palace of the King Zimri Lim, 250 rooms and 20,000 tablets, mostly political, written in Akkadian, thrown light on prophecy in the Bible, the nature of the Israelite tribes and the moment of peoples westward
Akhenaton
early ruler of Egypt who rejected the old gods and replaced them with sun worship Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1353-1336) who changed the religion towards a 'monotheistic' approach, the worshiping of one god, Re → Aton - the sun disc. He would worship Aton and the people would worship him. His reign was too short to bring about lasting change, and his attempt to eradicate Amon was loathed and once Akhenaton dies his descendants and followers are wiped out. But, had a lasting impression, new style of realistic art and more relevant, though while too early for Moses to have experienced, it is possible that the heretic king's ideas continued to permeate people's thoughts and possibly helped the Semitic settlers develop more deeply their own understanding of Yahweh as a God who stood alone against the claims of so many hundred of competing divine beings.
Source criticism? Jean Astruc
first to say Moses must have used two different written sources--noticed the J/E difference in naming deity.
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Gezer
fortress city of Judah, continuously settled for ~4000 yrs, from 3500 BCE to 500 CE. Solomon's possession in 10th c. BCE
Why are ancient documents more difficult to find in Palestine?
harder to find because of the humid, non desert climates, clay tablets not popular, use of papyrus which decays rapidly in moist climates.
Source criticism? Julius Wellhausen
identified four written sources for pentateuch.
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Hazor
largest tell in Palestine, 183 acres, capital of northern coalition of Canaanites against Joshua, became a royal fortress of Solomon's kingdom. 21 levels, 2700 BCE to Greek period
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Shechem
massive walls and gates indicate that it may have had more splendor in the Middle Bronze Age from 1900 to 1550 BCE. Known in connection to stories of Abraham, Jacob and Joshua
Canon
named for the Hebrew word for a reed that was used as a measuring stick (qaneh), a cannon includes the official writings "measured" by a church or religious group and recognized to contain divine revelation. Setting up a canon gives a rule for acting and provides a fundamental source for knowing the faith - like a constitution of a nation.
How should one use and understand the term "Old Testament"?
not as "worn out", "ready for replacement", or "revoked" but rather as "accepted and revered"
Stratigraphy
noting and mapping the strata, or levels, of civilization and settlement on a particular mound, conviction that each layer was deposited after the one below it, dig from top to bottom
Apiru
possibly the Hebrews pre-Israelite period, mentioned in the Amarna Letters, wandering bands of marauders, made up of people who were landless or who were exiled from their own territories. Sometimes mercenaries used by kings in order to earn a living. Local kings would plead with the pharaoh for help, but Akhenaton was not forthcoming with troops. In 1400 BCE, the small walled city-states of Palestine were constantly at war with the roaming bands.
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Lachish
second city in so. Palestine, guarded the highway into the mountains from coast. Ostraca found about invasion of King Nebuchadnezzar in 598.
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Arad
taken by Joshua, very large, Early Bronze Age, 3000 BCE, fortress with possible temple to Yahweh (900). Ostraca with commercial and political accounts from 700 BCE
Masoretic Text
text of the Hebrew Bible produced between 500 and 950 C.E. by Jewish textual scholars (the Masoretes) concerned with the precise transmission of the text.
Source Criticism
the attempt to understand the biblical canon based on the earliest written documents accessible.
Canaanite
the cultural and linguistic continuum of the people of the east coast of the Mediterranean, the Levant, from Ugarit in the north to Phoenician further south and to what today is modern Israel/Palestine
Phoenicia
the northern part of Canaan - the Greek name for the murex snail used to make purple dye, a major export of Tyre and Sidon
major archaeological excavations in Israel: Megiddo
the only major pass on the road between Egypt and Mesopotamia
Redaction
the process of editing that oral and written texts went through before the final form of the bible was canonized.
Palestine
the southern part of Canaan that was named after the Philistine cities there, and the north became Phoenicia
Archaeology
the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains. "the study of beginnings"- a science that studies the physical remains of the human past.