Research Methods Chapter 4
the 7 criteria
-minimization of risk to participants -reasonable risk in relation to benefits -equitable selection -informed consent -documentation of informed consent -data monitoring -privacy and confidentiality
safeguards against fraud
-replication -peer review -consequences are a deterrent
random process
A procedure that produces one outcome from a set of possible outcomes. The outcome must be unpredictable each time, and the process must guarantee that each of the possible outcomes is equally likely to occur.
APA ethics code
Ethical guidelines for the use and treatment of human participants in research expanded periodically ten ethical standards for research
IACUC
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviews research w nonhuman subjects
IRB
Institutional Review Board each institution is required to establish an IRB composed of scientists and nonscientists examines proposed research involving humans 7 criteria
fraud in science
The explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data
proportionate stratified sampling
The population is subdivided into strata Number of participants from each stratum is selected randomly The proportions in the sample correspond to the proportions in the population Guarantees the sample will be perfectly representative of the population Some strata may have limited representation in the sample
why do researchers commit fraud
To remain competitive in their academic environment Concern that if their research is not published, they may fail to earn tenure ("publish or perish")
combined strategy sampling
Two or more sampling strategies are combined to select participants optimizes the chances that a sample is representative of a widely dispersed or broad based population ex political poll
The Nuremberg Code
a list of 10 guidelines for research on humans came out of WW11 and Nazis
biased sample
a sample w different characteristics from those in the population
what example violates the ethical guidelines concerning deception
administering shocks without giving participants advanced warning and obtaining consent
the tuskegee study
an unethical study about syphilis in which subjects were denied treatment so that the effects of the disease could be studied
sample size
at least 30 per group/condition is a good standard
what is an ethical principle identified in the Belmont Report
beneficence
IRB categories
category 1- except review no possible risk, anonymous mailed in surveys, no informed consent category 2- expedited review, not more than minimal risk, no deception, need oral consent only, classroom research category 3- full review, IRb must meet and researcher too
concerns about simple random sampling
chance determines each selection it is possible to obtain a distorted sample additional restrictions on random sampling techniques can help avoid a non representative sampling
clinical equipoise
clinicians have an ethical responsibility to provide the best possible treatment for their patients
a teacher selects rows 5th 6th and 7th
cluster sampling
cluster sampling
clusters (preexisting groups) are randomly selected from a list of all the clusters that exist within the population easy method for obtaining a large, relatively random sample selections are not really random or independent ex instead of selecting 300 students at random, choose 10 classrooms
a researcher describes the unique characteristics of an individual research participant
confidentiality
preschool students and $10 reward
convenience sampling
probability sampling techniques shortcomings
do not guarantee a high degree of representativeness but do make it likely extremely time consuming require a researcher to know the entire population not really used unless its a small population
two basic categories
ensuring the welfare and dignity of participants/subjects accuracy in the reporting of research results
systematic sampling
every nth participant is selected from a list containing the total population random starting position is chosen violates the principle of independence ensures a high degree of representativeness
it is always necessary to have 25-30 participants in a study
false
it is widely considered ethical to coerce participants to participate in a study if the research findings could be very beneficial to society
false
one safeguard against fraud is review by the IRB
false
research studies consistently demonstrate that debriefing participants effectively eliminates the problems caused by deception
false
when the goal of the research study is to describe and compare different subgroups in a known population the best strategy is to use proportionate stratified random sampling
false
simple random sampling is least likely to
guarantee that the sample will be representative and unbiased
the Belmont Report
identifies three basic ethical principles for protecting human subjects informed consent, do no harm and justice and fairness in procedures for selecting participants
convenience sampling
individual participants are obtained by selecting those who are available and willing an easy method for obtaining a sample but probably biased a weak form of sampling researcher makes no attempt to know the population or to use a random process in selection
national research act
mandated regulations for the protection of human participants
deception
may be allowed in two forms passive deception (omission): withholding info about the study, keeping secrets active deception: deliberately presenting false or misleading information about the study need to be debriefed (commission)
in research with animals researchers are
must make reasonable efforts to minimize discomfort and pain in the animals
US Surgeon General
orders federally funded research proposals from the Public Health service to be reviewed for ethical treatment of subjects
simple random sampling
participants are selected from a list containing the total population each individual has an equal chance of selection independence: choice of one individual does not influence or bias the probability of choosing another individual
Declaration of Helinski
provided international ethical guidelines for medical research considered the cornerstone document on human research ethics
what element if part of the apa ethical guidelines
researchers must perform research in their area of expertise
what are two principal methods of random sampling?
sampling with replacement and sampling without replacement
studies involving deception
should not be done if the deception involves concealing possible harm
milligrams obedience study
sought to discover how far subjects would go in order to obey an authority figure
quota sampling is similar to
stratified sampling
quota sampling
subgroups are identified to be included quotas are established for individuals to be selected through convenience from each subgroup allows a researcher to control the composition of the convenience sample
zimbardo study
subjects adopted role of prisoner or guard study had to be prematurely ended
informed consent
subjects must be informed of all available information about the study so they can make a rational decision to participate or not
no harm
subjects must be protected from physical or psychological harm
three levels of sampling
target population-> accessible population-> the sample
probability sampling
the entire population is known and it must be possible to list all the individuals , each individual in the population has a specifiable probability of selection, and sampling occurs by a random process based on the probabilities
a cluster sample not a true random sample bc
the individuals within each group are not independent
law of large numbers
the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population
stratified random sampling
the population is divided into subgroups (strata) and equal numbers are randomly selected from each of the subgroups guarantees that each subgroup will have an adequate representation overall sample is usually not representative of the population ex subgroups from incomes, each subgroup could have more people in it so not adequately represented
nonprobability sampling
the population is not completely known, individual probabilities cannot be known, and the sampling method is based on factors such as common sense or ease, with an effort to maintain representativeness and avoid bias
what are research ethics?
the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies guided by the APA
ethics
the study of proper actions
plagiarism
the unethical representation of someone else's ideas or words as ones own changing a few words but keeping the structure the same is plagiarism only way not to be plagiarism is by rephrasing in your own words w a new structure and citation
according to APA guidelines it is unethical to offer to pay participants an exorbitant amount of money
true
an artifact such as demand characteristics can threaten both the internal and external validity of a research study
true
one advantage of simple random sampling with replacement is that the likelihood of selecting one specific individual does not depend on which other individuals are selected for the sample
true
the downside of proportionate stratified sampling is that it can be impossible to compare or generalize about some smaller subgroups in a population
true
using a simple random eliminates bias from the selection process
true
researchers use nonhuman subjects to
understand animals for their own sake understand humans via generalization from animals conduct research that is impossible to conduct on human subjects
if individuals are pressured into participating bc the researcher is in a position of power
violating informed consent
confidentiality
your data should be confidential ensured through anonymity this includes attitudes and opinions measures of performance demographics
