religious studies: Hinduism

dharma origins

• Gradually developed idea through the Gṛhya Sūtras (ritual manuals for domestic rituals) • Ritual performance and social / ethical obligations are the same from the perspective of dharma - and the Dharma Sūtras, which dealt with rules for performing domestic rites by the Aryan householder and rules pertaining to the four stages of life (āśrama). -around the time that the upanishads were created, there were ritual manuals created too. The ritual manual collection (kalpa sutra) contains four principal components: (1) a Shrauta-sutra, which establishes the rules for performing the more complex rituals of the Vedic repertoire, (2) (not important) (3) a Grihya-sutra, which explains the rules for performing the domestic rites, including the life-cycle rituals (called the samskaras), and (4) a Dharma-sutra, which provides the rules for the conduct of life. -epics exemplify dharma

Hinduism: broad overview

• Hinduism = a blanket term for a collection of diverse religious beliefs and practices • about one billion followers (the third largest religion in the world following Christianity and Islam) • No single founder; no single God • Multiple traditions; multiple perspectives - Philosophical and Ritual ("elite") - Lay - Historical - Contemporary (there are several contemporary groups called the Hindu reform movements --strive to introduce regeneration and reform to Hinduism) • Considered by many to be the "oldest living major religion" in the world.

Sanskrit

• Indo-European Language Family • -one of the largest language families in the world • (includes most of the languages of Europe) • -Proto Indo-European • (spoken in the 3rd millennium BCE) -Indo-aryan language derives from an earlier Proto-Indo-Iranian stage from the Bronze age -sr. william Jones =showed the connection between Indian languages and European -sanskrit, latin and greek (very close similarity) english: father latin: pater greek: pater sanskrit: pitar sanskrit --root of many languages --not spoken anymore, but still learned (to recite vedas) --most ancient scriptures in the world --1500B.C. (earliest record of the vedas)

influenced what other religions?

• Influenced the development of (or co-evolved together with) Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism

jainism: religious path

• Karmic rewards and sufferings are due to one's own actions • 5 ethical principles/vows: - Ahimsa (non-violence) - Satya (truthfulness) - Asteya (refraining from theft) - Brahmacharya (celibacy*) (not for householders) - Aparigraha (non-materialism) -acknowledges that everyone has different capabilities to practice janism --> accepts different levels of complience (regular householders for example= less high standard) karmic rewards/sufferings ** key point -do not engage in bad things so you don't get bad karma

jainism liberation

• Liberation (moksha) occurs when the soul escapes its karmic bonds - Those who achieve moksa are known as siddhas • Creation, manifestation, and perpetuity of phenomena are not due to a creator god, but rather impersonal laws

Mahābhārata

• Longest epic (?) in the world • 400 BCE • Like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata explicates the "goals of life" (purusharthas) - Dharma (right action) - Artha (purpose) - Kama (pleasure) - Moksha (liberation) -->this epic instructs a person how to behave through the telling of the narrative

Agni

• Manifests as heat in the world • Transports the dead to the god of death, Yama (the lord of death) -fire is central to vedic ritual

vedic hymns

• Offer praise to gods - E.g., Agni, the god of fire, is asked for protection; Indra is asked to destroy one's enemies

The Ṛgveda

• Oldest vedic text • Composed in archaic Sanskrit (hard to understand) • Contains verses of praise to the Vedic gods • Written in Hymns • Intended to be sung during the Soma ritual • Concept: the vital force of Ṛta = performance of vedic ritual correctly= keeps the cosmos and human society functioning correctly - Similar to (later) dharma -hymns are dedicated to rigvedic deities: • Indra = leader of the gods • Agni = fire god • Soma = plant god • No supreme deity!

Jainism

• Prescribes non-violence towards living beings • Emphasizes individual efforts; the individual cultivation of wisdom and selfcontrol in its path towards liberation; not faith based; no deity that will assist you

Women in Brahmanical Hinduism

• Source: the Dharma Śāstras: - Women are polluting to brahmans during menstruation - Must always be subject to male authority • As a child to her father • As a wife to her husband • As a widow to her sons (Laws of Manu/Manu Smṛti)

jainism karma

• Substances are real; their qualities and forms are changeable and illusory • Things are divided into living (jiva) and non-living (ajiva) • A jiva (soul) is covered with a thin layer of karma; karma is like dust that covers the soul • The four elements (earth, water, air, fire) are animated by sould • Yoga is the means of liberation—including knowledge, faith, moral conduct, ahimsa (non-violence), and asceticism • (syådvåda, anekåntavåda)=a union of permanent things that change

hinduism: where?

• The major religion of the Indian sub-continent

jainism triple gem

• The path towards liberation from samsara consists of "right view," "right knowledge," and "right conduct" (the triple gem)

Hindu Trinity

• Trimurti ('three forms') • 4th Century Onwards - Brahma (creator) - Vishnu (preserver) - Shiva (destroyer) -three headed feature --one god plays a role in the development of universe ==> each three gods play a role in the cosmic universe

Bhagavad Gītā

(watch: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=lzznReaaR-M&feature=related) • Famous part of the Mahabharata • An important text in Hindu philosophy • Synopsis: - A conversation between Krishna (a charioteer) and the prince Arjuna (of the Pandavas) on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra war, with armies on opposing sides, prepared for battle -discussing duty -->Arjuna has to fight against his relatives -Krishna says it is best to follow one's duty (most important thing --duty translated as Dharma) krishna reveals his non-human form (universal, cosmic form) -Arjuna is able to see multiple deities residing in one body (dates back to rgveda) -universal form of the god vishnu --shows that there are duel things happening in the world --> aspects of world that you cant see --human life and spiritual things -this story is about duty

• Direct Historical roots: Vedic religion (1500 BC to 500 BC)

- A religion based on a group of four revealed scriptures (i.e., the Vedas), which continue to exert a major influence on all subsequent developments of Hinduism.

Purva Mimamsa:

- Based on inquiry into the nature of dharma, based on a close analysis of the Vedas.

Yoga

- Many senses of Yoga (many different meanings -- ex. western) - In this context: based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Raja Yoga) • a system of contemplation with the aim of uniting the human spirit with God / Ishvara • based on Samkhya, but is more theistic --god is more personal in nature here

Cārvāka (lokayata):

- No life after death, - No causality, - Focus on the centrality of this life - Focus on the pursuit of pleasure (hedonism) - The idea of indeterminism: entities and beings evolve spontaneously without determined causes - Religion is invented by humans

So what brings traditions labeled "Hinduism" together?

- Traditions that revere a body of sacred literature, the Vedas (some exceptions) - Traditions that share a belief in reincarnation, which is driven by karma "action" in a reality known as "samsara" (shared with Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism) -samsara: the cycle of death and rebirth to which life in the material world is bound

3 central gods from the Gupta period (320-540 c.e.), onwards

- Vishnu - Shiva - Parvati (Shiva's Consort)

Hinduism does not possess

- a unified, authoritative system of belief - a central, administrative order - a single, authoritative spokesperson or leader - a single, authoritative text

• schools (Skt: Darshanas) of Indian philosophy are divided into

- non-orthodox (Skt: nastika) (depending on how the Veda is regarded)

the Vedas

• Veda = knowledge (English "wit," "witness," German "wissen") • 4 compositions or 4 parts (1500-500 BCE) • Earliest of the Indo-European writings -the vedas developed hinduism • Collectively referred to as sruti—that which was heard; divinely composed but recorded by humans (as opposed to smriti= that which is remembered) --'revealed scripture' -->fautless, infallible (but interpreted widely) --ritual texts possess the 'eternal sound' of the divine; sanskrit is said to be the language the gods speak and the sound of sanskrit is the eternal sound --brahmans are the keepers of the vedas; only they possessed the authority to both study and teach them • Orally composed and transmitted for centuries, then later committed to writing -there is classical sanskrit and the transition from 1st and 2nd languages (contains earlier version of sanskrit no longer spoken) -individual verses are called mantras

Theories about existence, emancipation, and ultimate reality:

- samsara (phenomenal existence) reflects a cosmic order - Cycle of unstable events - Imprisonment in samsara due to ignorance (avidyå) - Transmigration in samsara as a result of actions (karma) motivated by desire - Doctrine of åtman (except for Buddhism) -liberation from samsara - ETERNALISM/ABSOLUTISM (ßåßvata) - Upanishads (orthodox brahmanical schools)—these confirmed the truth of the åtman - Samsara is rooted in the ignorance of one's identity being together with a blissful absolute—åtman (micro) and brahman (macro) - Karma and transmigration - The idea that liberation from the imperfect world and union with the åtman/ brahman is possible - NIHILISM/INDETERMINISM (uccheda) - Lokåyatas - There is no soul, no afterlife, no retribution of actions, no rebirth - Focus on the centrality of this life - Focus on the pursuit of pleasure (hedonism) - The idea of indeterminism: entities and beings evolve spontaneously without determined causes

Samkhya school:

- the universe consists of two realities: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (phenomenal matter)

upanishads

--seperate from vedas --different emphasis, help people understand the vedas -• Secret teachings (intended for specially special students --profound ideas) • Written by a variety of late Vedic teachers; written during the vedic period • Deal with early philosophical speculation about the nature of the world/universe • Earliest discussions on the workings of rebirth and karma • Seventh-sixth c. BCE • Emphasis on ritual offerings to gods morphed into philosophical introspection • Form: as dialogues between teachers and students (like the Buddhist sūtras, or "discourses") • Deal with questions on the nature of reality and the self/soul: who are we? Where do we come from? What happens to "us" after death? (precursor to early Buddhist thought)

vedic rituals (2 types)

-Śrauta rituals = public rituals --- Requires a number of ritual specialists because they must be done correctly; the people must have the right attitude, right order, etc. --- Śrauta Sūtras = ritual manuals -Gṛhya rituals = domestic rituals/life cycle rituals --- Gṛhya Sūtras = ritual manuals - Performed by the brahmans (upper caste) -dharma grew out of these ritual manuals --> they said how things should be done

Vaisesika

-a form of "atomism" • Argues that all physical objects are reducible to a (finite) number of atoms -continued into jainism (reducing things into very small things)

ramayana

-epic (watch: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=yQd5GdVHuqY) • Earliest version 5-4th c BCE, but many textual layers and retellings • Protagonist = Rama, who is an avatar of the god Visnu - His purpose is to demonstrate the path of righteousness (dharma) for earthly beings (i.e., through example). • Rama was born as a prince to the king of Ayodhya - Avatar of Visnu (Rama took birth as a human in order to destroy the demon Ravana) • The King is forced to exile Rama into the wilderness - Rama is followed by his wife (Sita), and his brother (Laksmana) -Several demons, including Ravana's sister, attempt to kill the three (through disguises) • Ravana's sister is injured by Lakshmana • Ravana takes revenge by capturing Sita (he disguizes himself as a sag, tricks her and captures her) • Rama goes to rescue Sita with the help of Hanuman, a monkey who assumes a giant form - Hanuman first leaps across the ocean to Lanka (0:52) • Meanwhile, Ravana demands that Sita marry him, but, devoted to Rama, she refuses (illustrating an ideal of devoted womanhood) • When Hanuman offers to carry Sita back to Rama, she refuses.... - For Rama to avenge her honor by coming himself (and won't allow another man to touch her) • Then Rama and an army construct a bridge to Lanka called Rama Setu "Rama's Bridge" (1:07:50) *rama's bridge correspondence to a bridge like place in the earth today; lanka=shrilanka • After a battle, Rama kills Ravana; Hanuman and his monkey army help defeat Ravana's army

Nyaya: A system of epistemology and logic

-epistemology: the study of knowledge, especially with regards to its methods, validity, and scope - literature: Nyaya sutras - obtaining valid knowledge is the only way to obtain release from suffering. -working out what humans believe to be true, spiritually helpful knowledge and what is not • therefore, Nyaya focuses on trying to identify valid sources of knowledge.

Indus Valley Civilization 3300-1300 BCE

-harappan culture -harappa = the earliest source for elements of Hinduism (alledged to be present before and during the Harappa era) --not enough evidence to be completely sure though -Harappan civilization = a bronze age civilization

Vedanta

-literally meaning "Veda-end" (Veda-anta), refers to a group of philosophical traditions that are concerned with self-realization through understanding the ultimate nature of reality (BRAHMAN). • The foundation text of the VEDANTA tradition is called the BRAHMA SUTRA, composed around 200BCE. - The BRAHMA SUTRA is concerned with an investigation into BRAHMAN, beginning with the words: "now is the investigation into the absolute" (athāto brahma-jijñāsā). • This focus is differentiated from the earlier tradition of MIMAMSA, whose major concern is DHARMA, and whose foundational text, the MIMAMSA SUTRA, is focused on an investigation into DHARMA - So here we see two major areas on concern within HINDUISM: » DHARMA—the concern of the (Brahman) householder » BRAHMAN—the concern of the renouncer who seeks liberation interest in dharma vs an interest in Brahaman (an ultimate reality) • The founders and exponents of VEDANTA wrote commentaries on the BRAHMA SUTRA, making the VEDANTA tradition a theological or philosophical system of commentary, connected with earlier HINDU traditions. • The VEDANTA tradition has several schools or traditions: - ADVAITA ('Non-Dualist') VEDANTA - VISISTADVAITA ('Qualified Non-Dualist) VEDANTA root text= brahama sutra -historical layers of commentary that are more sofisticated, abstract, philisophical in nature -this later splits off into different schools

Dharma Śāstras

-most elaborate presentation of hindu dharma --the dharma sastras fall under the broad category of smritis (they are works that are remembered) and the relationship of the dharma sutras to the dharma sastras is not clear (but they are the next historical layer... they are seperate) -In Dharma Śāstra works, the privileges, duties and restrictions for each of this group are clearly given. -next historical layer -one of the most famous passages is the manu-smriti • part of the Smṛti = human authored literature • Composed in verse (earlier sūtras were in prose) • Discuss the role of the king -discusses the rules and duties of the four principle classes -many treatises written on righteousness, moral duty, and law in Common era= dharmashastras --foundation of later Hindu laws • Present dharma as a universal, all-encompassing law • Used (by brahmans) to help decide legal matters • Reflect the dominant brahmanical ideology

the goddess

-shaktism -the goddess is a collection of female deities --this is a distinguishing feature from other religions • Parvati (Shiva's Consort) • Durga • Kali - Is the Supreme being in Shakta texts / traditions -these are the three most important goddesses woman rafel deity --not necessarily evil, but able to defeat evil (the one that is really creepy)

Aryan Migration into NW South Asia (1700-1300 BCE)

-there was a climate change, the rivers dried up and the city died (people left) --> shift eastward to Gangies plain --Hinduism possibly a fusion of indigenous religions of the Indus Valley with faith of the Aryans -

Varṇāśrama-dharma

-vishnu smiriti= one of the dharma shastra texts • Dharma with regard to one's class (varṇa) and life state (āśrama) • In the Viṣṇu Smṛti, - Brahmans' dharma is to teach the veda and to sacrifice for others - Kṣatriyas' dharma is to practice with arms and protect the people - Vaiśyas' dharma is to tend cattle, practice agriculture and money-lending - Śudras' dharma is to serve the other classes and practice art -if you want to do well in next life, you must do well in your own dharma

• Naiyayikas (Nyaya scholars) accept four valid means (pramaṇa) of obtaining valid knowledge;

1. perception 2. inference 3. comparison 4. and verbal testimony (śabda). (Invalid knowledge includes memory, doubt, error, and hypothetical reasoning).

the four canonical vedas

4 main vedas - rig, yajur (shukla and krishna), sama, atharva -The Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ; - The Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; -The Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ. -The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, apotropaic charms and speculative hymns.

Conclusion: The Social and Religious Context in India at around 500 BCE

Four social classes (varˆa-s): - bråhmana (priests), kshatriya (military, ruling class), vaisya (traders, agriculturalists), sudra (servants, working class) - divinely created (each has a dharma=duty), which reflects a cosmic order - study of the vedas (authoritative and divinely composed texts) and performance of the vedic rituals (to ensure the social order) was restricted to the bråhmana class

Samsara in Hinduism

Samsara is the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation envisioned in Hinduism and other Indian religions. In Hindu thought, as well as in the thought of the other traditions that share the concept, samsara is the form of existence from which believers seek to escape. One dwells in the realm of samsara as long as he lives in accordance with the illusion (maya) that his own self is separate from the rest of reality instead of being united or one with it. Believing in the illusion of separateness that persists throughout samsara leads one to act in ways that generate karma and thus lead to rebirth. By fully grasping the unity or oneness of all things, the believer shatters the illusion upon which samsara is based and achieves moksha - liberation from samsara.

mount Kailash/ mountain Meru

gods live above here in the godly realm

Vishnu

• "all pervasive one" • Comes to earth in manifestations "avatars" to establish dharma and rid the world of adharma - Tortoise, boar, Rama, Buddha, Krishna (pattern shared with the Jatakas? --> buddha's past lives) • Consort = Sri Lakshmi • Vishnu is the Supreme God in the Vaishnava Tradition

Shiva

• "auspicious (fortunate) one" • Shiva is seen as the Supreme God in the Shaiva Tradition • Trident - creation, maintenance and destruction, - past, present and future - creation (rajas), preservation (sattva), and destruction (tamas) -the trident he holds in pictures can indicate these things

Ganesha

• "remover of obstacles" --if anyone begins a new project in this name, it will succeed --also associated with learning, education, prayed/chanted to when students attempt exams • Ganapatya worship Ganesha as the Supreme Being -in hinduism there are different sects, they lift one god up and lower others (highlighted as the supreme being) -various stories about how he got his elephant head -one is that shiva decapitated him and gave him an elephant head

Ashramas summary

• 4 stages of life Brahmacharya (student life) 5-24 Grihastha (household life) 25-49 Vanaprastha (retired life) 50-74 Sannyasa (renounced life) 75-100

different paths of righteousness (3)

• Bhakti Yoga or Devotion (devotion to a deity) • Karma Yoga or Selfless Action: what arjuna and krishna did --selflessly engaging in war --> duty without care for one's self • Jnana Yoga or Self Transcending Knowledge: the contemplative path - their fundamental goal is the same - to realize Brahman (the Divine Essence) as being the ultimate truth; the body is temporal, and Supreme Soul (Paramatman) is infinite. -paramatman= we are composed of atman (self) --a permanent enduring soul --we have to realize this to break out of reincarnation cycle • Yoga's aim of moksha is to escape the cycle of samsara.

Varṇas

• Brahmans = white: purity, and light • Kṣatriyas = red: passion and energy • Vaiśyas = yellow: earth • Śūdras = black: darkness -decreasing purity from top to bottom

Varnas (Summary)

• Brahmins: vedic priests • Ksatriyas: rulers • Vaishyas: cattle herders, merchants, farmers • Shudras: labourers • Top three are considered "Arya" and can participate in Vedic rituals (Shudras are excluded) • "untouchable class" • Hereditary classes (no movement between them) • Birth is directed by karma • Jati = clans, tribes, communities and subcommunities in India

life stages and rna

• By proceeding through the life stages, brahmans pay their three debts (rṇa) -to the ancestors: discharged by marrying and having sons; sons make funeral offerings -debt to the gods-- discharged by household rituals and sacrifices (generally cant be performed except by man and wife together) -debt to teachers and seers discharged by becoming a student and then appropriately teaching wife, children, and (for brahmins) other students • Only after brahmans pay their three debts (rṇa) can they seek and attain "liberation" (mokṣa) • THe Dharma Śāstras favour the householder's life • Only the householder can engage in sexual activity, or pleasure (kāma)—e.g., literature such as the Kāma Sūtra intended for householders - Although sexuality must remain within caste and purity-pollution restrictions

Life Stages (Āśramas)

• Celibate student (brahmacārya) stage • Householder (gṛhastha) stage; ideally you produce male offspring • Hermit or forest dweller (vanaprastha) stage • Renouncer (samnyāsa) stage

Vedic Ritual

• Centered around sharing a sacrificial meal between the vedic Aryans and with the gods (devas) • Sacrifice (yajña) = putting offerings into a sacred fire (e.g., milk, clarified butter, soma, animals). • Transported through the fire to the gods (devas) • vedic 'religion' is centered around the yajna: "sacrifice," "offering" to Vedic gods through pouring substances into fires • Preserves the rta: "earthly order" • Hence the brahmins held the keys to preventing chaos

Social Order

• Decreasing purity: brahmans (most pure), untouchables (most impure) • Intermarriage prohibited; inter-caste marriage violates purity divisions • Untouchables = outcastes (outside the 4 varṇas)

The Upaniṣads—content

• Earliest discussions of the concept of karma: "action" - A system of rewards and punishments that follow one's actions • Ritual action in the Vedas becomes moral action in the Upaniṣads - Is worked out over various lifetimes, or a cosmic cycle of reincarnation called samsara - To achieve liberation from this cycle is called moksa, or "liberation"

jainism classification of beings

• Features an elaborate classification of beings; different realms of beings also; all these beings are living in samsara • Features an elaborate cosmology which includes gods (still subject to suffering and change)

vedic society

• Four classes (varṇa) of Aryan society • Top three classes are twice born (dvija) -->because their male members have been initiated (in a tradition to perpetuate the rituals) -- idea of twice born is similar to baptism • Lowest class = servants (śudra)—no access to the vedic tradition

Dharma in Hinduism

For Hindus, Dharma is the moral order of the universe and a code of living that embodies the fundamental principles of truth, harmony, law, that govern all reality. By living according to Dharma, one can eventually achieve liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. In the traditional Hindu view, a person's duties are dependent upon his or her age, gender, occupation, and caste; Dharma is construed at least in part in terms of prescribed rituals and caste rules -universal law that is embedded in the fabric of the universe • Dharma = untranslatable - duty, religion, justice, law, ethics, religious merit, principle, and right - Specifically, dharma = the performance of the vedic ritual

Classical Hindu Deities

Indo-Aryan deities like Agni, Indra, Varuna --early on, the gods are physical manifestations of water, wind, etc --elements of the universe -later there are others that aren't connected with elements of universe (vishnu etc)

Karma in Hinduism

Karma is the Hindu view of causality in which good deeds, words, thoughts, and commands lead to beneficial effects for a person, and bad deeds, words, thoughts, and commands lead to harmful effects. These effects are not necessarily immediate but can be visited upon a soul in future lives through reincarnation; additionally, good or bad fortune experienced in life may be the result of good or bad actions performed in a past life.One's karmic state affects what the soul will be reincarnated as: good karma may lead to reincarnation as a human while bad karma can lead to reincarnation as an animal or other forms of non-human life. Many Hindus hold a theistic view of karma in which a personal god - such as Vishnu in Vaishnavism and Shiva in Shaivism - is responsible for administering karma according to a soul's actions. Non-theistic strands of Hinduism believe that karma is a matter of basic cause-and-effect without the need of a deity to dole out the effects. --this also explains caste -- if you are good you may become a brahmin, being a male is also better in next life

Kings in Hinduism

The functions of the king (rājadharma): - Protection of the people - Maintaining of social order through the control of caste boundaries - Administration of justice (daṇḍa) • Divine in nature • Dependent on Brahmans; Brahmans dependent upon Kings (the brahmans are needed to teach the veda and do rituals, and they need the king) • Contrast this with the Buddhist Aggañña Sutta

Astika schools

astika is a term that classifies the philosophical schools By this definition, Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mimāṃsā and Vedānta are classified as āstika schools --because they believe in the validity of the vedas

atman and Brahman

atman= soul Brahman= absolute, supreme being • Taittriya Upaniṣad - Brahman = truth, knowledge, infinity, consciousness, bliss • Chandogya Upanishad - tat tvam asi "you are that" - You = Atman - That = Brahman (the atman and brahman are one)

smrti

beginning around 500 BCE -"that which is remembered" believed to have been composed by humans—emerged -sections: - Epics (itihasas) - Ancient Stories (Puranas) - Codes of Law and Ethics (dharmashastras)

kāṇḍas

books (many stories back to back)

'mantra'

collection of sacred syllables --sanskrit syllables (chant, capable of making some sort of change, 'special language', able to alter something)

Cosmogonies in the Ṛg-Veda

cosmology = how the universe came into existence in the first place -hinduism doesn't have one single account of how the world came into being -one example: hymn about creation: " 1. THEN was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water? 2 Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day's and night's divider. That One Thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it was nothing whatsoever. 3 Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness this All was indiscriminated chaos. All that existed then was void and form less: by the great power of Warmth was born that Unit. 4 Thereafter rose Desire in the beginning, Desire, the primal seed and germ of Spirit. Sages who searched with their heart's thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent. 5 Transversely was their severing line extended: what was above it then, and what below it? There were begetters, there were mighty forces, free action here and energy up yonder 6 Who verily knows and who can here declare it, whence it was born and whence comes this creation? The Gods are later than this world's production. Who knows then whence it first came into being? 7 He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows no" example 2: about purusha ->describes how the universe itself was created through the cosmic sacrifice of the primeval man Purusha -various elements of the universe arose from his sacrifice -from this hymn comes the idea of the four classes (varnas; sacred, divinely ordered ) -this is Macranthropy -- a term describing the allegorical portrayal of the universe as a giant anthropomorphic body with the various components

Origin of the varṇas

laws of Manu: 1.31: "But for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds he caused the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet." (from Purusha)

epics

long narrative that contains many stories within each one • The Epic is divided into kāṇḍas or books (many stories back to back) -dependent on which region you are from (different stories told in each region) -you start to see the beginnings of dharma in these (how one should act) • "Epic" (itihasa) is not only about the telling of the past, but also includes teachings on the goals of human life

rta

the vital power in the universe

soma

sacred drink used in rgveda ritual -from the soma plant -no longer a part of hindu religion -very important in the origin of the rgveda

the catagories of vedic texts

there are four catagories: samhitas (hymns), brahmana (ritual directions; concerned with performing vedic rituals correctly), aranyaka (forest ritual directions), upanishads -The Samhita are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns. -The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. -The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature. -upanishads: composed after the end of the vedic period --philosophical works -The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman)

Nastika Schools

• "Non-Orthodox" rejected that there is an infallibable source of information -namely the vedas • Cārvāka (materialists) • Jain • Buddhist