Research Methods Exam 1 (Ch. 1-5)

step #8 in the research process: evaluate the data

-once the data has been collected, you must use various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data -this involves drawing graphs, computing means or correlations to describe your data, and using inferential statistics to help determine whether the results from your specific participants can be generalized to the rest of the population

clinical equipoise

-one area of current debate concerning the ethical issue of no harm -the basic concept is that clinicians have an ethical responsibility to provide the best possible treatment for their patients -the solution is to conduct studies that only compare equally preferred treatments -a researcher can only compare treatments when: 1) there is honest uncertainty about which treatment is best 2) there is honest professional disagreement among experts concerning which treatment is best

multiple measures related to the measurement process

-one method of obtaining a more complete measure of a construct is to use 2 (or more) different procedures to measure the same variable -ex: we could record both heart rate and behavior as a measure of fear -the advantage to this technique is that it usually provides more confidence in validity of the measurements -one disadvantage with this measure involves the statistical analysis and interpretation of the results. although there are statistical techniques for evaluating multivariate data, they are complex and not well understood by many researchers -another problem is that the 2 measures may not behave in the same way -ex: a therapy program for treating fear, may produce an immediate and large effect on behavior but no effect on heart rate -one way to limit problems is to combine them into a single score for each individual

step #4 in the research process: identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment

-one part of the research study design is to decide exactly what kind of individuals will participate, determine how many individuals you will need for your research, and plan where and how to recruit them -at this point, it is the responsibility of the researcher to plan for the safety and well-being of the research participants and to inform them of all relevant aspects of the research, especially any risk or danger that may be involved -ethical considerations also include determining the procedure that you will use to recruit participants -must decide whether you will place any restrictions on the characteristics of the participants

biased sample

-one that has characteristics noticeably different from those of the population -threatens representativeness -can occur by chance -ex: if the individuals in a sample are smarter (or older or faster) than the individuals in the population, then the sample is biased -usually result of selection bias

active deception

-or commission -deliberately present false or misleading information -telling lies

passive deception

-or omission -simply withhold information about the study -keeping secrets

replication 1

-or repetition of observation -allows verification of the findings

the relationship between reliability and validity

-partially related and partially independent -related in that reliability is a prerequisite for validity; that is, a measurement procedure cannot be valid unless it is reliable -it is not necessary for a measurement to be valid for it to be reliable -the consistency of measurement is no guarantee of validity

field study

-participants are observed in their natural environment and are much less likely to know that they are being investigated -hence, they are less reactive

construct validity

-past research has demonstrated how the specific variable behaves -to establish this, we must demonstrate that measurements of a variable behave in exactly the same way as the variable itself -ex: because aggression increases as the temperature increases, to help establish construct validity, you would need to demonstrate that the scores you obtain from the measurement procedure also increase as the temperature goes up -b/c new research results are reported every day, construct validity is never established absolutely. instead, it is an ideal or a goal that develops gradually from the results of many research studies that examine the measurement procedure in a wide variety of situations --requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself

confederates

-people who pretend to be participants in a research study but actually work for the researcher -used for active deception

common sources of research topics

-personal interests and curiosities -casual observation -reports of others' observations -practical problems or questions -behavioral theories

how to get started in research

-pick a topic you are interested in -do your homework -keep an open mind -focus, focus, focus -take one step at a time

debriefing

-post-experimental explanation of the purpose of a study that is given to a participant, especially if deception was used -the intent is to counteract or minimize harmful effects

the method component of a research article

-presents details concerning the participants and the procedures used in the study -content: participants, procedure -critical evaluation questions: if participants were restricted (ex: males only), is it justified?; would different participants produce different results?; are there any alternative ways to define and measure the variables?; could alternative procedures be used?

results component of a research article

-presents the details of the statistical analysis and usually is not important for generating a new research idea -content: statistics (descriptive and inferential) -critical evaluation questions: were the appropriate statistics used?; exactly what is significant and what is not?; are the effects large enough to be meaningful?

MEDLINE with Full Text database

-provides the authoritative medical information on medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the health care system, and pre-clinical sciences -provides full text for more than 1,470 journals

common rule

-published in 1991, based on the principles of the Belmont Report and provides a common set of federal regulations for protecting human participants to be used by review boards -each institution or agency is required to establish a committee called an institutional review board (IRB)

demand characteristic

-refers to any of the potential cues or features of a study that: 1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is 2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way -the combination of demand characteristics and participant reactivity can change participants' normal behavior and thereby influence the measurements they produce

replication 2

-repetition of a research study using the same basic procedures used in the original -either the replication supports the original study by duplicating the original results, or it casts doubt on the original study by demonstrating that the original result is not easily repeated -safeguard against fraud

constructs or hypothetical constructs

-research variables, particularly variables of interest to behavioral scientists, are in fact hypothetical entities created from theory and speculation -hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that can help explain and predict behavior in a theory

deception

-researcher's want to examine behavior under "normal circumstances". to do this, they sometimes do not tell participants the true purpose of the study

the Nuremberg Code

-resulted from the trials of the brutal Nazi experimenters -a set of 10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants in research -laid the groundwork for the ethical standards that are in place today in research

step #9 in the research process: report the results

-results must be public -a written report describing what was done, what was found, and how the findings were interpreted -2 reasons for doing this: 1) the results become part of the general knowledge base that other people can use to answer questions or to generate new research ideas 2) the research procedure can be replicated or refuted by other researchers

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

-reviews all research involving human participants -composed of both scientists and nonscientists -examines all proposed research involving human participants with respect to 7 basic criteria

difference between science and pseudoscience #3: evolving

-science actively tests and challenges its own theories, and adapts the theories when new evidence appears -as a result, scientific theories are constantly evolving -pseudoscience tends to ignore non-supporting evidence and treats criticism as a personal attack -as a result, pseudoscientific theories tend to be stagnant and remain unchanged year after year

difference between science and pseudoscience #2: science objectives

-science demands an objective and unbiased evaluation of all the available evidence -pseudoscience, tends to rely on subjective evidence such as testimonials and anecdotal reports of success -pseudoscience also tends to focus on a few selected examples of success and to ignore instances of failure

difference between science and pseudoscience #4: grounding

-scientific theories are grounded in past science -a scientific system for teaching communication skills to autistic children is based on established theories of learning and uses principles that have solid empirical support -pseudoscience tends to create entirely new disciplines and techniques that are unconnected to established theories and empirical evidence

step #1 in the research process: find a research idea

-select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question -typically involves 2 parts: 1) selecting a general topic area (ex: human development, perception, social interaction, etc.) 2) reviewing the literature in that area to identify the relevant variables and find an unanswered question -as you become familiar with an area of research, you will learn the different variables that are being investigated and get some ideas about how those variables are related to each other ----at this point, you should be looking for an unanswered research question

searching for primary sources

-start with a secondary source and use the chapter headings and subheadings to find a topic -make note of subject words: researchers often develop a specific set of terms to describe a topic area and it is much easier to locate related research articles if you use the correct terms -make note of author names: if you repeatedly encounter the same names, make note of these individuals as the current leading researchers in the area

types and measures of reliability

-successive measurements: test-retest reliability; parallel-forms reliability -simultaneous measurements: inter-rater reliability -internal consistency: split-half reliability

peer-review

-takes place when a researcher submits a research article for publication -in a typical process, the editor of the journal and a few experts in the field review the paper in extreme detail -primary purpose is to evaluate the quality of the research study and the contribution it makes to scientific knowledge

summary of nonscientific methods of acquiring knowledge

-tenacity: from habit or superstition -intuition: from a hunch or feeling -authority: from an expert -rationalism: from reasoning; a logical conclusion -empiricism: from direct sensory observation

PsycINFO database

-the APA's definitive resource for abstracts of scholarly journal articles, book chapters, books, and dissertations -contains over 3 million items selected from nearly 2,500 periodicals -99% of its content is peer-reviewed

PsycARTICLES database

-the APA's definitive source of full-text, peer-reviewed scholarly and scientific articles in psychology -contains more than 163,000 articles from more than 80 journals published by the APA

ERIC database

-the Education Resource Information Center, provides access to education literature and resources -contains more than 1.3 million records and links to more than 323,000 full-text documents dating back to 1966

interval and ratio scales

-the categories on this scale are organized sequentially, and all categories are the same size -the scale of measurement consists of a series of equal intervals like the inches on a ruler -examples include the measures of time in seconds, weight in pounds, and temperature in degrees -in each case, the interval is the same size, (one second, one inch, one pound, one degree) no matter where it is located on the scale

the ordinal scale

-the categories that make up this scale have different names and are organized sequentially -often consists of a series of ranks (first, second, third, etc.) -occasionally the categories are identified by verbal labels such as small, medium, and large drink sizes at a fast-food restaurant -the fact that the categories form an ordered sequence means there is a directional relationship between categories -with this scale, we can determine whether two individuals are different, and we can determine the direction of difference -do not allow us to determine the magnitude of the difference between 2 individuals -examples include socioeconomic class (upper, middle, lower) and t-shirt sizes -often used to measure variables for which it is difficult to assign numerical scores -tells us only the direction of the difference (which is more and which is less)

the nominal scale

-the categories that make up this scale simply represent qualitative (not quantitative) differences in a variable measured -the categories have different names but are not related to each other in any systematic way -ex: if you were measuring academic majors for a group of college students, the categories would be art, chemistry, english, history, psychology, etc. -this scale allows us to determine whether two individuals are different, but they do not permit any quantitative comparison -other examples include classifying people by race, gender, or occupation -can tell us only that a difference exists

correlations

-the consistency of a relationship can be determined by computing a correlation between the 2 measures -the numerical value of the correlation (independent of the sign) describes the consistency of the relationship by measuring the degree to which the data points form a straight line -often used to determine the degree of validity for a measurement procedure -commonly used to determine the degree of reliability for a measure

inter-rater reliability

-the degree of agreement between the 2 observers -can be measured by computing the correlation between the scores from the 2 observers, or by computing a percentage of agreement between the 2 observers

probability sampling

-the odds of selecting a particular individual are known and can be calculated -ex: 1/100 chance of being selected -3 conditions: 1) the exact size of the population must be known and it must be possible to list all of the individuals 2) each individual in the population must have a specified probability of selection 3) when a group of individuals are all assigned the same probability, the selection process must be unbiased so that all group members have an equal chance of being selected. selection must be a random process -requires extensive knowledge of the population. specifically, must be able to list all of the individuals. in most cases, this info is not available to a researcher. as a result, probability sampling is rarely used for research in behavioral sciences -have a very good chance of producing a representative sample because they tend to rely on a random selection process

nonprobability sampling

-the odds of selecting a particular individual are not known because the researcher does not know the population size and cannot list the members of the population -ex: a researcher who wants to study the behavior of preschool children may go to a local child-care center where a group of children is already assembled -has a greater risk of producing a biased sample than probability sampling

participant changes as a common source of error

-the participant can change between measurements -a person's degree of focus and attention can change quickly and can have a dramatic effect on measures of reaction time -such changes may cause the obtained measurements to differ, producing what appear to be inconsistent or unreliable measurements

some things that seem to influence a debriefing's effectiveness include

-the participants' suspicions (how likely they are to think the debriefing is merely a continuation of the deception) -the nature of the deception (whether it was passive or active; debriefing is less effective with active deception) -the sincerity of the experimenter (the last thing a participant needs is a condescending experimenter) -the time interval between the end of the study and the delivery of the debriefing (the sooner the better)

confidentiality

-the practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study -2 strategies: 1) no names or other identification appear on data records 2) researchers use a coding system to keep track of which participant names go with which sets of data

law of large numbers

-the principle of the simple observation that a large sample is probably more representative than a small sample -in the field of statistics, this principle states that the larger the sample size, the more likely it is that values obtained from the sample are similar to the actual values for the population -the bigger the sample, the more accurately it represents the population -b/c there is only a limited benefit from increasing sample size beyond 25 or 30, researchers often use this sample size as a goal when planning research

inductive reasoning aka induction

-the process of generalization that reaches far beyond the actual observations and is an almost automatic human response -involves reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples -involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations -ex: you taste a green apple and discover that it is sour. a second green apple is also sour, and so is the third. soon, you reach the general conclusion that all green apples are sour. in this ex., you tasted only 3 apples, and yet you reached a conclusion about the millions of other green apples that exist in the world (going beyond observations) -uses specific examples to generate general conclusions or hypotheses

split-half reliability

-the process of internal consistence results in a measure of split-half reliability -there are many different ways to divide a set of items in half prior to computing split-half reliability, and the value you obtain depends on the method you use to split the items -obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the 2 scores for a group of participants

consistent positive relationship between 2 measurements

-the relationship is described as positive because the two measurements change together in the same direction -ex: people who score high on the first measurement (toward the right of the graph) also tend to score high on the second measurement (toward the top of the graph) -produces a correlation of +1.00

test-retest reliability

-the reliability estimate obtained by comparing the scores obtained from 2 successive measurements -a researcher may use exactly the same measurement procedure for the same group of individuals at 2 different times -a successive measurement

qualitative research

-the result of this research is typically a narrative report (a written discussion of the observations) -involves careful observation of participants (often including interaction with participants), usually accompanied by extensive note taking -the observations and notes are then summarized in a narrative report that attempts to describe and interpret the phenomenon being studied

principle #2 of the scientific method: science is public

-the scientific method makes observations available for evaluation by others, especially other scientists -other individuals should be able to repeat the same step-by-step process that led to the observations so that they can replicate the observations for themselves

step #1 of the scientific method: observe behavior or other phenomena

-the scientific method often begins with casual or informal observations -simply observe the world around you until some behavior or event catches your attention -at this stage in the process, people commonly tend to generalize beyond the actual observations

scale of measurement

-the set of categories used for classification -involves 2 components: a set of categories and a procedure for assigning individuals to categories -4 types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio -the differences among these 4 types are based on the relationships that exist among the categories that make up the scales

sample

-the small set of individuals who participate in the study -chosen from a population and intended to represent that population -the goal of the research study is to examine the sample, then generalize the results to the entire population

simple random sampling

-the starting point for most probability sampling techniques -requires that each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected -requires that each selection is independent of the others. meaning that the choice of one individual does not influence or bias the probability of choosing another individual -2 principle methods: sampling with replacement & sampling without replacement

consistent negative relationship

-the two measures change in opposite directions so that people who score high on one measure tend to score low on the other -ex: we could measure performance on a math test by counting the number of correct answers (measure 1) or by counting the number of errors (measure 2). these 2 measures should be negatively related -produces a correlation of -1.00

concurrent validity

-the validity of a new measurement is established by demonstrating that the scores obtained from the new measurement technique are directly related to the scores obtained from another, better-established procedure for measuring the same variable -establishes consistency between 2 different procedures for measuring the same variable, suggesting that the two measurement procedures measure the same thing -demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable

subject roles or subject role behaviors

-the ways of responding to experimental cues based on whatever the participants judge to be an appropriate role in the situation -includes: 1) the good subject role 2) the negativistic subject role 3) the apprehensive subject role 4) the faithful subject role

predictive validity

-theories predict how different values of a construct affect behavior -when the measurements of a construct accurately predict behavior (according to the theory) -demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory

the apprehensive subject role

-these participants are overly concerned that their performance in the study will be used to evaluate their abilities or personal characteristics -they try to place themselves in a desirable light by responding in a socially desirable fashion instead of truthfully

the faithful subject role

-these participants attempt to follow instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any suspicions they have about the purpose of the study -2 types of participants take on this role: those who want to help science and know they should not allow their suspicions to enter into their responses, and those who are simply apathetic and do not give the study much thought -these are the participants researchers want in studies!

step #6 in the research process: select a research design

-this involves making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study -ex: does your research question call for the detailed examination of one individual, or would you find a better answer by looking at the average behavior of a large group? -answering these questions will help you determine a specific design for the study

principle method of random sampling #2: sampling without replacement

-this method removes each selected individual from the population before the next selection is made -although the probability of being selected changes with each selection, this method guarantees that no individual appears more than once in a single sample

principle method of random sampling #1: sampling with replacement

-this method requires that an individual selected for the sample be recorded as a sample member and then returned to the population (replaced) before the next selection is made -ensures that the probability of selection remains constant throughout a series of selections

step #2 of the scientific method: form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)

-this step in the process usually begins by identifying other factors, or variables, that are associated with your observation -ex: what other variables are associated with pain and swearing?

quantitative research

-this type of research examines variables that typically vary in quantity (size, magnitude, duration, or amount) -part of the research process involves using different methods for measuring variables to determine how much, how big, or how strong they are -the results, or data, obtained from these measurements are usually numerical scores that can be summarized, analyzed, and interpreted using standard statistical procedures

representative sample

-to generalize the results of a study to a population, the researcher must select this sample -the ability to generalize the results from a research study may be limited by the specific characteristics of the accessible population -major threat to this is bias

discussion component of a research article

-typically begins by summarizing the results of the study, stating the conclusions, and noting any potential applications -content: results related to hypothesis; justified conclusions; alternative explanations; applications; limits to generalization -critical evaluation questions: do the results really support (or refute) the hypothesis?; are the conclusions justified by the results?; are alternative conclusions/explanations possible?; would other variables affect the results?; do the results have real-world applications?; is there reason to suspect that the same results would not occur outside the lab?; would the same results be expected with different participants or under different circumstances?

World War 2 research

-until the end of WW2, researchers established their own ethical standards and safeguards for human participants in their research -it was assumed that researchers would protect their participants from harm

step #3 of the scientific method: use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction

-usually, this step involves taking the hypothesis and applying it to a specific, observable, real-world situation -ex: for a hypothesis stating that swearing reduces the experience of pain, one prediction is that participants should be less responsive to occasional painful stimuli when they are swearing than when they are not swearing. -notice that a single hypothesis can lead to several different prediction and that each prediction refers to a specific situation or an event that can be observed and measured

2 general criteria for evaluating the quality of any measurement procedure

-validity and reliability -validity and reliability are often defined and measured by the consistency of the relationship between 2 sets of measurements -established by demonstrating the consistency of a relationship between 2 different measurements

ratio scale 0 point

-the difference between interval and ratio is the definition of the 0 point -characterized by a 0 point that is not an arbitrary location -instead, the value 0 on a ratio scale is a meaningful point representing none (a complete absence) of the variable being measured -the existence of an absolute, non-arbitrary 0 point means that we can measure the absolute amount of the variable; that is, we can measure the distance from 0 -ex: someone who requires 10 seconds to solve a problem (10 more than 0) has taken twice as much time as someone who finishes in only 5 seconds (5 more than 0) -with a ratio scale, we can measure the direction and magnitude of the difference between measurements and describe differences in terms of ratios -include physical measures such as height and weight, as well as variables such as reaction time or number of errors on a test -allows us to determine the direction, the magnitude, and the ratio of the difference

parallel-forms reliability

-when different versions of the instrument are used for the test and the retest -typically, reliability is determined by computing a correlation to measure the consistency of the relationship between the 2 sets of scores -a successive measurement

simultaneous measurements

-when measurements are obtained by direct observation of behaviors, it is common to use two or more separate observers who simultaneously record measurements -each individual records (measures) what she observes, and the degree of agreement between the 2 observers is the inter-rater reliability

floor effect in research

-when the measurement procedure range is clustering at the low end of the scale -the clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value

ceiling effect in research

-when the measurement procedure range is restricted at the high end -the clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value

steps in the process of simple random sampling

1) clearly define the population from which you want to select a sample 2) list all the members of the population 3) use a random process to select individuals from the list

steps in the research process

1) come up with a research idea 2) transform your research idea into a hypothesis 3) specifies how the variables will be defined and measured 4) identifies the individuals who will participate in the study, describes how they will be selected, and provides for their ethical treatment

interval scale 0 point

-the difference between interval and ratio is the definition of the 0 point -for an interval scale it has an arbitrary zero point. that is, the value 0 is assigned to a particular location on the scale simply as a matter of convenience or reference. specifically, a value of 0 does not indicate the total absence of the variable being measured ---ex: a temp of 0 degrees does not mean there is no temperature, and it does not prohibit the temperature from going even lower -allows us to determine the direction and the magnitude of a difference

methods of acquiring knowledge

-the different ways in which a person can know things or the methods that people use to discover answers to questions -includes: the method of tenacity, the method of intuition, the method of authority, the rational method, and the method of empiricism

observer error

-the individual who makes the measurements can introduce simple human error into the measurement process -imagine 4 people using handheld stopwatches to record the winner's time in a 100-meter dash. in this situation, it is highly likely that the 4 people will obtain 4 different times. to some extent, the time that each person records is influenced by that person's judgment of when the race started and ended, and that person's reflex time to push the buttons on the watch

cluster sampling

-the individuals in the population are already clustered in preexisting groups, and a researcher can randomly select groups instead of selecting individuals -advantages: 1) it is a relatively quick and easy way to obtain a large sample 2) the measurement of individuals can often be done in groups, which can greatly facilitate the entire research project -disadvantage: it can raise concerns about the independence of the individual scores

desynchrony

-the lack of agreement between two measures -can confuse the interpretation of results (did the therapy reduce fear?) -may be caused by the fact that one measure is more sensitive than the other, or it may indicate that different dimensions of the variable change at different times during treatment (behavior may change quickly, but the physiological aspects of fear take more time)

accessible population

-the local clients from which the sample is selected -ex: a researcher would have access to the many local clinics and agencies that treat clients with eating disorders. these local clients became the accessible population

deductive reasoning aka deduction

-the logical process (the rational method) used to make the prediction -we begin with a general statement and then make specific deductions -uses general conclusions to generate specific predictions -complementary with induction

operational definition

-the method of defining and measuring a construct -researchers often refer to this process as operationalizing a construct -a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly -specifies a measurement procedure (set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior, and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct -these definitions can also be used as a basis for measuring variables, they also can be used to define variables to be manipulated

convenience sampling

-the most commonly used sampling method -researchers simply use as participants those individuals who are easy to get -people are selected on the basis of their availability and willingness to respond -considered a weak form of sampling because the researcher makes no attempt to know the population or to use a random process in selection -the researcher exercises very little control over the representativeness of the sample and, therefore, there is a strong possibility that the obtained sample is biased

the steps in the research process

1) find a research idea 2) form a hypothesis 3) determine how you will define and measure your variables 4) identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment 5) select a research strategy 6) select a research design 7) conduct the study 8) evaluate the date 9) report the results 10) refine or reformulate your research idea

limitations of operational definitions

1) it is easy for operational definitions to leave out important components of a construct. one way to reduce this problem is to include or more different procedures to measure the same variable -ex: it is possible to define depression in terms of behavioral symptoms (social withdrawal, insomnia, etc.) however, behavior represents only a part of the total construct. depression includes cognitive and emotional components that are not included in a totally behavioral definition 2) definitions often include extra components that are not part of the construct being measured

7 basic criteria for the Institutional Review Board (IRB)

1) minimization of risk to participants 2) reasonable risk in relation to benefits 3) equitable selection 4) informed consent 5) documentation of informed consent 6) data monitoring 7) privacy and confidentiality

major elements from the APA Ethical Guidelines concerning human participants in research

1) no harm 2) privacy and confidentiality 3) institutional approval 4) competence 5) record keeping 6) informed consent to research 7) dispensing with informed consent 8) offering inducements for research participation 9) deception in research 10) debriefing

the steps of the scientific method

1) observe behavior or other phenomena 2) form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis) 3) use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction 4) evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations 5) use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

2 basic categories of ethical responsibility

1) responsibility to ensure the welfare and dignity of the individuals, both human and nonhuman, who participate in their research studies 2) responsibility to ensure that public reports of their research are accurate and honest

APA guidelines of responsibility for deception in research

1) the deception must be justified in terms of some significant benefit that outweighs the risk to the participants. the researcher must consider all alternatives to deception and must justify the rejection of any alternative procedures 2) the researcher cannot conceal from the prospective participants information about research that is expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress 3) the researcher must debrief the participants by providing a complete explanation as soon as possible after participation is completed

3 basic principles of the Belmont Report

1) the principle of respect for persons requires that individuals should consent to participate in studies and those who cannot give their consent, such as children, people with diminished abilities, and prisoners, need to be protected 2) the principle of beneficence requires that the researcher not harm the participants, minimize risks, and maximize possible benefits 3) the principle of justice requires fairness in procedures for selecting participants

2 basic goals of a literature search

1) to gain a general familiarity with the current research in your specific area of interest 2) to find a small set of research studies that will serve as the bases for your own research idea

screening articles during a literature search

1) use the title as your first bases 2) use the abstract to determine whether the article itself is really relevant 3) skim through the introductory paragraphs and the discussion section 4) then read the article carefully 5) use the references from the articles you have found to expand your literature search

ethical principles dictate:

1) what measurement techniques may be used for certain individuals and certain behaviors 2) how researchers select individuals to participate in studies 3) which research strategies may be used with certain populations and behaviors 4) which research designs may be used with certain populations and behaviors 5) how studies may be carries out with individuals 6) how data are analyzed 7) how results are reported

self-report measure (modality of measurement)

-the most direct way to assess a construct -ex: one option for measuring fear of flying is to ask each participant to describe or to quantify her own fear -the researcher asks the participant to report their own feelings as the data -each individual is in a unique position of self-knowledge and self-awareness; presumably, no one knows more about the individual's fear than the individual -a direct question and its answer also have more validity than measuring other responses influenced by fear -one negative of this measure is it is easy for participants to distort their self-report measures. this undermines the validity of the measurement ---a participant may deliberately lie to create a better self-image, or a response may be influenced subtly by the presence of a researcher, the wording of the questions, etc.

principle #3 of the scientific method: science is objective

-the observations are structured so that the researcher's biases and beliefs do not influence the outcome of the study -the researcher does not let personal feelings contaminate the observations

primary sources

-a firsthand report in which the authors describe their own observations -typically a research report, published in a scientific journal or periodical, in which the authors describe their own research study -includes empirical journal articles, theses and dissertations, and conference presentations of research results -source is primary ONLY if it is FIRSTHAND

logical hypotheses

-a good hypothesis is usually founded in established theories or developed from the results of previous research -specifically, a good hypothesis should be the logical conclusion of a logical argument -the logical argument provides a rationale or justification for your hypothesis, and establishes a connection between your research and the research results that have been obtained by others -ex: premise 1: academic success is highly valued and respected in society (at least by parents and teachers). premise 2: being valued and respected by others contributes to high self-esteem. conclusion (hypothesis): for a specific group of students, higher levels of academic success will be related to higher levels of self-esteem

testable hypotheses

-a hypothesis must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved -in particular, the hypothesis must involve real situations, real events, and real individual -you cannot test a hypothesis that refers to imaginary events or hypothetical situations

refutable hypotheses

-a hypothesis must be possible to obtain research results that are contrary to the hypothesis -often called a falsifiable hypothesis -ex: if the hypothesis states that the treatment will cause an increase in scores, it must be possible for the data to show no increase

positive hypotheses

-a hypothesis must make a positive statement about the existence of something, usually the existence of a relationship, the existence of a difference, or the existence of a treatment effect -the reason a testable hypothesis must make a positive statement affirming existence is based on the scientific process that is used to test the prediction -specifically, the basic nature of science is to assume that something does not exist until there is enough evidence to demonstrate that it actually does exist

non-refutable hypothesis

-a hypothesis that cannot be demonstrated to be false -inappropriate for the scientific method -ex: people occasionally claim to have miraculous or magical powers. however, these powers can only be seen in the presence of true believers. when the magic fails to occur under the watchful eye of scientists, the people

artifacts

-a non-natural feature accidentally introduced into something being observed -in the context of a research study, an artifact is an external factor that may influence or distort the measurements -ex: a doctor who startles you with an ice-cold stethoscope is probably not going to get accurate observations of your heartbeat -threatens the validity of the measurements because you are not really measuring what you intended, and it can be a threat to reliability -experimenter bias and participant reactivity

method of authority (method of acquiring knowledge)

-a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject -this can mean consulting an expert directly or going to a library or a website to read the works of an expert -either way, you are relying on the assumed expertise of another person

the hello-goodbye effect

-a phenomenon observed by clinical psychologists -patients tend to exaggerate their symptoms at the beginning of therapy and to minimize symptoms at the end, probably in an attempt to please the therapist

behavioral measure (modality of measurement)

-a researcher usually develops a specific task in which performance is theoretically dependent on the construct being measured -ex: reaction time could be measured to determine whether a drug affects mental alertness -provide researchers with a vast number of options, making it possible to select the behavior(s) that seems to be best for defining and measuring the construct -ex: the construct "mental alertness" could be operationally defined by behaviors such as reaction time, reading comprehension, logical reasoning ability, etc. -a negative to this measure is a behavior may be only a temporary or situational indicator of an underlying construct

summary of stratified random sampling (probability)

-a sample is obtained by dividing the population into subgroups (strata) and then randomly selecting equal numbers from each of the subgroups -strengths and weaknesses: guarantees that each subgroup will have adequate representation, but the overall sample is usually not representative of the population

summary of quota sampling (nonprobability)

-a sample is obtained by identifying subgroups to be included, then establishing quotas for individuals to be selected through convenience from each subgroup -strengths and weaknesses: allows a researcher to control the composition of a convenience sample, but the sample probably is biased

summary of systematic sampling (probability)

-a sample is obtained by selecting every 'n'th participant from a list containing the total population, after a random start -strengths and weaknesses: an easy method for obtaining an essentially random sample, but the selections are not really random or independent

summary of convenience sampling (nonprobability)

-a sample is obtained by selecting individual participants who are easy to get -strengths and weaknesses: an easy method for obtaining a sample, but the sample is probably biased

summary of proportionate stratified sampling (probability)

-a sample is obtained by subdividing the population into strata and then randomly selecting from each stratum a number of participants so that the proportions in the sample correspond to the proportions in the population -strengths and weaknesses: guarantees that the composition of the sample (in terms of the identified strata) will be perfectly representative of the composition of the population, but some strata may have limited representation in the sample

summary of simple random sampling (probability)

-a sample is obtained using a random process to select participants from a list containing the total population -the random process ensures that each individual has an equal and independent chance of selection -strengths and weaknesses: the selection process is fair and unbiased, but there is no guarantee that the sample is representative

secondary sources

-a secondhand report in which the authors discuss someone else's observations -source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed -examples include: 1) books and textbooks in which the author describes and summarizes past research 2) review articles or meta-analyses 3) the introductory section of research reports, in which previous research is presented as a foundation for the current study 4) newspaper and magazine articles that report on previous research -always incomplete and selective

hypothesis

-a statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables -not a final answer but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated -a possible explanation, for your observation -ex: a researcher might hypothesize that there is a relationship between personality characteristics and cigarette smoking -must be testable

double-blind research

-a study in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know the expected results -commonly used in drug studies in which some participants get the real drug and others get a placebo -structured so that neither the researcher nor the participants know exactly who is getting which drug until the study is completed

psuedoscience

-a system of ideas often presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research -theories such as aromatherapy, astrology, etc. -unsupported by empirical evidence

stratified random sampling

-a technique used to accomplish a researcher's goal of ensuring that each of the different subgroups is adequately represented -to obtain this kind of sample, we first identify the specific subgroups (or strata) to be included in the sample -then we select equal-sized random samples from each of the pre-identified subgroups, using the same steps as in simple random sampling -finally, combine the subgroup samples into one overall sample -particularly useful when a researcher wants to describe each individual segment of the population or wants to compare segments -disadvantage: tends to produce a distorted picture of the overall population

difference between science and pseudoscience #1: based on the notion of testable and refutable hypotheses

-a theory is scientific only if it can specify how it can be refuted -the theory must be able to describe exactly what observable findings would demonstrate that it is wrong -in pseudoscience, the typical response to negative results is to discount them entirely or to explain them away without altering the original theory (ex: the therapy is fine, it was simply the application that was flawed)

systematic sampling

-a type of probability sampling similar to simple random -begins by listing all the individuals in the population, then randomly picking a starting point on the list -the sample is then obtained by moving down the list, selecting every 'n'th name -the size of n is calculated by dividing the population size by desired sample size -this technique is less random than simple random sampling because the principle of independence is violated

method of faith (method of acquiring knowledge)

-a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in an authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge -ex: young children tend to have absolute faith in the answers they get from their parents

step #4 of the scientific method: evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations

-after a specific, testable prediction has been made (the rational method), the next step is to evaluate the prediction using direct observation (empiricism) -this is the actual research or data collection phase of the scientific method -the goal is to provide a fair and unbiased test of the research hypothesis by observing whether the prediction is correct

selection bias

-aka sampling bias -means that the sampling procedure favors the selection of some individuals over others -occurs when participants or subjects are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample

sampling methods

-also called sampling techniques or sampling procedures -fall into 2 basic categories: probability sampling and nonprobability sampling

modalities of measurement

-although a construct such as motivation or intelligence is hypothetical and cannot be observed directly, the construct reveals itself in a variety of different external manifestations that can be observed and measured -includes self-report, physiological, and behavioral

environmental changes as a common source of error

-although the goal is to measure the same individual under identical circumstances, this ideal is difficult to attain -often, there are small changes in the environment from one measurement to another, and these small changes can influence the measurements -there are so many environmental variables (such as time of day, temperature, weather conditions, and lighting) that it is essentially impossible to obtain 2 identical environmental conditions

limitations of the rational method (method of acquiring knowledge

-although the logic is sound, there is still a chance that the conclusion is not true -people are not particularly good at logical reasoning (ex: the following argument: all psychologists are human; some humans are women; therefore, some psychologists are women) -the simple fact that most people have difficulty judging the validity of a logical argument means they can easily make mistakes using the rational method

the scientific method

-an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers -the research process that is used by scientists to seek answers to questions -requires that each step in the process of answering a question be clearly defined and publically visible so that others can see and understand exactly what was done and how the answer was obtained -one of the fundamental goals is to produce clear, justified answers to the questions that researchers encounter -a circular process, or a spiral, that repeats over and over, moving higher with each cycle as new knowledge is gained

fraud

-an explicit effort to falsify or misinterpret data -if a researcher makes up or changes data to make it support the hypothesis, this constitutes fraud -the primary cause is the competitive nature of an academic career -the safeguards against fraud: replication and peer-review

error

-an honest mistake that occurs in the research process -many opportunities in research. ex: in collecting data, scoring measures, entering data into the computer, or in publication typesetting -it is the investigator's responsibility to check and double-check the data to minimize the risk of errors

sensitivity in research

-an important concern for any measurement procedure is that the measurements are sensitive enough to respond to the type and magnitude of the changes that are expected -ex: if a medication is expected to have only a small effect on reaction time, then it is essential that time be measured in units small enough to detect the change -in general, if we expect fairly small, subtle changes in a variable, then the measurement procedure must be sensitive enough to detect the changes, and the scale of measurement must have enough different categories to allow discrimination among individuals -one issue occurs when the scores obtained in a study tend to cluster at one end of the measurement scale -ex: a teacher wants to measure reading comprehension in students. if all the students score around 95%, there is no room for improvement

principle #1 of the scientific method: science is empirical

-answers are obtained by making observations -an answer may be "obvious" by common sense, it might be perfectly logical, and experts in the field might support it, but it is not scientifically accepted until it has been empirically demonstrated -the purpose of the observations is to provide an empirical test of a hypothesis -therefore, the observations are structured so that the results either will provide clear support for the hypothesis or will clearly refute the hypothesis

laboratory setting

-any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of science -it can be any room or space that the subject or participant perceives as artificial

the empirical method aka empiricism (method of acquiring knowledge)

-attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience -this method is a product of the empirical viewpoint in philosophy, which holds that all knowledge is acquired through the senses -ex: you can check the oil level in your car by simply looking at the dipstick; you could find out the weight of each student in your class just by having each person step on a scale

physiological measure (modality of measurement)

-bodily reactions basically -ex: fear, reveals itself by increased heart rate and perspiration (measured by galvanic skin response) -other physiological measures involve brain imaging techniques such as PET scanning and magnetic resonance imaging -advantage to these measures is that they are extremely objective. the equipment provides accurate, reliable, and well-defined measurements that are not dependent on subjective interpretation by either the researcher or the participant -disadvantage to these measures is that they typically require equipment that may be expensive or unavailable. plus, the presence of monitoring devices creates an unnatural situation that may cause participants to react differently than they normally would

quota sampling

-can ensure that subgroups are equally represented in a convenience sample -variations of this sampling mimic proportionate stratified sampling -not the same as proportionate stratified and stratified sampling because it does not randomly select individuals from the population. instead, individuals are selected on the bases of convenience within the boundaries set by the quotas

variables

-characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals -ex: the weather, the economy, and your state of health can change from day to day -also, 2 people can be different in terms of personality, intelligence, age, gender, self-esteem, height, weight, etc. -something that can be measured

step #5 in the research process: select a research strategy

-choosing a research strategy involves deciding on the general approach you will take to evaluate your research hypothesis -research strategy choice is usually determined by 1 of 2 factors: 1) the type of question asked: the type of question that you are asking can dictate the specific research strategy that you must use 2) ethics and other constraints: ethical considerations--or other factors, such as equipment availability, limit what you can or cannot do in the laboratory -these factors often can force you to choose one research strategy over another

step #5 of the scientific method: use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

-compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis -to what extent do the observations agree with the predictions? -some agreement indicates support for the original hypothesis, and suggests that you consider making new predictions and testing them -lack of agreement indicates that the original hypothesis was wrong or that the hypothesis was used incorrectly, producing faulty predictions. this suggests that you might revise the hypothesis or reconsider how it was used to generate predictions

research ethics

-concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies' results -researchers are usually governed by a set of ethical guidelines that assist them to make proper decisions and choose proper actions -in psychological research, the American Psychological Association (APA) maintains a set of ethical principles for research

face validity

-concerns the superficial appearance, or face value, of a measurement procedure -does the measurement technique look like it measures the variable that it claims to measure? -based on subjective judgment and is difficult to quantify -sometimes a high level of face validity can create problems: ex: if the purpose of the measurement is obvious, participants in a study can see exactly what is being measured and may adjust their answers to produce a better self-image -researchers often try to disguise the true purpose of measurement devices such as questionnaires, deliberately trying to create a measurement technique that has very little face validity -an unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure

ways to reduce the effects of reactivity

-conduct a field study and observe and measure individuals without their awareness -disguise or conceal the measurement process -suggest (subtly or openly) that the participant is performing one task when, in fact, we are observing and measuring something else -the most direct strategy is to reassure participants that their performance or responses are completely confidential and anonymous, and encourage them to make honest, natural responses

APA Ethics Code

-contains 10 ethical standards -intended to provide guidance for psychologists and standards of professional conduct that can be applied by the APA and by other bodies that choose to adopt them

consent form

-contains a statement of all the elements of informed consent and a line for the participant's and/or guardian's signature -the form is provided before the study so the potential participants have all the information they need to make an informed decision regarding participation

database

-contains about one million publications, or records, that are all cross-referenced by subject words and author names -some are full-text, others are only a brief summary of each publication -not full-text databases tend to provide more complete coverage of a topic area and, therefore, increases the likelihood that you will find publications related to your research topic

purposes of debriefing

-conveying what the study was really all about, if deception was used -counteracting or minimizing any negative effects of the study -conveying the educational objective of the research (explaining the value of the research and the contribution to science of participation in the research) -explaining the nature of and justification for any deception used -answering any questions the participant has

target population

-defined by the researcher's specific interests -individuals typically share 1 characteristic -not easily available -ex: all children of divorced parents, all elementary school-aged children, and all adolescents diagnosed with bulimia

limitations of the empirical method aka empiricism (method of acquiring knowledge)

-direct sensory experience can deceive us (it is fairly common for people to misperceive or misinterpret the world around them -although direct experience seems to be a simple way to obtain answers, your perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs -as a result, two observers can witness exactly the same event and yet "see" two completely different things -it's possible to make accurate observations but then misinterpret what you see -usually time consuming and sometimes dangerous

introduction component of a research article

-discusses previous research that forms the foundation for the current research study and presents a clear statement of the problem being investigated -content: literature review, hypothesis or purpose for study, specific prediction from hypothesis -critical evaluation questions: is the review complete and up to date?; are relevant or related topics not covered?; is the hypothesis clearly stated?; is the hypothesis directly related to the reviewed literature?; does the predicted outcome logically follow from the hypothesis?; can other specific predictions be made?

full-text databases

-each record is a complete, word-for-word copy of the original publication -because it requires more space to store each item, it often contains fewer items than other databases -students are recommended to use a database that is not full-text to obtain more complete coverage of a topic area

category 1 research proposals

-exempt review -if the research presents no possible risk to adult participants -ex: anonymous, mailed surveys on innocuous topics and anonymous observation of public behavior

category 2 research proposals

-expedited review -if the research presents no more than minimal risk to participants, and typically includes research on individual or group behavior of normal adults when there is no psychological intervention or deception -oral informed consent is required, not written -ex: classroom research projects

step #7 in the research process: conduct the study

-finally ready to collect data -now you must decide whether the study will be conducted in a lab or in the field (in the real world) -in addition, you must now implement all your earlier decisions about manipulating, observing, measuring, controlling, and recording the different aspects of your study

validity

-for evaluating a measurement procedure, you must demonstrate that the measurement procedure is actually measuring what it claims to be measuring -especially important whenever an operational definition is used to measure a hypothetical construct -includes face validity, concurrent validity, predictive validity, construct validity, and convergent and divergent validity

category 3 research proposals

-full review -used for research proposals that include any questionable elements such as special populations, unusual equipment or procedures, deception, intervention, or invasive measurements

representativeness

-how accurately we can generalize the results from a given sample to the population depends on this -the degree of representativeness of a sample refers to how closely the sample mirrors or resembles the population

informed consent

-human participants should be given complete information about the research and their roles in it before agreeing to participate -information: it is difficult or impossible to provide participants with complete information about a study. researchers use deception and tell participants what will be done in the study but not why -understanding: simply telling participants about the research does not mean they are informed. make sure the participants actually understand -voluntary participation: the goal of this is that participants should decide to participate of their own free will

reliability

-if the measurement procedure produces identical (or nearly identical) results when it is used repeatedly to measure the same individual under the same conditions -the stability or the consistency of the measurements produced by a specific measurement procedure -ex: if we use an IQ test to measure a person's intelligence today, then use the same test for the same person under similar conditions next week, we should obtain nearly identical IQ scores -the concept is based on the assumption that the variable being measured is stable or constant

step #2 in the research process: form a hypothesis

-if your question concerns the relationship between variables, the next task is to form a hypothesis or a tentative answer to the question -the goal of the research study is to demonstrate that your answer (hypothesis) is correct -the likelihood of a hypothesis being correct is often based on previous research results -if you can make a reasonable argument for your hypothesis, then it is likely that the hypothesis is correct

step #10 in the research process: refine or reformulate your research ideas

-if your results support your original hypothesis, it does not mean you have found a final answer -the new information from your study means that it is now possible to extend your original question into new domains or make the research question more precise -results that support a hypothesis lead to new questions by 1 of 2 routes: 1) test the boundaries of the result: the goal is to determine whether your result extends into other areas 2) refine the original research question: if your results show a relationship between academic success and self-esteem, the next question is, "what causes the relationship?"; what is the underlying mechanism by which success in school translates into higher self-esteem? -one explanation for negative results (results that do not support the hypothesis) is that one of the premises is wrong -the never-ending process of asking questions, gathering evidence, and asking new questions is part of the general scientific method

the National Research Act

-in 1974 congress passed this act that mandates regulations for the protection of human participants and had the department of health, education, and welfare create the national commission for the protection of human subjects of biomedical and behavioral research -the US surgeon general required all institutions receiving federal funding for research from the public health service to review proposed research to safeguard human participants

the Belmont Report

-in 1979, the National Commission published The Belmont Report: ethical principles and guideline for the protection of human subjects of research -summarizes the basic ethical principles identified by the National Commission, which are used as the foundation upon which the federal regulations for protecting human participants are based

premise statements

-in logical reasoning, these statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true -unless both of the premise statements are true, the conclusion is not necessarily true, even in a valid logical argument -the truth of any logical conclusion is founded on the truth of these statements -if any basic assumption or premise is incorrect, then we cannot have any confidence in the truth of the logical conclusion

step 2 in the research process: transform your research idea into a hypothesis

-in most cases, the research idea says that there is a relationship between 2 variables and the hypothesis specifies the nature of the relationship -if the idea is expressed as a research question, then the hypothesis is a tentative answer to the question -eventually, the results from an empirical research study will either provide support for the hypothesis or will refute the hypothesis

accuracy

-in situations in which there is an established standard for measurement units, it is possible to define the accuracy of a measurement process -ex: we have standards that define precisely what is meant by an inch, a pound, a mile, and a second -the accuracy of a measurement is the degree to which the measurement conforms to the established standard -a measurement process can be valid and reliable even if it is not accurate

theories

-in the behavioral sciences, a set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior -help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables -a good theory generates predictions about the behavior -although these mechanisms and elements cannot be seen and are only assumed to exist, we accept them as real because they seem to describe and explain behaviors that we see

population

-in the terminology of research design, the large group of interest to a researcher -huge, containing far too many individuals to measure and study -researcher chooses sample from population

range effects

-includes range effect, ceiling effect, and floor effect -suggest a basic incompatibility between the measurement procedure and the individuals measured -often, the measurement is based on a task that is too easy (thereby producing high scores) or too difficult (thereby producing low scores) for the participants being tested -note that it is not the measurement procedure that is at fault but rather the fact that the procedure is used with a particular group of individuals

method of intuition (method of acquiring knowledge)

-information is accepted as true because it "feels right" -a person relies on hunches and "instinct" to answer questions -when we have no information at all and cannot refer to supporting data or use rational justification, this method is the quickest way to obtain answers -ex: intuition provides answers when we are making personal choices between equally attractive alternatives such as: what should I have for dinner? should I go out tonight or stay in? -the ultimate decision is often determined by what I "feel like" doing -the problem with intuition is that is has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge

summary of cluster sampling (probability)

-instead of selecting individuals, a sample is obtained by randomly selecting clusters (preexisting groups) from a list of all the clusters that exist within the population -strengths and weaknesses: an easy method for obtaining a large, relatively random sample, but the selections are not really random or independent

the components of a research article

-introduction -method -results -discussion -references

convergent validity

-involves creating two different methods to measure the same construct, and then showing that the two measurement procedures produce strongly related scores -the goal is to demonstrate that different measurement procedures "converge"--or join--on the same construct -demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from 2 (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct

divergent validity

-involves demonstrating that we are measuring one specific construct and not combining two different constructs in the same measurement process -the goal is to differentiate between 2 conceptually distinct constructs by measuring both constructs and then showing that there is little or no relationship between the 2 measurements -demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs

method of tenacity (method of acquiring knowledge)

-involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition -based on habit or superstition -ex: "you can't teach an old dog new tricks"; "opposites attract" -the more frequently we are exposed to statements, the more we tend to believe them -one problem with this method is that the information acquired might not be accurate -another problem is that there is no method for correcting erroneous ideas -even in the face of evidence to the contrary, a belief that is widely accepted solely on the basis of tenacity is very difficult to change

the rational method aka rationalism (method of acquiring knowledge)

-involves seeking answers by logical reasoning -we begin with a set of known facts or assumptions and use logic to reach a conclusion or get an answer to a question -*ex*: a psychologist wants to know if her client, Amy, has a fear of darkness. reasoning that might be used: 1) all 3-yr old children are afraid of the dark 2) Amy is a 3-yr old girl 3) therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark -in this argument, the first two sentences are premise statements and the last sentence is a logical conclusion based on the premises -answers obtained by this method must satisfy the standards established by the rules of logic before they are accepted as true -because this method does not involve directly observing or actively gathering information, it has been said that logic is a way of establishing truth in the absence of evidence

limitations of the method of authority (method of acquiring knowledge)

-it does not always provide accurate information (ex: authorities can be biased -the answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather than true expert knowledge -we assume, by virtue of the person's status as an authority, that expertise can be generalized to include the question we are asking -people often accept an expert's statement without question. this acceptance can mean that people do not check the accuracy of their sources or even consider looking for a second opinion -realize that not all "experts" are experts

3 important principles of the scientific method

-it is empirical -it is public -it is objective

characteristics of a good hypothesis

-logical -testable -refutable -positive

suggestions for finding a research idea

-look for ideas as explicit statements in the journal articles you already have: near the end of the discussion section, most research reports have a set of suggestions for future research -the authors who are reporting their research results usually point out the questions that remain unanswered -combine or contrast two or more existing results -ideas are most likely to come from the introduction, the discussion, and the references

random process selction

-means that every possible outcome is equally likely -ex: each time you toss a coin, the two possible outcomes are equally likely

additional issues related to the measurement process

-multiple measures -sensitivity of measurement and range effects -artifacts including experimenter bias and participant reactivity -selection of a measurement procedure

step #3 in the research process: determine how you will define and measure your variables

-must determine how you will define and measure your variables -ex: before evaluating this prediction, we need to determine how we will distinguish between more and less television violence, and distinguish between more and less aggression. specifically, we must decide exactly how we will define and measure television violence, and exactly how we will define and measure aggressive behavior -the variables must be defined in a manner that makes it possible to measure them by some form of empirical observation

common sources of error

-observer error -environmental changes -participant changes -any measurement procedure involves an element of error and the amount of error determines the reliability of the measurements -when error is large, reliability is low and when error is small, reliability is high

combined-strategy sampling

-occasionally, researchers combine 2 or more sampling strategies to select participants -selection strategies are commonly combined to optimize the chances that a sample is representative of a widely dispersed or broad-based population such as in a wide market survey or a political poll

proportionate stratified random sampling (aka proportionate random sampling)

-occasionally, researchers try to improve the correspondence between a sample and a population by deliberately ensuring that the composition of the sample matches the composition of the population -begin by identifying a set of subgroups or segments in the population -next, we determine what proportion of the population corresponds to each subgroup -finally, a sample is obtained such that the proportions in the sample exactly match the proportions in the overall population -used commonly for political polls and other major public opinion surveys

experimenter bias (artifact)

-occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter's expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study -ex: an experimenter might be warm, friendly, and encouraging when presenting instructions to a group of participants in a treatment condition expected to produce good performance, and appear cold, aloof, and somewhat stern when presenting the instructions to another group in a comparison treatment for which performance is expected to be relatively poor -undermines reliability because the participants may produce very different scores if tested under the same conditions by a different experimenter

internal consistency

-often, a complex construct such as intelligence or personality is measured using a test or questionnaire consisting of multiple items -the idea is that no single item or question is sufficient to provide a complete measure of the construct -the final measurement for each individual is determined by adding or averaging the responses across the full set of items -a basic assumption of this process is that each item (or group of items) measures a part of the total construct. if this is true, then there should be some consistency between the scores for different items or different groups of items -to measure the degree of consistency, researchers commonly split the set of items in half and compute a separate score for each half -the degree of agreement between the 2 scores is then evaluated, usually with a correlation

reactivity

occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured

components of informed consent forms

overview; description of procedures; risks and inconveniences; benefits; costs and economic considerations; confidentiality; alternative treatments; voluntary participation; questions and further information; signature lines

applied research

research that is directed toward solving practical problems

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

reviews research with nonhuman subjects, assist researchers in meeting their ethical responsibilities

basic research

studies that are intended to solve theoretical issues

range effect in research

the measurement procedure is insensitive to changes that may occur in one direction

anonymity

the practice of ensuring that an individual's name is not directly associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individual

sampling

the process of selecting individuals for a study

ethics

the study of proper action

the negative subject role

these participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to the investigator's hypothesis

the good subject role

these participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investigator's hypothesis

literature search

to find a set of published research reports that define the current state of knowledge in an area and to identify an unanswered question--that is, a gap in that knowledge base--that your study will attempt to fill

subject words

used to identify and describe the variables in the study and the characteristics of the participants

single-blind research

when a research study is conducted by an experimenter (assistant) who does not know the expected results, the experimenter should not be able to influence the participants

abstract in research report

a brief summary of the publication, usually about 200 words

argument

a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion

belief perseverance

habit leads us to continue believing something we have always believed

participants

if the individuals participating in the research are human

subjects

if the individuals participating in the research are nonhuman

summary databases

includes the title, the authors, the name of the journal or book in which the publication appears, a list of the subject words that describe the publication, and an abstract