Renaissance, Reformation, Sci Revolution, Enlightenment, Absolute Monarchs test

William Shakespeare

(1564 - 1616) English poet and playwright considered one of the greatest writers of the English language; works include Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet.

GF Handel

Baroque composer who made Messiah.

Act of Supremacy

Declared the king (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534.

Raphael Sanzio

Italian Renaissance artist who painted the Madonna and Child and the School of Athens. Also made frescoes in the Vatican Palace.

Michelangelo Buornarroti

(1475-1564) Italian Renaissance sculptor, architect, painter, and poet; he sculpted the Pieta and the David, and he painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel which took him four years to paint. The ceiling shows sweeping scenes from the Old Testament of the Bible.

Teresa of Avila

(1515-1582) Spanish Carmelite nun and one of the principal saints of the Roman Catholic Church; she reformed the Carmelite order. Her fervor for the Catholic Church proved inspiring for many people during the Reformation period

Elizabeth I

(1533-1603) Queen of England and Ireland between 1558 and 1603. She was an absolute monarch and is considered to be one of the most successful rulers of all time.England became the leader of Protestant nations of Europe and laid the foundations for a world empire. She got rid of laws favoring Catholics and an Act of Supremacy named Elizabeth as "the only supreme governor" of both church and state. She tried to balance the power of France and Spain. She ended up defeating the Spanish armada, which greatly weakened Spain's power, and caused for England to become a threat.

The 30 Years' War

(1618-1648 CE) War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia. France fought against the Holy Roman Empire and Spain since Cardinal Richelieu hated the Hapsburg. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war and gave Sweden, France, and their allies new territories. Started when the HRE tried to close two Protestant churches. They threw him out the window.

The Seven Years' War

(1756-1763 CE) As a result of the War of Austrian Succession, two new rivalries emerged. Between France and Britain over colonial empires and between Austria and Prussia over Silesia. France allied with Austria and Russia. Britain allied with Prussia. Due to the Russians withdrawing from combat, the war ended in a stalemate in 1763. Prussia kept Silesia, England gained French territories in India, and Britain cgot the lands east of Montreal along with Canada.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler.,

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, where he argued that everybody was born with a blank mind. He believed that people were made based on their experiences based on their sense of the world around them. He influenced the ideas of the Enlgightenment.

Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican friar in Florence who preached against sin and corruption and gained a large following; he expelled the Medici from Florence. Eventually the Florentines go tired of his strict regulations. He attacked the corruption of the Church, and got excommunicated as a result. the Medici family regained power.

Jean Jacques-Rousseau

A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy. Created the social contract.

Montesquieu

A French noble who wrote The Spirit of the Laws which was a study of governments. He was one of the most important figures of the Enlightenment. He tried to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings. He stated that the English government operated under three branches which functioned through separation of powers. Checks and balances made sure they to limit and control one another, which made sure one branch didn't become more powerful than the other.

Diderot

A French writer who contributed a lot to the Enlightenment. He wrote the Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Trades, which was a twenty-eight volume collection of knowledge that he edited. The purpose of the book was to change the general way of thinking. It became a weapon against the old French society, and its articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration. Hated slavery, praised freedom and expression, and encouraged education. He also attacked Divine Right and traditional religions.

Johannes Kepler

A German mathematician who helped to disprove the Ptolemaic system. Using detailed astronomical data, he managed to come up with his laws of planetary motion. He found that the sun was in the center of the universe. Kepler's First Law said that the planets orbited in an elliptical shape around the sun. He was the assistant of Tycho Brahe and published Brahe's measurements of the planet of Mars. He wanted to prove Copernicus wrong but ended up proving him right.

Nicolaus Copernicus

A Polish astronomer who proved that the Ptolemaic system was inaccurate, he proposed the theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system. His famous book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, talked about his heliocentric system. He was the first scientist to create a complete model of the solar system.

Anabaptists

A Protestant sect that believed only adults could make a free choice regarding religion; they also advocated pacifism, separation of church and state, and democratic church organization. They refused to hold political office or bear arms. Believed that all believers were equal, and elected their ministers. Were persecuted and thought of as radicals. They later evolved into the Hutterites, who eventually became the Mennonites and the Amish Mennonites.

Robert Boyle

A chemist who started using chemicals in controlled experiments. He defined the element, and is famous for The Skeptical Chemist, his book. He described matter as a cluster of tiny particles (now called atoms and molecules. He learned about a principle known today as Boyle's Law which states that the value of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it.

WA Mozart

A classical composer who was a child prodigy. He gave his first concert ant six and wrote his first opera at twelve. He was unable to get a patron to support him which hurt him financially. His most famous works are The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni.

Republic

A form of government in which citizens choose their leaders by voting

Prussia

A former kingdom in north-central Europe including present-day northern Germany and northern Poland

Roundheads

A group consisting of puritans, country land owners, and town based manufacturers, led by Oliver Cromwell; fought against the Cavaliers during the English civil war

Council of Trent

A group of cardinals archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians met off and on for 18 years in the city of Trent near the Swiss border. Their decrees of the Council reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. faith and good works were necessary for salvation. The seven sacraments, the Catholic view of the Eucharist, and clerical celibacy were all upheld. Belief in purgatory and the use of indulgences were strengthened, but the selling of indulgences was forbidden. The council gave the Roman Catholic Church a clear body of doctrine. They also established priest school, (seminary), and started having magnificent ceremonies to inspire faith.

Versailles

A large royal residence built in the seventeenth century by King Louis XIV of France, near Paris. The palace, with its lavish gardens and fountains, is a spectacular example of French classical architecture. The Hall of Mirrors is particularly well known. The peace treaty that formally ended World War I was negotiated and signed here as well. Wanted to get rid of all the Huguenots. He revoked the Edict of Nantes, and outlawed Protestantism. Over 200,000 Huguenots fled France, including many prosperous merchants and artisans. The loss of their skills and wealth caused a financial crisis.

FJ Haydn

A musical genius who was an important innovator. He wrote more classical music. He spent most of his adult life as musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes. His greatest works were The Creation and The Seasons.

Absolutism

A political system in which a ruler holds total power.

Ulrich Zwingli

A priest in Zurich. He influenced the city council of Zurich to introduce religious reforms. He made a new church service consisting of scripture reading, prayer, and sermons to replace the mass. He tried to ally with Martin Luther, but they were unable to agree on everything. A war broke out between Protestant and Catholic states, and Zwingli was found, cut up, burned to pieces, and his ashes were scattered. He supported a theocracy, which basically means the church should be the government. Because the Lutherans would not support these Swiss Protestants, the Catholics attacked them and Zwingli died in battle.

Isaac Newton

A professor of mathematics who wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (a.k.a. Principia). In this book he defined his laws of motion, including the universal law of gravitation, which helped to explain the planets elliptical orbits around the sun. These ideas created a new picture of the universe. Believed that the physical world and everything it was like a giant "world machine" operating according to natural laws that could be uncovered through systematic investigation. Influenced the Enlightenment with this idea, since the thinkers thought they could find the natural laws of society.

The Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange.

Methodism

A religion founded by John Wesley. Insisted strict self-discipline and a methodical approach to religious study and observance. Emphasized an intense personal salvation and a life of thrift, abstinence, and hard work.

Peter the Great

Absolute monarch who claimed the divine right to rule. visited the west and wanted to westernize Russia. He modernized the army and navy by employing Russians and Europeans as officers. Drafted peasants for twenty five year stints of service. but an army of 210,000. Introduced Western customs to Russia. Men had to shave their beards and shorten their coats. Acquired parts of Sweden, and built St. Petersburg. There he built Russia's navy and made it a port city. Divided Russia into provinces and hoped to create a police state.

Frederick the Wise (III)

Amassed a collection of more than 5,000 relics. Some people thought the indulgences attached to them could reduce time spent in purgatory by 1,443 years.

Francis Bacon

An English philosopher who believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities. He invented the scientific method. He supported about learning by inductive reasoning. He believed that knowledge of the natural world should be achieved through observation and experimentation. Scientists tried to give up t heir opinions and start with facts than proceed toward principles. Using observation, they propose hypothesis for the events. Bacon believed that science could benefit industry, agriculture, and trade, and believed this human power could be used to conquer nature in action.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian astronomer and mathematician who discovered mountains on Earth's moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. He also found Saturn and built the first telescope, This helped get rid of the Ptolemaic system, since it showed that these spheres were made out of material. He wrote about his findings in The Starry Messenger. The Church hated him for his scientific positions,

Baldassare Castiglione

An Italian author who wrote the book The Courtier in 1528. He described the ideal Renaissance man and woman

Baroque

An artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

An economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient. Brought prosperity to France. His policies saved France. He limited imports and increased exports. In addition, he simplified the tax system. Colbert even reduced the government's debt. Still, Louis wanted more money.

William Pitt the Elder

As secretary of state in charge of the Seven Years' War, this British official sent tons of troops to confront the French in Canada. Proved instrumental in helping Great Britain emerge as a world power from the war. he was convinced that the French Colonial empire would have to be destroyed for Britain to create its own colonial empire.

Silesia

Austrian province in eastern Germany that is later seized by Frederick II of Prussia in December of 1740, provoking the War of the Austrian Succession.

JS Bach

Baroque composer. he composed Mass in B Minor.

Charles I (England)

Became king of England and summoned Parliament to request money. Parliament refused until he signed the Petition of Right which placed limits on the king's power. It said that the king could not levy taxes without Parliament's approval which angered him. He taxed the people himself and forced bankers to loan him money. He dismissed Parliament and decided to rule without consulting Parliament ever again.England slipped into a civil war because of his actions.

Desiderius Erasmus

Believed that Christianity should show how people should act from day to day so that they lead good lives. He didn't like that Christianity just provided beliefs that might help them be saved. He thought the Catholic Church needed to go back to the early days of Christianity. He believed the more inwardness religious feelings were important. He wanted to educate people about Christianity and criticize the Church. He wrote a satire called The Praise of the Folly. He sought reform within the Catholic Church, and didn't want to break away from it, but his rebellion started the Reformation.

John Knox

Calvinist reformer of Scotland, called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ on earth". Was the Scottish spokesman for Reformation and established the Presbyterian denomination.

The Church of England

Church created in England as a result of a political dispute between Henry VIII and the Pope, Pope would not let Henry divorce his wife, so Henry made a breakout of the church that he had full control of. He killed opposition, and closed monasteries. It did stay close to Catholic teachings though.

95 Theses

Document written by Martin Luther and posted on a church door in Germany that listed 95 things that Luther saw wrong with the church. The thing that finally caused him to do it was the selling of indulgences to raise money to build St. Peter's Basilica. He thought indulgences were only there to soothe the people, not forgive sins.

Florence

Dominated the northern Italian region of Tuscany. Hot spot of the Renaissance. Was established by wealthy merchants who waged war against their neighbors and established Florence as a major city-state.

Geocentric

Earth-centered; a system of planetary motion in which the sun, moon, and other planets revolve around the Earth.

Empress Maria Theresa

Empress of Austria who worked to improve the condition of the serfs. Became Queen due to the Pragmatic Sanction. When she took over, the kingdom was unstable and the War of the Austrian Succession happened. She also allied with Britain in the Seven Years War.

Oliver Cromwell

English general and statesman who led the parliamentary army in the English Civil War (1599-1658). After he won, he purged Parliament of people who didn't support him and executed Charles I. This horrified much of Europe. Parliament abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords and made England a commonwealth. He got rid of Parliament since he found them hard to work with. he set up a military dictatorship. He led military expeditions into Scotland and Ireland. He was not a great ruler. He ruled until his death, and the army reinstated the monarchy after.

William Harvey

English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood, and found out it came from the heart.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer, who advanced woman's rights. She is seen as the founder of the modern European and American movements for women's rights. Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women where she identified two problems with the views of Enlightenment thinkers. The first was that they argued that women must obey men, but thinkers said that a government based on the power of monarchs over subjects wrong. She also pointed out that the Enlightenment was based on ideal of reason in all human beings. She called for equal education for boys and girls, thinking education was the only way women could participate equally.

Albrecht Durer

Famous Northern Renaissance artist, he often used woodcutting along with Italian Renaissance techniques like proportion, perspective and modeling. (Knight Death, and Devil; Four Apostles). Was German.

James I (England)

First King of England from the Stuart Dynasty. His view of absolute monarchy caused conflict with Parliament. Was hated since he was Scottish, and since he wanted to do whatever he wanted to. He had difficulty getting along with Parliament. Although James called Parliament repeatedly, he rarely got Parliament to approve monies he wanted.

Jan van Eyck

Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and who pioneered modern techniques of oil painting (1390-1441) He perfected the technique of oil paintings. He made the painting Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride.

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish scientist who pioneered the study of anatomy and provided detailed overviews of the human body and its systems.

Filippo Brunelleschi

Florentine architect who was the first great architect of the Italian Renaissance; built first dome over Cathedral of Florence. He designed the church of San Lorenzo in Florence.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits. A Spanish soldier whose legs have been shattered by a cannonball. She was stuck at the Spanish castle and could only read about saints. He starts looking into religion and "Starts having religious visions". Becomes a soldier of God and started the Jesuits.

Huguenots

French Calvinist Protestant. Many noble families were Huguenots, which threatened the Catholic French monarchy. About 40 to 50 percent of nobles were Huguenots.

Philosophe

French for "philosopher"; applied to all intellectuals during the Enlightenment. Not all were philosophers, and were a mix of writers, professors, journalists, economists, and social reformers. Were mostly of nobility and middle class. Were mostly French.Believed the role of philosophy was to change the world.

Rene Descartes

French philosopher. He brought his philosophical perspective to science, and began to write about doubt and uncertainty. His most famous work was Discourse on Method where he decided to set aside all he had learned and begin again. He came up with the concept "I think, therefore I am". He also came up with the concept of "the mind cannot new doubted but the body and the material world can, the two must be radically different." Using these principles, he came up with the principle that mind and matter were separate, and matter was dead since it was totally detached from the mind using reason. He wis the father of modern rationalism, the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge.

Czar

From Latin caesar, this Russian title for a monarch was first used in reference to a Russian ruler by Ivan III (r. 1462-1505).

Johannes Gutenberg

German printer who was the first in Europe to print using movable type and the first to use a press (1400-1468). Invented the printing press.

Tommaso di Giovanni (Masaccio)

He made frescoes and mastered the laws of perspectives e. He managed to create the illusion of three dimensions, leading to a new, realistic style. One of his most famous works is the Tribute Money, which depicts the story of the life of Peter, a Christian Saint.

Henry IV (France)

He was a Huguenot who inherited the French throne in 1589. He worked to fight the Catholics for many years, but converted to Catholicism. Eventually issued the Edict of Nantes in 1595, which gave the Huguenots religious toleration. His goal was to put "a chicken in every pot." He increased the bureaucracy and worked to reduce the power of the nobles. He eliminated France's debt and built up a surplus. He also created new industries, drained swamps, built canals and roads.This paved the way for future kings to rule without any check on their power. In 1610, he was assassinated, leaving the throne to his nine-year-old son, Louis XIII.

King Philip II

He was king of Spain during 1588. During this year he sent out his Spanish Armada against England. He lost the invasion of England. Philip II was also the leader against the Protestant Reformation. He was the son of Charles V, and inherited the kingdoms of Milan, Naples, Sicily and Netherlands, along with Spain and the American colonies. He tried to strengthen Catholicism in Spain.

Charles I of Spain

Holy Roman Emperor, and King of Spain.He tried to convince Martin Luther to change his ideas after he was excommunicated, but was angered after Luther refused. He issued the Edict of Worms to outlaw Martin Luther, and try to capture him. He saw the reformation as a force that disrupted the social and political order. He wanted to preserve his empire's unity by keeping it Catholic. He was unable to do this since the prince's unified while he was fighting France, and while Ottoman Turks invaded Germany. As a result he had to seek peace.

Charles V, The HRE

Holy Roman Emperor. He tried to convince Martin Luther to change his ideas after he was excommunicated, but was angered after Luther refused. He issued the Edict of Worms to outlaw Martin Luther, and try to capture him. He saw the reformation as a force that disrupted the social and political order. He wanted to preserve his empire's unity by keeping it Catholic. He was unable to do this since the prince's unified while he was fighting France, and while Ottoman Turks invaded Germany. As a result he had to seek peace.

Charles VI (Austria)

In 1713, Charles VI (r. 1711-1740) proclaimed the Pragmatic Sanction, which stated that the Habsburg possessions were never to divide and were always to be passed intact to a single heir. Charles was the last of all of the Habsburg males. Charles spent much of his reign trying to get this principle accepted by the various branches of the Habsburg family, by the three different Estates of the realm, and by the states of Europe. (571)

Cavaliers

In the English Civil War (1642-1647), these were the troops loyal to Charles II. Their opponents were the Roundheads, loyal to Parliament and Oliver Cromwell.

Milan

Italian city-state. Was one of the richest. It was run by the Visconti family. Francesco Sforza led a band of mercenaries to take it over. The Visconti and Sforza rulers built a strong centralized state. Using an efficient tax system, the Sforzas generated huge revenues for the government.

Leonard da Vinci

Italian painter and sculptor and engineer and scientist and architect. He mastered the art of realistic painting by dissecting humans.

Pope Paul III

Italian pope who excommunicated Henry VIII, instituted the order of the Jesuits, appointed many reform-minded cardinals, and initiated the Council of Trent. He made a Reform Commission to determine the Church's ills. The commission blamed the problems on the popes corrupt policies.

Charles II (England)

King of England that allowed many groups of people to colonize North America. Became king when the monarchy was reinstated. Parliament still had much of the power it had won. Charles pushed ideas that were not supported by English people. He was sympathetic to Catholicism and his brother was Catholic. He suspended the laws that Parliament had passed against Catholics and Puritans. they forced him to back down, and passed the Test Act. He converted to Catholicism on his deathbed.

Francesco Petrarch

Known as the father of Renaissance Humanism. He lived from 1304-1374. He looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts, and set in motion a search for similar manuscripts in monastic libraries thoroughout Europe. He also emphasized using pure Classical Latin. The latin of the Romans, not Medieval Latin.

Mary I

Persecuted protestants and wanted to go back to traditional Roman Catholicism. Because she burned more than 300 Protestants, she earned the nickname Bloody Mary. This ended up backfiring, and England became more Protestant.

Calvinism

Protestant sect founded by John Calvin. Emphasized a strong moral code and believed in predestination (the idea that God decided whether or not a person would be saved as soon as they were born). Calvinists supported constitutional representative government and the separation of church and state.

Puritans

Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization. King James I saw them as a threat to his power since they wanted to change the Church of England. They wanted to abolish the appointment of bishops in the Anglican Church. This angered Charles so much and arrested them, though they escaped. This showed the Church they couldn't trust the King.

Frederick William I

Prussian king responsible for Prussian absolutism and continuing militarization. He made the army the fourth largest army of the time.

The Medici Family

Ruled Florence from 1434, and family members kept the city stable for years, and were generous patrons of the arts. Because of their influence, Florence produced a dazzling number of gifted poets, artists, architects, scholars, and scientists.

Charles VIII (France)

Ruler of France who invaded Italy. Were met by the Spanish who were helping them out. Spain and France fought for thirty years.

Catherine the Great

Russian Czar from 1762-1796. Was an Enlightened Absolutist, but came to power when spouse was murdered. This Czar supressed the serfs and gave power to the aristocracy. Her boyfriends would become prime ministers. Expanded mostly West and South, and Westernized in literature, philosophy, and art.

Boyar

Russian noble

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations a precursor to modern Capitalism. He believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters. He thought the government should protect society from invasion, defend citizens from injustice, and should keep certain public works. He supported laissez-faire.

Vernacular

Served as a commercial link between Asia and Western Europe. the city drew traders from around the wold. it was a republic with an elected doge. Wealthy merchant aristocrats actually ran the government.

Joseph II of Austria

Son of Maria Theresa who abolished serfdom and eliminated the death penalty. He made it so that everybody was equal before the law and allowed freedom of religion. His ambitions failed since he alienated the nobles, and the Catholic Church.

El Greco

Spanish painter (born in Greece) remembered for his religious works characterized by elongated human forms and dramatic use of color (1541-1614). He made the Agony in the Garden.

Miguel de Cervantes

Spanish writer best remembered for 'Don Quixote' which satirizes chivalry and influenced the development of the novel form

James II (England)

Successor and brother of Charles II. Was an open and devout Catholic. he named Catholics top high positions in the government, army, navy, and universities. Parliament objected to his policies, but didn't rebel since his daughters were Protestant. He ended up having a son which pissed them off. He ended up being overthrown by William the Silent.

English Bill of Rights

The document signed by William and Mary that limited their power as monarchs in England; it stated that the monarch must gain parliamentary approval to pass laws. It made it so Parliament made the laws and collected taxes. It also made it impossible for kings to oppose or to do without Parliament since standing armies could be raised only with Parliaments consent. Gave Parliament the real authority in the constitutional monarchy. Didn't have complete control though. Also asserted it as part of the government.

Edict of Nantes

The edict of Henry IV that granted Huguenots the rights of public worship and religious toleration in France. He pretty much allowed people to worship as long as it is kept on the down-low. Catholicism was still the official religion of France though. Huguenots were still supposed to give money to the Catholic Church

Voltaire

The greatest figure of the Enlightenment. He was a Parisian who came from a prosperous middle-class family. He wrote many writings which made him famous and wealthy. He wrote satire to criticize abuses and targeted corrupt officials and idle aristocrats. He detested the slave trade. He was often imprisoned and forced into exile. He criticized and challenged the actions of the Church. He believed in religious toleration and fought against religious intolerance in France. He championed Deism. He believed that the universe was like a clock, and God was its clockmaker, who created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws.

Antione Lavoisier

The inventor of the system of naming chemical elements. He is considered the father of modern chemistry. He developed measures for precise measurements. He discovered the law of Conservation of Mass which proved that matter could not be created or destroyed. He recognized and named oxygen introduced the metric system of measurements.

Peter III (Russia)

The last of the six weak successors following Peter the Great. He was murdered by a group of nobles, and his wife Catherine II succeeded him. Withdrew Russian troops from the Seven Years War which caused a stalemate.

Cardinal Richelieu

The power behind the throne for King Louis XIII. He was his most trusted adviser and wanted to reduce Huguenot power. He took away their political and military rights. He also sieged Huguenot cities, and saw nobles as a threat. He took nobles out and had spies report to them. He has three prominent nobles publicly executed for treason. He also directed foreign policy. He hated the Hapsburg, and fought them in the Thirty Year's war

Doge

The ruler of Venice

Edward VI

The sucessor of King Henry VIII of England, and his 9- year- old son of his thrid wife; during his reign, church officials moved the English (Anglican) Church towards a more Protestant view, by allowing the clergy to marry and creating Protestant services. He died before he was sixteen of tuberculosis.

William and Mary of Orange

They signed the English Bill of Rights and began a new co-operation between the Parliament and the monarchs, leading to a greater measure of personal liberty and democracy in Britain. This action both signaled the end of several centuries of tension and conflict between the crown and parliament, and the end of the idea that England would be restored to Roman Catholicism.

Frederick II (The Great)

This was the Prussian king who embraced culture and wrote poetry and prose. He gave religious and philosophical toleration to all subjects, abolished torture and made the laws simpler. He enlarged the Prussian army. He also gave limited freedom of speech and press. He started the War of Austrian Succession for Austrian Silesia. He also allied with Britain during the Seven Years War.

Cardinal Mazarin

This was the man who served under Cardinal Richelieu and laid the foundations for Louis XIV's expansionist policies. Louis XIV got rid of him and became an absolute monarch.

John Calvin

Took over leadership of Protestantism in Switzerland. He was highly educated, and fled from his home country of France to Switzerland since he became a Protestant. He wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion, which talked about the Protestant idea. Due to the invention of the printing press, his writings spread fast. Believed in predestination. this give Calvinists a firm conviction that they were doing God's work. established Geneva. Geneva eventually failed because it was so strict, about everything that they wore.

Henry VIII (England)

Was a hardcore Catholic and hated Luther. His wife Catherine did not bear him a son. He wanted to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn. Because the Pope wouldn't annul the marriage, he managed to convince England's archbishop to annul their marriage. This led to the establishment of the Church of England, which the king had full control of. He later executed Anne Boleyn who had another daughter who died.

Louis XIV (France)

Was an absolute ruler. Cardinal Mazarin was his chief minister. He was raised to be king. He was taught skills a king would need - from interviewing foreign ambassadors and interpreting state papers all the way to hunting and dancing. He was more confident in himself and his decisions. When Cardinal Mazarin died, he declared he would run the government himself. He oversaw all military, political, and economic initiatives. Built the Palace of Versailles, and required his nobles to visit him regularly. Nobles became his servants in the King's Versailles court. He increased the military to 200,00 disciplined soldiers and spent money on equipment for his new army. Fostered the myth that he himself was the Sun King, the source of light for all of his people.

Thomas Hobbes

Wrote Leviathan. Argued people were cruel, greedy,selfish,etc. If these people were not controlled, they would oppress each other. Hobbes believed in a social contract which meant people would give up freedoms for protection, and only a powerful government could ensure an orderly society. He believed in an absolute monarchy.

Dante

Wrote the Divine Comedy. This goes over the soul's journey to attain Paradise. He wrote it in Italian so everybody could read it.

Martin Luther

a German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a professor who lectured about the Bible. Luther believed that human beings were powerless compared to God and would never be able to do enough to earn salvation. He believed that humans would be saved by their faith in God. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices. He began the Protestant Reformation.

Naples

a busy port and the largest city in southern Italy.

Separation of powers

a form of government in which the executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit and control each other through a system of checks and balances

Flanders

a medieval country in northern Europe that included regions now parts of northern France and Belgium and southwestern Netherlands

Burgher

a member of the middle class who lived in a city or town

Christian humanism

a movement that developed in northern Europe during the renaissance combining classical learning with the goal of reforming the catholic church

Mercenary

a professional soldier hired by a foreign army

Inflation

a rapid increase in prices.

Indulgence

a release from all or part of punishment for sin by the Catholic Church, reducing time in purgatory after death. Churches at the time were practicing using relics like a saint's clothing to gain indulgence. An indulgence was a document sold by the Church and signed by the pope or a church official that released people from punishment for sin. People started going on pilgrimages to receive indulgences and salvation

Niccolo Machiavelli

a statesman of Florence who advocated a strong central government (1469-1527). He wrote the Prince. The book talked about the issue of how to get and keep political power. He dedicated his study of practical policies to the grandson of Lorenzo de Medici. he offered him rules on how to govern.

Enlightened absolutism

a system in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers

Rationalism

a system of thought expounded by Rene Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge

Scientific method

a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world

John Wesley

an Anglican minister who created Methodism. he had a mystical experience in which "the gift of God's grace: assured him of salvation. He then became missionary who brought the English people "glad tidings of salvation. Many people had conversion experiences over his sermons. He believed that the slave trade should be abolished. After he died, Methodism became a separate Protestant group.

Mannerism

an artistic movement that emerged in Italy in the 1520s and 1530s; it marked the end of the Renaissance by breaking down the principles of balance, harmony, and moderation

Rococo

an artistic style that replaced baroque in the 1730s; it was highly secular, emphasizing grace, charm, and gentle action

Deism

an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law

Humanism

an intellectual movement of the Renaissance based on the study of the humanities, which included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history.

Predestination

belief that God has determined in advance who will be saved and who will be damned.

Wittenberg

city in which Luther nailed his ninety five these on the church door

Annul

declare invalid

Ghetto

formerly a district in a city in which Jews were required to live

King Philip IV (Spain)

he tried to revive Spain, through reform of Catholic Church and centralization, but was unsuccessful because of the power and number of aristocrats who resisted, internal revolts, and failed military campaigns. His reign. came the closest to the practice of absolute monarchy. Expensive military campaigns led to revolts and the decline of Spain as a great power.

Peter Paul Reubens

is the most famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo in Italy and took that Renaissance style to the next level of drama, motion, color, religion and animation, which is portrayed in his paintings

The Jesuits

members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola. The Jesuits took a special vow of absolute obedience to the pope. They used education to spread their message and established schools. They also restored Catholicism in parts of Germany and spread it to other parts of the world. Supported education. were run like a military organization. Their goal was to combat the Protestant Reformation.

Heretic

one who does not conform to established doctrine.

Fresco

painting done on fresh, wet plaster with water-based paints.

Natural rights

rights with which all humans are born, including the rights to life, liberty, and property

Heliocentric

sun-centered; the system of the universe in which the Earth and planets revolve around the sun.

Francis I (France)

supported the Renaissance movement, 1st Renaissance king of France, controlled large parts of the French Church, prevented the Reformation movement of France

Divine rights of kings

the belief that the king gets his power from God and not from his subjects.

Social contract

the concept that an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will and all individuals should be forced to abide by it since it represents what is best for the entire community

Laissez-faire

the concept that the state should not impose government regulations but should leave the economy alone

Inductive reasoning

the doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test hypotheses or theories, a process that will lead to correct general principles

Salons

the elegant urban drawing rooms where, in the 18th century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes

Zurich

the largest city in Switzerland

The Peace of Westphalia

the peace treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648. It gave Sweden, France, and their allies new territories, it also divided the 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire into independent states. Each had the freedom to determine their own religion and conduct foreign policy.

The Restoration

the period of Charles II's rule over England, after the collapse of Oliver Cromwell's government

Counter-Reformation

the reaction of the Roman Catholic Church to the Reformation reaffirming the veneration of saints and the authority of the Pope (to which Protestants objected)

Lutheranism

the religious doctrine that Martin Luther developed; it differed from Catholicism in the doctrine of salvation, which Luther believed could be achieved b y faith alone, not by good works; Lutheranism was the first Protestant faith.