Relationships

What is the rewards/needs satisfaction theory by Bryne and Clore for the formation for relationships?

It proposes that people are attracted to those they find rewarding to be with as they meet an unmet need e.g. need for company or financial security. It is based on operant conditioning and the theory suggests people form relationships with those whose presence is directly associated with reinforcement-they make them happy. The theory also proposes relationships formed with people that are associated with pleasant events. Based on classical conditioning we learn to associate a person (the neutral stimulus) with the positive mood (unconditioned stimulus) they were in when they meet them. The theory suggests successful relationships develop when the positive feelings outweigh the negative feelings.

Evaluate the equity theory as an explanation of the maintenance of relationships (part 2).

Prins et al found among Dutch couples, inequality had different consequences for males and females; males who perceived inequality did not express desire to have an affair or report having done so, yet females who perceived inequity did report considering an affair or said they had already done so due to inequity. Although the study supports the equity theory by showing that inequitable relationships are less successful, it also shows equity is likely to affect women more than men or that women are more proactive in trying to change the levels of reward that they can gain (even if it means entering another relationship). The conclusions of this study suggest the theory of inequity may be more applicable to females in terms of seeking change of their equity levels so the theory can't be generalized to males. De Maris investigated whether marital inequity is associated with later marital disruption. They used 1500 couples as part of a US national survey of families and found the only subjective index of inequity associated with disruption is women's sense of being under benefited, with greater under benefit raising the risk of divorce. However this study may be gender biased as it only looked at the inequity in relationships for women and not those of men and research suggests that men and women might judge the equity of a relationship differently as Weltman found among married working couples, husbands who earned more than their wives rated their own careers as more important to their wives' careers and in such couples the women generally rated her career as less important than her husbands. But in couples where the woman's income exceeds the man, neither partner rated their career as more important which contradicts De Maris' findings as the under-benefited women in the study seemed still content in their relationship.

What are the reasons for relationship breakdown according to Duck?

Relationships may be difficult if the partner lacks interpersonal skills to make them mutually satisfying. Individuals lacking social skills may be poor conversationalists, poor at indicating their interest in other people, and are likely to be generally unrewarding in their interactions with other people. The lack of social skills therefore means that others perceive them as not bring interested in relating so a relationship tends to break down before it really gets going. According to the social exchange theory people look for rewards in their relationships, one of which is "stimulation". So lack of stimulation could be a reason why relationships break down. There is evidence that lack of stimulation i.e. boredom and belief that the relationship isn't going anywhere is often quoted when breaking off a relationship. People expect relationships to change and develop and when they do not this is seen as sufficient justification to end the relationship or begin a new one. There are some circumstances when relationships become strained because partners cannot see each other enough. Going away to university for example places a great strain existing relationships and is often responsible for their breakdown. While enduring romantic relationships can be strong enough to survive the pressures of decreased daily contact, it is evident that for many this isn't the case and the maintenance difficulties become overwhelming so the relationships breakdown.

Evaluate interaction with peers as an influence on adult relationships.

Richard and Schneider found that girls have more intimate friendships than boys and are more likely to report care and security in their relationships with other girls. Other research found that boys' relationships tend to be more competitive a fact attributed to greater emphasis on competitive play activities. However girls are more likely to engage in cooperative and sharing activities. However Erwin claims sex differences in the experience of childhood relationships have been over-emphasised and that the many similarities tend to be overlooked. Haynie found that romantic involvement increased some forms of deviance in adolescents by as much as 35% and Neemann et al found that romantic involvement in early to middle adolescence was associated with decreases in academic achievement and increases in conduct problems. In late adolescence romantic involvement was no longer related to these negative outcomes suggesting that it is the timing of romantic relationships in adolescence that determines what influence they will have. Madsen's finding that heavy dating patterns during adolescence are associated with poorer quality adult relationships is challenge by the research of Roisman et al. They found no effect of romantic experiences at age 20 on romantic relationships at 30 suggesting there is no consistent evidence that adolescent romantic relationships are the "building blacks" of adult relationships. Suomi and Harlow established that rhesus monkeys reared with adequate adult but inadequate peer contact later displayed inappropriate social and sexual behaviour as adults. The longer they were denied the opportunity to interact with other young monkeys, the more extreme were their social inadequacies as adults.

Evaluate sex difference in parental investment for mothers.

1. The expense of childrearing means females want to ensure good quality offspring so they don't wastes their efforts. One way to achieve this is to marry a man who has good resources and is caring but to shop around for good genes through extramarital affairs with attractive men advertising good genes but no resources. This is shown by Baker and Bellis who carried out a magazine survey of over 2700 UK women and found estimated that as many as 14% of the population were products of extramarital affairs. Some women may attempt to offset their greater parental investment by cuckolding their partners. The benefits women could obtain by this type of behaviour include receiving additional social support from another male and perhaps higher quality genes for her children. However for the woman cuckolding her partners is not without its risks which include the possibility of abandonment and mate-retention strategies from the current partner. It may be that males are less prepared than females to invest as Conservative MP Michael Gove said "lads" mags" such as Zoo and Nuts reinforce a shallow approach to women and linked them to the rise in feckless fatherhood and family breakdown. Also Geher et al carried out a study on 91 non parent undergraduates and they completed a parental investment perception scale and found that males showed significantly increased heart rates when presented with scenarios that emphasised the costs of parenting e.g. being unable to work. Researchers concluded that consistent with predictions from parental investment theory, males are biologically less prepared than females for confront issues associated with parenting.

Evaluate sexual selection for relationships (part 1)

1. The rational behind sexual selection is that random mating is irrational, people choose particular mates as the genetic quality of a mate will determine half the genetic quality of any offspring. Low-quality mates (e.g. those that are unattractive and unhealthy) will be more likely to produce unattractive, unhealthy offspring. Bu mating with an attractive high-quality mate, offspring are higher quality and an individual's genes are much more likely to be passed on. 2. Penton-Voak et al suggest that mate choice varies across the metrual cycle. They found women chose a slightly feminised version of a male face as "most attractive" for a long-term relationship. However, for a short-term sexual relationship, during the high conception risk phase of the menstrual cycle, the preferred face shape was more masculinised. Sexual selection may have favoured females who pursue a mixzed mating strategy under certain conditions. A female might choose a main partner whose feminised appearance suggests kindness and cooperation in parental care, but ight also copulate with a male with a more masculine appearance when conception is most likely. Such males are likely to have higher levels of the sex hormone testosterone which suppresses the immune system. A male who is healthy despite this must, therefore have a highly efficient immune system-a very valuable characteristic to pass on to offspring. One of the conclusions from Buss' study of 37 cultures was that men have a distinct preference for younger women, a finding consistent with the theory of sexual selection because the younger the woman, the greater the fertility. However, some critics have tried to explain this preference in terms of social power- younger women are easier to control, and therefore are preferred as mates. But Kenrick et all effectively rejected this hypothesis as they found that teenage males are most attracted to women who are five years older than them despite the fact such women usually show no interest in them and are certainly not more easily controlled-this could also link to the theory that men seek women who look more fertile as for teenage boys a woman 5 years older than them is likely to be her most fertile and also the women in this age group are portrayed in the media most often so men will be influenced by this.

What is the importance of love in romantic relationships?

Because relationships in Western cultures are typically based on freedom of choice, we might expect to find differences between Western and non-Western cultures regarding the importance of love in romantic relationships. Levine et al investigated love as a bases for marriage in 11 countries. Respondents were asked whether they would be willing to marry someone who had all the qualities they desired in a marriage partner but whom they did not love. The US respondents expressed a reluctance to marry in the absence of love (only 14% said they might marry someone they did not love). However, the figures from collectivist cultures such as India (24%) and Thailand (34%) were higher, suggesting a higher proportion of people in these cultures were prepared to marry in the absence of love. This suggests that in such cultures the extended family is of greater importance and romantic love is considered a comparative luxury.

Evaluate Duck's reason's for the breakdown in relationships.

Boekhout et al showed how such affairs might be a direct reaction to the perceived lack of skills and/or stimulation in the current relationship. They asked undergraduates to rate various sexual and emotional reasons for men and women to be unfaithful in a committed relationship. Participants judged that sexual reasons for infidelity (e.g. sexual boredom, variety, excitement) would be more likely to be used by men, whereas emotional reasons for infidelity (e.g. lack of attention, lack of commitment, emotional satisfaction) would be more likely to be used by women. Long distance relationships and long distance friendships are perhaps more common than we think. One study found that 70% of students sampled had experienced at lead one LDRR and 90% had experienced one LDF (Rohlfing). The fact that in our mobile society people do have to move and do become separated from family, friends and/or partners, means that it is useful to understands the management strategies that people use. Holt and Stone found that there was little decrease in relationship satisfaction as long as lovers are able to reunite regularly. IDA-The importance of social skills deficits in relationship breakdown had led to the development of training programmes that attempt to enhance relationship skills in distressed couples. The Couples Coping Enhancement Training (CCET) programme aims to sensitise couples to issues of equity and respect within their relationship and improve communication and problem-solving skills. Cina et al compared 50 couples who received CCET training with a control group who did not and results showed that the CCET group reported much higher marital quality after training compared to the control group. There are gender differences as women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for dissolution, whereas men are particularly upset by "sexual withholding" (Brehm and Kassin). Women have more desire to stay friend after a relationship has broken up, whereas men want to "cut their losses" and move on.

Evaluate sex difference in parental investment for fathers (part 2)

Buss et al found that male US students indicated more concern about sexual infidelity whereas female students expressed more concern about emotional infidelity. This was supported by physiological responses when respondents were asked to imagine scenes of sexual or emotional infidelity-the men showed much more distress for sexual infidelity. However Harris found that men tended to respond with greater arousal to any sexual imagery which challenges the view that sex difference in jealousy are an adaptive response in males and females. Rowe suggests that an explanation of paternal investment based on evolutionary factors alone is severely limited. Men's parental behaviour depends on various personal and social conditions, including the quality of the relationship with the mother, the characteristics of the child and the personality characteristics of the father. Belsky also claims that childhood experiences such as parental divorce tend to correlate with the degree to which men invest in the upbringing of care of their own children.

Evaluate sexual selection for relationships (part 2)

Buss explored what males and females looked for in a marriage partner, the study involved over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures. The results found that: women more than men desired mates who were "good financial prospects" so men with resources and ambition, men placed more importance of physical attractiveness as this would show her fertility and reproductive value, men universally wanted mates who were younger than them most likely for fertility and that both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent, and dependable. However Alice Egley found that gender roles affect mate selection as the more similar the roles between men and women, the more likely people are to choose someone like themselves. Although research consistently reports that men more than women have a desire for variety of sexual partners a greater willingness for casual sex, men could never have evolved this desire in the absence of willing females. Despite the fact that short-term mating carries a considerable potential cost to the woman, there must be some benefits. Greiling and Buss suggest that she could profit in a number of ways including using short-term mating as a way of leaving a poor-quality relationship or as a way of producing more genetically diverse offspring therefore explanations that emphasise the advantages of short-term mating only to males offer a gender biased view of mating behaviour.

Evaluate sex difference in parental investment for fathers (part 1)

Buss suggests that males have a number of strategies that have evolved specially for the purpose of keeping a mate. There include restricting a the autonomy ("direct guarding") and "negative inducements" in the form of violence of threats to prevent her from straying. Because sexual jealousy is a primary cause of violence against women, those who are perceived by their partner to be threatening infidelity (e.g. looking at another man) are more at risk of violence than those who are not. Studies of battered women have shown that in the majority of cases women cite extreme jealousy on the part of their husbands/boyfriends as the key cause of violence directed towards them. Joint parental care is desirable because of the obvious benefits of successful reproduction. In any situation where males can increase the success of childrearing it will pay them to do so (Dunbar). In humans males may restrict their reproductive opportunities and invest more in each individual offspring and Reid supports male investment as males contribute resources such as a stable food supply and this investment allows the family to live in healthier environments resulting in a decrease in infant and child mortality. Parental investment theory predicts that father investment would be greater if they knew the child was biologically their as they don't want to spend time bringing up another man's child. However, Anderson measured the resources invested by father and stepfathers (i.e. time spent with the child and support given) and found men appeared not to discriminate between children born to their current partner from a previous relationship and their own children from a previous relationship. Yet the reason a man might support a stepchild could be in the hope that they can demonstrate their parenting skills to the mother and be more likely to get offspring of their own.

What is the influence of childhood on relationships based on interaction with peers?

Childhood friendships: Qualter and Munn showed that children also learn from their experiences with other children. The way that a child thinks about themselves and others is determined at least in part by specific experiences which then become internalised. Therefore children may develop a sense of their own value as a result of interactions with others and this determines how they approach adult relationships. Nangle et al claim children's relationships are training grounds for important adult relationships. Close friendships are characterised by affection, a sense of alliance and intimacy and sharing of secrets and personal information. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust, acceptance and a sense of being understood-characteristics that are also important in later romantic relationships. Adolescent relationships: In later stages of childhood attachment usually shifts from parents to peers and romantic relationships in adolescence serve a number of purposes. Firstly they help achieve the goal of separation from parents, having shifted their attachment focus from parents to peers; adolescents can redirect intense interpersonal energy towards their romantic partner. Second, romantic relationships allow the adolescent to gain a type of emotional and physical intimacy different from that experienced with parents. Madsen tested the effects of dating behaviour in adolescence (ages 15-17 ½) on the quality of young adult romantic relationships (ages 20-21). She found moderate or low dating frequency predicted higher-quality young adult relationships, whereas heavy dated predicted poorer quality young adult relationships suggesting some dating in adolescence is advantageous for adult relationship quality but can be maladaptive.

What are cultural differences in loneliness in romantic relationships?

Cultures that promote a strong desire for romantic relationships can greatly influence feelings of romantic loneliness in young people not involved in a romantic relationship. Seepersad et al suggested that young adults in Western cultures such as the UK and US would experience a greater degree of loneliness because of a high desire for romantic relationships, compared to young adults from non-Western cultures, such as China and Korea. Seepersad's study revealed that in a sample of 277 US and Korean students, US students reported significantly higher levels romantic loneliness than did Koreans when they were not in a romantic relationship. Their results suggest that a strong emphasis on the importance of romantic relationships in Western cultures may unduly amplify individuals' feelings of loneliness. Seepersad et al's study showed that Korean students relied more heavily on their families to fulfil their social network needs, while American students relied more on friends and significant others.

What is sexual selection in relationships according to Darwin's theory?

Darwin came up with his theory of sexual selection, describing to processes through which it took place: Intrasexual selection - Members of one sex (usually males) compete with each other for access to members of the other sex. Victors are able to mate and so pass on their genes whereas the losers do not. Whatever traits lead to success in these same sex contests will be passed on to the next generation. Intersexual selection-It involves the preferences of one sex for members of the opposite sex who possess certain qualities e.g. if females prefer tall males over time there would be an increase in the number of tall males in the population. The preferences on one sex would then determine the areas which the other sex must compete. These indicators reveal traits that could be passed on to offspring i.e. selection of good genes as well as information about the chance of the mate being able to give protection and support to offspring i.e. selection for "good parents". Human beings are perceptually "pre-programmed" to attend to displays of these important indicators which in turn increases their willingness to mate with the individual who possesses them.

Evaluate the social exchange theory as an explanation for the maintenance of relationships (part 2).

Evidence that the social exchange theory has a good predictive value- Buunk suggests that attractive alternatives are a major contributor to the breakdown of relationships. Also Rusbult used heterosexual college students in a study which lasted months and involved the completion of questionnaires every few weeks and found that people's satisfaction, alternatives and investments all predicted how committed they were to their relationship and how long it lasted. However the study by Rusbult involved students at college so it is likely that they would be in short-term relationships and therefore the findings may not be generalisable to long term relationships, also the data collected in the study was done using a self-report method of a questionnaire which means participants could have made their relationship seem more ideal than it actually is to suit social desirability. Can be used to explain why people may stay in abusive relationships- Rusbult and Martz suggested that their investment model could explain why some people return to abusive relationships as women who had sought refuge at a shelter for battered women were interviewed. It was discovered that women who were more likely to return to an abusive relationship were those who had poorer economic alternatives to the relationship, were more heavily invested in the relationship (married and had children) and were less dissatisfied with the relationship (reported less severe forms of abuse). Whilst this study supports the social exchange theory by showing that we aim to remain in the most profitable situation, it also highlights the fact that there are gender differences in what is deemed to be a relationship reward. Sedikides et al found that females thought intimacy and self-growth were rewards, males tended to emphasise sexual gratification as a reward and monetary losses as a cost.

Evaluate the reward/needs satisfaction theory for the formation of relationships.

Griffit and Guay did a study where participants were evaluated on a creative task by an experimenter. Later they were asked how much they like the experiment, and an onlooker who was present. The rating was highest when the experimenter had given a positive evaluation (rewarded) of the task. They also rated the onlooker more highly if given positive feedback about their performance.--This shows that if given a positive reinforcement such as praise and encouragement then a person is more likely to find the reward giver attractive. This study was conducted in a laboratory which means the needs of satisfaction may not apply to real life and it lack mundane realism, however Caspi and Herbener supported the claims in their experiment using real-life couples. Aron et al found pps. who measured very high on a questionnaire of romantic love also showed strong activity in areas of the brain rich in dopamine (a hormone associated with pleasure). Aaron believed this was an evolutionary adaptation to speed up mating. This shows that we enter relationships with people that will make us feel good which is a reward. However the findings don't show the importance of giving rewards as well as receiving (Hays). Also there is a limitation to using the self-report technique of questionnaires as they may answer dishonestly due to social desireability, however the brain scans who unquestionable hard proof of the dopamine activity. Cate et al compared the importance of equality, equity and reward level in 337 individuals who were asked to asses their importance in relationship satisfaction. They found that reward level was the most important. This supports the theory as it shows that people seek to be in relationships where they can gain rewards. However, the reward/need satisfaction theory does not take into account the cultural and gender differences in the formations of relationships. For example Lott suggests that in many cultures women are more focused on the needs of others rather than receiving reinforcement. This suggests that this theory is not a universal explanation of relationship formations and there is culturally biased.

Evaluate the social exchange theory as an explanation for the maintenance of relationships (part 1).

Homans found people weigh up the costs and benefits of an action before deciding what they do. In terms of relationships he suggests that we consider the actual and potential, past present and future costs before deciding whether a relationship is likely to be profitable and that choices about relationships are essentially rational economic decisions. However the theory has been criticized for focusing too much on the individual's perspective and ignoring the social aspects of a relationship such as how partners communicate and interpret shared event. The theory is also criticized for its selfish nature as it is difficult to believe that people are only motivated to maintain relationships out of hedonistic concerns therefore it is more likely that the theory applies more to individualist cultures. Sprecher found that comparison levels for alternatives were a strong predictor of the commitment in a relationship and Duck found that the attractiveness of alternatives might be influenced by the state of the current relationship. This supports the social exchange theory as it suggests that relationships are maintained based on how partners can be compared to alternatives. However there may be a cultural bias in the research carried out on the social exchange theory as the majority of it was conducted in Western individualistic cultures and may therefore be culturally biased as the perceived costs and rewards of relationships may vary around the world. Furthermore, Moghaddam suggests that such "economic" theories only apply to Western relationships and even then only to certain short-term relationships among individuals with high mobility as when there is little time to develop long-term relationships we are more concerned with give and take.

Evaluate cultural differences of voluntary and non-voluntary relationships.

In some societies "non-voluntary" or arranged marriages make good sense and seem to work well. Divorce rates are low and in about half of them the spouses report that they have fallen in love with each other. Myres et al studies individuals in India living in arranged marriages. No differences in marital satisfaction were found when compared to individual in non-arranged marriages in the US. However, in some rapidly developing cultures, such as China there had been a noticeable increase in "love matches" and a move away from traditional arranged marriages. In China, the instances in which parents dominate the process of partner choice have declined from 70% prior to 1949 to less than 10% in the 1990's. Also a study of women in Chengdu, China, found that women who had married for love felt better about their marriages (regardless of duration) than women who experienced arranged marriages. Gupta and Singh studied 100 professional degree educated couples living in Jaipur, India. 50 had arranged marriages and 50 had "chosen" or "love" marriages. They were asked to use liking and loving scales after one. Five and 10 years of marriage to indicate how much they currently liked and loved their partner. They found that in love marriages both liking and loving were high at the start but decreased during the course of the marriage. In arranged marriages liking and loving were much lower at the start of the marriage, but love and liking grew and at 10 years exceeded that in love marriages.-This could be because the person enters the arranged relationship with no prior expectations so they experience less disappointment and because the parents arrange the marriage the couple may persevere more in the marriage and be more willing to compromise as they don't want to let down their parents.

What is the model of breakdown by Rollie and Duck?

In the fist phase the partners become distressed with the way the relationship is conducted. This leads to the intrapsychic process characterised by brooking focus on the relationship and nothing is said to the other partner but there is social withdrawal from them and resentment. There is then the dyadic process which is when people confront their partners and being to discuss their feelings and the future, there is a reassessment of goals possibilities and equity roles. At this stage the relationship might be saved or partners begin to involve others in their dissatisfaction with the relationship. There is then the social process when the partners may seek support from other parties and this could allow outside forces to help create cohesion or this could speed the partners towards dissolution through revelations about one or other of the partners. The partners then leave the relationship and attempt to justify their actions and this is important as each partner must present themselves to others as being trustworthy and loyal, key attributes for future relationships. In the grave dressing process partners strive to construct a representation of the failed relationship that does not paint their contribution to it in unfavourable terms and people may strategically reinterpret their view of the partner e.g. they may have been attracted to their "rebellion nature, but now label that characteristic as irresponsible. In the final resurrection process each partner prepares themselves for new relationships by redefining themselves and building on past mistakes and experiences.

What are the cultural differences of voluntary and individualist and collectivist cultures?

Individualist cultures in Western cultures places great importance on the rights and freedom of the individual with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. Collectivist cultures are where members are encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent and the group is the primary concern. Cultural attitudes of individualist cultures where the individual interests are more highly regarded than the group goals and interests are consistent with the formation of romantic relationships that are based on freedom of choice whereas collectivisms leads to relationships that have more to do with the concerns of the family or group.

Evaluate the Filter theory for the formation of relationships.

Lehr and Geher studies 24 male and 32 female students o test the importance of attitude similarity and reciprocal attraction in liking. They were given a description of a stranger with varying degrees of similarity and dissimilarity to the pps. There was also a statement that the stranger either liked or did not like the pp. They found the stranger was liked significantly more for attitude similarity and liking. This study supports the Filter theory/similarity as it as it suggests that we are more likely to be attracted to someone who is similar to ourselves in terms of attitudes. However the study was only carried out on students so the findings cannot be generalised to other ages-there is an age bias. Also these weren't real life situations so it may lack mundane realism. Caspi and Herbener found that married couples with similar personalities were happier than couples with less similar personalities. This supports the theory as it shows that people aim to form relationships with people that are like them. This is supported by Yashida who pointed out that similarity is about self-concept, economic level and physical conditions as well as attitude or personality similarities. Speakan et al found that people often choose partners with similar levels of body fat. But this study only represented a narrow view of factors in a relationship and doesn't take into account factors like economic status ect. Condon and Crano argued that similarity is important because we assume similar people will like us, which reduces chances of rejection. People who share similar attitudes and beliefs to ourselves validates us and is rewarding. These finding then also tie in with the reward/needs satisfaction theory because not only does it show that we filter to people who are similar but that their shared views are rewarding.

Evaluate cultural differences and the bias of the research.

Methodological problems-research into cultural differences in relationships may be limited by the research method adopted. If any aspect of the methodology is interpreted differently in one culture than in another then this creates a cultural bias that can invalidate any conclusions from a cross-cultural study. Indigenous psychologies=this has led some psychologists to suggest that we should aim to develop more indigenous psychologies (i.e. explanations and research methods that are not transported from other cultures, and that are designed for one specific culture). This means that we could then study aspects of relationships that are seen as important and meaningful within a particular culture rather than imposing aspects from our own culture. Psychologists believe that the influence of US romantic comedies creates a warped sense of the "perfect" relationship and presents a culturally-biased view of romance to young people in the UK. Children and adolescents who are repeatedly exposed to these highly idealised views of relationship come to perceive them as normal. This could then have an adverse effect on their satisfaction with their own future relationships. Johnson and Holmes spent a year analysing 40 top box office films released between 1995 and 2005. They then asked hundred of people o fill out a questionnaire to describe their beliefs and expectations concerning romantic relationships. The researchers found that fans of films such as "My Best Friend's Wedding" and "How to lose a guy in 10 days" were more likely to have views of relationships that reflected the themes portrayed in the films e.g. the films might suggest love and commitment exist from the moment people meet whereas in real life these are qualities that normally take years to develop.

What are sex differences in parental investment for mothers?

Parental investment is defined by Trivers as any investment by a parent in an offspring that increases the chance that the offspring will survive at the expense of that parent's ability to invest in any other offspring (alive or yet to be borne). The investment made by females is considerably greater than that made by males e.g. the female produces far fewer gametes over the course of her lifetime that the male produces. Females invest more because as brain sizes increased in response to adaptive pressures from ancestors, this resulted in a more difficult childbirth because of the larger skull. To compensate for this, childbirth in humans occurs earlier in development meaning human infants are relatively immature compared to other animals. Human females breastfeed their young so are burdened by the extended period of childcares resulting from the immaturity so mothers make a greater contribution of pregnancy resources and a longer postnatal contribution. The minimum parental investment for females is nine months pregnancy followed by ears of feeding and carrying. But the minimum parental investment for males is "a few moments of copulation and a teaspoonful of semen". The result is an enormous difference in the potential maximum reproductive success of the sexes so making random mating more costly for females.

Evaluate cultural differences of individualist and collectivist cultures.

Parents maybe in a better position to judge the compatibility of the partners in the long-term, whereas young people may be "blinded by love" and overlook areas of personal incompatibility that will become apparent later. However, contrary to this traditional view in Xiaohe and Whyte's study freedom of mate choice appeared to promote marital stability rather than instability. Research suggests attitudes toward love and romantic relationships generally may be better explained by the greater urbanisation and mobility found in Western cultures rather than by Western/non-Western cultural differences e.g. there has been a sharp increase in divorce rates in Indian in recent years despite India being generally regarded as a rational collectivist culture as most of those being divorced are members of India's thriving urban middle class, this suggests that their aspirations and attitudes to relationships are radically different to those of their parents and grandparents.

Evaluate Rollie and Duck's model of the breakdown of relationships.

Rollie and Duck's model is supported by observations of real-life break-ups. Tashiro and Frazier surveyed undergraduates who had recently broken up with a romantic partner. They typically reported that they had not only experienced emotional distress but also personal growth. These students reported that breaking up with their partner had given them new insights into themselves and a clearer idea about future partners. Through grave-dressing and resurrection processes they were able to put the original relationship to rest and get on with their lives. Rollie and Duck's model stresses the importance of communication in relationship breakdown. Paying attention to the things that people say, the topics that they discuss and the ways in which they talk about their relationship offers both an insight into their stage and also suggests interventions appropriate to that stage. If the relationship was in the intrapsychic stage for example, repair might involve re-establishing liking for the partner, perhaps by re-evaluating their behaviour in a more positive light. In later stages, different strategies for repair are appropriate e.g. some people outside the relationship may help the partners patch up their differences. Carrying out research in this sensitive area raises particular issues of vulnerability as pps. may experience distress when revisiting the issues that led to breakdown, privacy as many such issues are of an intensely personal nature and confidentiality. For example a women in an abusive relationship may fear recrimination from her abuser should he discover her participation in the research. Ultimately the researcher faces a choice of pursuing valuable information or terminating their involvement with a participant to prevent any further harm to them.

What is sexual selection in relationships according to short-term and long-term mating preferences?

Short-term mating preferences: According to parental investment theory men evolved a greater desire for causal sex and would ideally seek sex earlier in a relationship. Female behaviour would not be subjected to the same evolutionary pressures. Over the period of one year e.g. a male who managed to impregnate a large number of females would have passed on more copies of his genes that a less successful male however a female who had sex with the same number of men in the same period would only produce one child. The less time a man permits to elapse before he has sexual intercourse with a woman, the larger the number of women he can impregnate in a given time (Buss). In contrast to women, men appear to lower their standards in the context of short term mating opportunities and then show a marked decrease in attraction following sex- an evolved adaptation to bring about a hasty departure which prevents them spending too long with one woman. Both sexes typically invest heavily in any offspring so sexual selection should favour high levels of choosiness in both sexes. Poor long-term mate choice could be disastrous for both sexes as they would have wasted valuable resources. As women have an obligatory biological investment in their children, they are predicted to be very particular about their choice of mate, This means being attracted to males that are able to invest resources in her and her children, can physically protect her and her children, show promise as a good parent and are sufficiently compatible to ensure minimal costs to her and her children. However people do not give away their resources indiscriminately therefore males would be most attracted to females who display signals of fertility, an indication of their reproductive value.

Evaluate the equity theory as an explanation of the maintenance of relationships (part 1)

Stafford and Canary asked 200 married couples to complete measures of equity and relationship satisfaction. Findings revealed that satisfaction was highest for spouses who perceived their relationship to be equitable, followed by over-benefited partners. These findings are consistent with predictions from the equity theory. The couples also completed measures of five maintenance strategies-positivity, open-mindedness, assurances, social networks and sharing tasks and under benefited husbands reported significantly lower levels of these three compared to equitable over benefited husbands. This study supports the equity theory as it suggests that the relationships lacking such rewards tend to be less equitable. Clark and Mills disagreed with the claim that all relationships are based on economics. They distinguished between exchange relationships (e.g. between colleagues and business associates) and communal relationships (e.g. between friend or lovers). Although exchange relationships may involve keeping track of rewards and costs, communal relationships are governed more by a desire to respond to the needs of the partner. They found there is still some concern with equity but partners tend to believe things will balance out in the end. However the desire to respond to the needs of the other could actually be an unconscious attempt to restore fairness in the relationship and make it continually equitable therefore this study would support the theory. Also De Maris found that inequity in a relationship can lead to later marital disruption showing that equity is a big determining factor of the success of a relationship.

What is the equity theory as an explanation for the maintenance of relationships?

The equity theory by Walster et al in 1978 develops on the social exchange theory that people try to maximize their rewards in a relationship and minimize their costs but it also suggests that people try to achieve fairness in their relationships and that this means making it equitable and therefore worth maintaining. In an equitable relationship a person's rewards minus costs i.e. profits should by around about the same amount as their partners however if this is not the case and one person gives a lot but receives a little or gives little and receives a lot then the relationship will be deemed as inequitable and the theory suggests that individuals become dissatisfied when they perceive that their relationship is like this. However even if a person gives a lot and gets a lot of rewards out of the relationship or if they give little and get very little rewards out of the relationship then this would still be seen as an equitable relationship as long as the outcomes (rewards minus costs) are similar level for each person. If a relationship seem inequitable a couple may, rather than ending the relationship, try to negotiate the rewards to ensure there is fairness and this could be done by changing the amount a person puts into the relationship, changing the amount they demand from the relationship or changing their perceptions of the relative inputs and outputs all of which can help to restore the appearance of equity.

What are sex difference in parental investment for fathers?

The minimum obligatory investment is less than females as women can produce only a limited number of eggs/offspring but men can potentially father an unlimited number. Whilst females must carry the developing embryo insider of her for 9 months and then have to wean the child afterwards, the male can walk away having achieved the task of fertilisation. Therefore indiscriminate mating could cost a woman more than men. When males invest parentally they are under pressure to protect themselves from the possibility of cuckoldry because human males make considerable investment in their children they have a greater concern than females about the fidelity of their mates. So men try to make sure their care is not misdirected towards non-relatives. The possibility of sexual infidelity posed different adoptive problems for males and females. A man whose mate was unfaithful risks investing in offspring that are not his own, whereas a woman whose mate was unfaithful risks diversion of resources away from her family. Therefore men are more jealous of the sexual act whereas women are more jealous of the shift of emotional focus.

What is the social exchange theory as an explanation for the maintenance of relationships?

The social exchange theory by Thaibault and Kelley in 1959. The social exchange theory suggests that in a relationship the couple make a series of exchanges in the hope of gaining a profit. The profit of a relationship can be calculated by subtracting the costs of being in the relationship e.g. financial loss or less time for other activities because of time spent with the partner, from the rewards of being in the relationship such as companionship or gifts given by the partner and the outcome of this should create a profit for the relationship to be shown as worthwhile. However, if the costs of being in the relationship outweigh the rewards it is likely that the relationship will not be maintained. The social exchange theory also suggests that we also decide to maintain a relationship based on a comparison level. A comparison level is a person's expectations of the rewards that should be gained from being in a relationship and this expectation is developed based on their past relationships or by the relationships that they have witnessed. So a person in a relationship will judge whether their relationship the profits of their relationship match, exceed or fall short of their comparison levels. If the relationship a person is in produces profits that are less than the comparison level then it is unlikely that the relationship will be maintained. A relationship can also be judged based on a comparison level for alternatives which is when a person considers the potential profits that could be gained from being with a different partner and weighs this up against the profits of their current partner and the potential costs of leaving that relationship. If the potential profits of being in a with the another person, minus the cost of leaving the current partner are higher than remaining in their current relationship then it is likely that an individual would seek to form a relationship with the alternative person.

What are the cultural differences of voluntary and non-voluntary relationships?

Voluntary relationships are when the partners have free choice about entering the relationship but non voluntary relationships are when the partners don't have free choice about entering the relationship. In Western cultures people live in predominantly urban settings with easy geographical and social mobility so we can often voluntarily interact with a large number of people. Western cultures therefore are characterised by a high degree of choice in romantic relationships and a greater "pool" of potential relationships. However non-Western cultures have fewer large urban centres and less geographical and social mobility and people therefore have less choice about who they interact with on a daily basis. Interactions with strangers are rare and relationships are often tied to other factors such as family or economic resources.

What is the influence of childhood on relationships based on parent-child relationships?

Attachment, caregiving and sexuality: Shaver et al claimed that what we experience as romantic love in adulthood is an integration of three behavioural systems acquired in infancy-attachment, caregiving and sexuality systems. Attachment is related to the concept of the internal working model which according to Bowlby later relationships are likely to be a continuation of early attachment styles because the behaviour of the infants primary attachment figure promotes an internal working model of relationships leading the infant to expect the same in later relationships. In some extreme cases a child's internal working model leads them to develop an attachment disorder. The caregiving system is knowledge about how one cares for others, learned by modelling the behaviour of the primary attachment figure. The sexuality system is also learned in relation to early attachment e.g. individuals who suffered an avoidant attachment are more likely to think that sex without love is pleasurable. Effects of childhood abuse on later relationships: Physical abuse in childhood has negative effects on adult psychological functioning. Individuals who have experienced physical abuse in childhood are more likely to report increased anxiety, depression and anger (Springer et al). Research also suggests that many victims of sexual abuse experience difficulties in forming healthy relationships in adulthood. Individuals who have experienced both physical and sexual abuse in childhood develop a damaged ability to trust people and a sense of isolation from others (Alpert et al). Distancing and self-isolation can inhibit the development of romantic attachments in adulthood. Van der Kolk and Fisler found that individuals who suffered childhood abuse also had difficulty forming healthy attachments and instead formed disorganised attachments. These disorganised patterns of attachment lead to a difficulty in regulating emotions, a key aspect of forming and maintaining healthy relationships.

Evaluate parent-child relationships as an influence on adult relationships.

Fraley conducted a meta-analysis of studies, finding correlations from .10 to .50 between early attachment type and later relationships. Fraley suggested that one reason for low correlations may be because insecure-anxious attachment is more unstable. However one key question concerns the stability of attachment types. It could be that an individual's attachment type is determined by the current relationship, which is why happily married individuals are secure. Attachment theory does suggest that significant relationship experiences may alter attachment organisation e.g. Kirkpatrick and Hazan found that relationship break-ups were associated with a shift from secure to insecure attachment. Berenson and Andersen support the claim that abused children have a difficult time developing adult relationships. They found adult women who had been abused in childhood later displayed negative reactions toward another person e.g. the expectation of rejection and emotional distancing but only with people who reminded them of their abusive parent. Berenson and Andersen concluded this process of transference could lead individuals abused in childhood to use inappropriate behavioural patterns learned from their relationship with an abusive parent in their subsequent interpersonal relationships. Such research suggests that early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships and therefore children who are insecurely attached at one year of age are doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults. This is not the case as researchers found plenty of cases where participants were experiencing happy adult relationships despite not having been securely attached as infants. Simpson et al conclude that the study does not suggest that "an individual's past unalterably determines the future of his/her relationships"

What is the filter model (similarity) theory by Bryne, Clore and Smeaton for the formation of relationships?

It proposes that relationships develop through different filters which are different factors that are important at different times. Potential partners are filtered so that the "field of availables" is narrowed down to a relatively small field of desireables-those we consider potential partners. Similarity of attitudes and values such as ideas, beliefs, interests and ease of communication. We also look for similarity of social variables such as proximity, ethnicity, religion, social class. educational background and physical attractiveness. People also consider the complementary of emotional needs with refers to how well two people fit as a couple and meet each others needs-this happens once the relationship has been established.