Research Methods in Psychology - InQuizitive Chapters 8 & 9

The simplest explanation

What is a parsimonious explanation?

Established: construct validity statistical validity external validity Not established: internal validity

Fabiola wants to examine whether exercise leads to greater satisfaction in life among senior citizens in Alabama. She randomly selects five retirement homes in Alabama and recruits all of the seniors living in the five homes. In May, she measures participants' hours of exercise per week and gives them a validated scale assessing satisfaction in life. The next year, she measures their hours of exercise per week and satisfaction with life again. This figure depicts the results of Fabiola's study. Identify the validities that are reasonably established in this study.

People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of foreign-language achievement, even after the researchers controlled for the other variables.

Onwuegbuzie and colleagues (1999) examined foreign-language anxiety as a predictor of foreign-language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis with other predictor variables, including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. The researchers found that the results for foreign-language anxiety in the regression table were β = −0.39, 95% CI [−.59, −.19]. Which statement best explains what the beta for foreign-language anxiety means?

Moderator

Soulis conducts a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only among men, not among women. In the relationship between having a cognitively demanding job and cognitive benefits later in life, gender plays what role?

The studies must involve a correlation between two measured variables.

What is an essential feature of studies that support association claims?

Internal validity, predictor, criterion, beta, b

Multiple regression can help eliminate problems with _______ by controlling for potential third variables. It sets _______ variable(s) that influence the _______ variable, which is the outcome of interest. Effect sizes in multiple-regression analyses can be represented by both _______, which is a standardized effect size, and _______, which is an unstandardized effect size.

There may be some other third variable

Researchers run an analysis to examine third variables as a follow-up to a study indicating that children with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. They include unusual names, education level, and geographical regions as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all these variables, the researchers find unusual names still significantly predict criminal activity. Which statement explains why this study doesn't establish causation?

Not statistically significant Statistically significant Statistically significant Not statistically significant

Identify each correlation as either statistically significant or not statistically significant. r = .21, 95% CI [−.17, .59] r = −.23, 95% CI [−.33, −.13] r = .10, 95% CI [.05, .15] r = −.45, 95% CI [−.92, .03]

Statistically significant: r = .23, 95% CI [.03, .40] r = .65, 95% CI [.33, .97] r = −.42, 95% CI [−.20, −.64] Not statistically significant: r = .25, 95% CI [−.15, .55] r = −.41, 95% CI [−.85, .03] r = −.35, 95% CI [−.71, .01]

Identify the associations as either statistically significant or not statistically significant.

True: When one of the variables in an association is categorical, researchers often analyze the difference between the means of the groups. When both variables in a study are measured, it is a correlational study. False: Scatterplots are often used to graph the relationship between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable. Bar graphs show the data points for each participant.

Identify the true and false statements about describing and analyzing associations.

Scatterplot Bar graph Bar graph Scatterplot Scatterplot Bar graph

Match each research question to the type of graph that would better depict its results. Is time spent using social media associated with feelings of jealously? Is type of social media platform associated with feelings of jealously? Is job title linked to salary? Is length of experience linked to salary? Is age associated with number of hours of sleep? Do college students sleep fewer hours per day than high school students do?

Generation

Professor Schwartz is examining the relationship between time spent at a shopping mall and happiness. She finds that for millennials, more mall time is associated with higher levels of happiness, but for baby boomers, more mall time is associated with lower levels of happiness. What is the moderator in this relationship?

A third-variable problem

Wan notices that more graffiti appears when there are more ice cream trucks in town. She does a study that measures the frequency of new graffiti being reported and ice cream truck sales for each week over a year. She finds a positive association between ice cream truck sales and new graffiti, and she concludes that the ice cream trucks are encouraging graffiti. Her friend, Zizi, points out that both ice cream sales and graffiti might be influenced by rising temperatures during the summer. What kind of problem has Zizi identified?

Pattern and parsimony

Mohamad hypothesizes that lack of sleep before the age of 7 results in substance abuse later in life. He realizes that it would be unethical to conduct an experiment depriving children of sleep and that a correlational study could not establish temporal precedence. Mohamad decides to conduct several different studies to establish multiple association claims that point to his hypothesis. What is Mohamad's approach called?

Moderator

Siva is investigating an association claim between political beliefs and age. His data show a correlation of r = .35. However, upon closer examination, Siva finds that the correlation is much stronger for men than it is for women. What type of variable is gender is this example?

0.44, positive, greater, IQ

The beta of _______ suggests that the relationship between the number of absences and grades is _______ in that a(n) _______ number of absences is associated with higher grades when the study controls for _______.

-.30

A recent study with 3,000 participants reported a fairly powerful negative correlation between the number of class absences by college students and their GPAs. According to recent guidelines for interpreting the magnitude of effect sizes, what r value was most likely to have been reported in this study?

Third variable

Dr. Soulis conducts a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only because people who are highly educated have cognitively demanding jobs, and people who are highly educated have better cognitive skills. In the relationship between having a demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years, amount of education plays what role?

Applicable: negative unusually large categorical statistically significant Not applicable: positive moderate not statistically significant

Leonor recently collected survey data and was curious about the association claim between gender and symptoms of mental illness. She found the following correlation between the two variables: r = −.47, 95% CI [−.59, −.35]. Identify the terms as either applicable or not applicable to this correlation.

Cross-sectional correlation Autocorrelation Cross-lag correlation

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Label each correlation that Professor Horvat discovers with the type of correlation it represents. -At the first time point there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction. -Job satisfaction at the first time point is correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point. -Home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point.

Effect size, r value, 95% CI

The term _______ describes the strength of an association between variables, and in correlations it is typically captured by a(n) _______. The precision of the correlation estimate is captured by a(n) _______.

Their income is probably higher than $48,000.

There is a strong positive association between years of education and income. The average income for American adults in 2019 was $48,000 and the average number of years of education was 12. If an individual has 16 years of education, what would you predict about their income?

Established: temporal precedence covariance Not established: internal validity

Tia is examining the connection between exposure to movies with racially diverse characters and anti-racist attitudes in children. She first measures exposure to racially diverse movies in children and then follows up with the same children two years later to measure their attitudes toward race. She finds a strong correlation, showing that children exposed to more movies with racially diverse characters report stronger anti-racist attitudes. Identify the three causal criteria as either established or not established by Tia in her study.

Restriction of range

Vanessa is investigating the relationship between socioeconomic status and mental illness. She samples a group of low-income participants and finds that the relationship between her two variables is very weak. Vanessa plots her data on this scatterplot and does not see any obvious problems with it. What issue is most likely affecting Vanessa's results?

It may not be ethical or practical to manipulate certain variables.

What is the reason that researchers sometimes rely on pattern and parsimony to investigate causality?

Could outliers be affecting the relationship?

For her psychology class, Ezra is making a scatterplot of the digit spans (how many numbers you can remember and repeat back), with participants' memory for digits they read on the x-axis and participants' memory for digits they hear on the y-axis. The association is strong, but Ezra notices that one participant has a visual digit memory that is twice as long as anyone else's. What question about statistical validity is Ezra raising?

Cross-sectional correlation, autocorrelation, cross-lag correlation, longitudinal

In a(n) _______, two variables measured at the same time are associated. If an earlier measure of a variable is associated with a later measure of the same variable, a(n) _______ occurs. In a(n) _______, an earlier measure of one variable is associated with a later measure of a different variable. These three types of correlations are usually found in _______ designs.

Correct: Self-esteem is a significant predictor of mental distress. Body dissatisfaction is a significant predictor of mental distress. Incorrect: The measurement of self-esteem comes before the measurement of body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction and mental distress are correlated with each other only because each one is correlated separately with self-esteem.

João is investigating the relationship between body dissatisfaction as a predictor variable and mental distress as the criterion variable. He suspects that self-esteem may mediate the relationship between these two variables. Which of the following statements would need to be true in order to establish that self-esteem is a mediator in the relationship between body dissatisfaction and mental distress?

Statistical validity External validity Internal validity Construct validity

Mischel et al. (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers. The researchers offered preschoolers a special reward if they could wait, or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. The researchers then conducted a follow-up study years later, studying the same preschoolers as adolescents. The researchers found a positive association between the preschoolers' waiting times and their self-control as adolescents. Match each question to the type of validity it interrogates. Has this association been replicated? Can the results be generalized to all American children? Is there a third variable that explains this relationship? How well was delay of gratification measured?

Foreign-language anxiety has a greater effect than academic achievement on foreign-language achievement.

Onwuegbuzie and colleagues (1999) examined foreign-language anxiety as a predictor of foreign-language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis with other predictor variables, including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. The researchers found β = −0.39, 95% CI [−.59, −.19] for foreign-language anxiety and β = 0.29, 95% CI [.10, .48] for academic achievement. Which statement is the best interpretation of these two results?

True: An association claim is between measured variables. To understand a correlation, you must consider both its strength and its direction. False: A bivariate correlation can involve an association between two or more variables. You can only examine correlations between two quantitative variables.

Identify the true and false statements about correlations.

Pattern and parsimony

What type of approach do researchers use when they investigate causality with a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction?

True: A 95% CI gives you information about the precision of the association. You can infer statistical significance from a 95% CI. A study with a small sample will have a wider 95% CI. False: A 95% CI gives you information about the strength of the association.

Identify the true and false statements about 95% confidence intervals.

Moderator Third variable Third variable Mediator Moderator Mediator

Stress is associated with negative health outcomes only when the stress is viewed negatively. The correlation between weight and vocabulary is actually a function of age, not a true association. Warm temperatures cause ice cream sales to be associated with crime rates, though they otherwise would not be associated. A negative parenting style is the reason that marital violence is linked with childhood aggression. Inspiration has a stronger influence on creativity in people who work harder. Friendship explains why social media use and happiness are related.

Mediator

Tomaš conducts a study that finds that children with unusual names are more likely to have delinquency records as adolescents because they were teased more, and the teasing makes them act out. In the relationship between having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency, teasing plays what role?

Established: covariance temporal precedence Not established: internal validity

Vida is studying the connection between time spent using social media and grades. She measures social media use at the beginning of the semester and grades at the end of the semester. Vida finds that using more social media early in the semester is linked with lower grades. Identify the three causal criteria as either established or not established by Vida in her study.

When the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both of the variables

When is an outlier most likely to be problematic?

Most important: statistical validity construct validity Less important: internal validity external validity

Which two validities are the most important to establish for an association claim?

Outlier, restriction of range, curvilinear relationship, statistical

A(n) _______ is an extreme data point that can often inaccurately alter an effect size. _______ occurs when all possible scores on a variable are not present, which can often inaccurately decrease an effect size. A(n) _______ is when a set of data is not well represented by a straight line and can result in a zero effect size. All three of these issues can decrease _______ validity.

Moderator, mediator

Additional variables may often add nuance or an alternative explanation for a relationship. A _______ is a variable that explains how the two main variables are related in different ways depending on the situation. A _______ explains why two variables may be related based on an internal factor that connects them.

Third variable

Dr. Saetang conducts a study that finds that praise from supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity, but only because highly motivated people are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. What role does employee motivation play in the relationship between praise and work productivity?

Autocorrelation Cross-lag correlation Cross-sectional correlation

Iva is studying whether eating meals in the cafeteria is linked to weight gain during the first year of college. She asks all the incoming first-year students about their weights and the number of cafeteria meals they eat each week in the fall, and then she collects the weights and number of cafeteria meals per week from them again at the end of the spring term. Identify the type of correlation that Iva should examine for each goal. Iva wants to find out whether weight in the fall is correlated with weight in the spring. Iva wants to find out whether weight in the fall is correlated with the number of cafeteria uses in the spring. Iva wants to find out whether the number of cafeteria uses in the spring is correlated with weight in the spring.

Curvilinear association

José is investigating the relationship between exam anxiety and exam grades. He collects students' ratings of their own anxiety before an exam, and then he collects their exam scores afterward. When he calculates the correlation, he finds no relationship. José plots his data on this scatterplot and sees that both students who had no anxiety and students who had lots of anxiety performed poorly on exams—but students who reported moderate anxiety did very well. What issue is most likely affecting José's results?

Statistical validity External validity Internal validity Construct validity

Match each validity to the appropriate validity question related to a study on binge-watching TV and irritability. Is there a curvilinear association between binge-watching TV and irritability? How was the sample obtained for this longitudinal study? Are there any other variables that explain the association between binge-watching TV and irritability? Was irritability measured in a reliable and valid way?

True: Milek and her colleagues conducted multiple studies to replicate their results. Multiple estimates gave Milek and her colleagues solid evidence for the association between deep talk and well-being. False: The studies with larger samples have wider confidence intervals. Multiple studies showed that deep talk and well-being were negatively associated.

Milek et al. (2018) conducted several studies looking at deep talk and well-being. Identify the true and false statements about this study based on the graph.

Present: moderator outlier Not present: third-variable problem restriction of range

Pengyu is interested in the association between the height of professional basketball players and their free-throw percentage. She finds a statistically significant negative association in the entire last season of the NBA. Looking at her scatterplot, Pengyu finds that one player is much shorter and has a much better free-throw percentage than the rest of the players. She also finds that the negative association only exists for less experienced NBA players, not for more experienced NBA players. Identify the issues as either present or not present in Pengyu's study.

Multiple regression: "controlled for" "adjusting for" "considering" Not multiple regression: "depends on" "is more likely than" "made a difference in"

Which of the following phrases in popular media articles suggest that multiple regression was used in the study being reported?

Reasons: Doing so allows researchers to consider different factors that might predict the criterion variable. Doing so allows researchers to control for multiple third variables at the same time. Not reasons: Doing so allows researchers to make causal claims. Doing so allows researchers to establish temporal precedence.

Which of the following statements are reasons why researchers may include multiple predictor variables in a study?

Longitudinal study, temporal precedence, multiple-regression analysis, internal validity

A(n) _______ is conducted over a longer period of time than a typical correlational study to help establish _______. A(n) _______ considers more than two variables in the same analysis and can help improve _______.

True: All of the studies that Abelson investigated were correlational studies. The simplest explanation of these results is that the chemicals in cigarettes cause cancer. False: The studies Abelson examined address all possible third-variable problems. Abelson would be able to make a strong causal claim if the studies he examined had the same findings.

Abelson (1995) wanted to examine whether smoking led to lung cancer. He examined several studies, which showed the following results: The longer a person has smoked cigarettes, the greater their chance of getting cancer. People who stop smoking have lower cancer rates than people who keep smoking. Smokers' cancers tend to be in the lungs and of a particular type. Smokers who use filtered cigarettes have a somewhat lower rate of cancer than those who use unfiltered cigarettes. People who live with smokers have higher rates of cancer, too, because of their passive exposure to the same chemicals. Identify the true and false statements about Abelson's investigation.

Two, bivariate, direction, strength

An association claim with _______ variables can be examined with a _______ correlation, and the results of the test have two primary components. The first component tells you whether the association is positive or negative; it is referred to as _______. The second component tells you how closely the variables are associated; it is referred to as _______.

Correct: The amount of time spent with friends presents a third-variable problem. The beta for social media use will have a 95% CI containing zero. Incorrect: The amount of time spent with friends is not associated with social media use. The amount of time spent with friends predicts social media use after DeAndre controls for the other variables.

DeAndre is studying whether social media use predicts feelings of loneliness, and he finds that there is a positive relationship between the two variables. However, he finds after controlling for the amount of time spent with friends that social media use is no longer associated with feelings of loneliness. Identify the correct and incorrect interpretations of DeAndre's finding.

Restriction of range Curvilinear association

Dr. Kahue wants to examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and depression. In his first study, he selects American athletes who are currently training for the summer Olympic Games for his sample. Based on this sample, Dr. Kahue finds no relationship between BMI and depression. Dr. Kahue should be concerned with _______ in his first study. In his second study, Dr. Kahue selects college students for a sample to examine the same question. He finds no relationship between BMI and depression. However, he notices that students with very low BMI and students with very high BMI had higher levels of depressed mood, but levels of depressed mood in students with moderate BMI were quite low. Dr. Kahue should be concerned with a _______ in his second study.

Gender Geographic area Interest

Francisco is conducting an international study about a new website that is preparing to launch worldwide. He wants to see whether men or women are more likely to be interested in the new website so he can know which demographic to market it to. After he collects his data, Francisco discovers that whether the men and women surveyed were from Asia or North America changed how they responded to the website. Men from Asian countries were the most interested in his website, whereas women from North American countries were the least interested. Match each variable in Francisco's study to the correct definition. independent variable moderator dependent variable

True: You can infer statistical significance from a 95% CI. A study with a small sample will have a wider 95% CI. A 95% CI gives you information about the precision of the association. False: A 95% CI gives you information about the strength of the association.

Identify the true and false statements about 95% confidence intervals.

True: Journalists should report on the theoretical background behind a study. Journalists should report on other studies conducted on the same topic. False: Journalists should report the results of only the latest study on a topic to highlight the most current research.

Identify the true and false statements about how science should be portrayed by journalists in popular media articles.

True: The b is based on the original measurements of the predictor variable. Multiple regression tests whether the predictor and criterion variables are related after controlling for third variables. False: You should compare b to b only from the same regression table. If a third variable is associated with the criterion variable, the relationship between the key predictor and criterion variables is spurious.

Identify the true and false statements about multiple regression.

True: The largest beta in a multiple-regression analysis is the predictor that has the strongest relationship with the criterion variable. A multiple-regression analysis can control for more than one variable at a time. False: Multiple regression establishes temporal precedence as long as it controls for potential third-variable problems. A multiple-regression analysis that accounts for third variables can establish causality.

Identify the true and false statements about multiple-regression analyses.

True: Multivariate correlational designs are often used when it is impossible to conduct an experiment. Association claims are often used as a step toward establishing a causal relationship. False: Multivariate designs cannot be used to improve the case for causation. Multivariate designs can handle no more than four variables at a time.

Identify the true and false statements about multivariate designs and causation.

True: The pattern and parsimony technique exemplifies the theory-data cycle. The pattern and parsimony technique relies on the weight of the evidence from multiple studies. False: The pattern and parsimony technique can be considered only with experiments. The pattern and parsimony technique works best when all of the studies surrounding a theory use the same methodology.

Identify the true and false statements about pattern and parsimony.

True: Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the other predictor variables. Unlike r, betas can only be compared within the same regression table. False: Unlike r, beta cannot be negative. Unlike r, a beta of zero reflects a statistically significant relationship between the predictor variable and the criterion variable.

Identify the true and false statements about the difference between beta and r.

True: All else being equal, the stronger an effect size is, the more accurate a future prediction based on that relationship will be. The larger a sample size, the less likely it is that findings may have resulted from chance. False: Effect size only gives information about the strength of a relationship and nothing else. If a correlation is moderate in effect size, it is always statistically significant.

Identify the true and false statements about the strength and precision of correlations.

True: A spurious association can occur when a third variable explains the association between two others. False: If an association claim is not generalizable, it should not be taken seriously. An increased sample size increases the external validity of an association claim.

Identify the true and false statements about the validity of association claims.

True: This association would be best analyzed by looking at the difference in group averages. This association involves one categorical and one quantitative variable. False: This figure depicts a strong positive correlation between meeting location and marital satisfaction. A scatterplot is the best way to depict this association.

Identify the true and false statements about this graph, which depicts the association between meeting location and marital satisfaction.

True: The figure graph depicts an association between two quantitative variables. Each point on the graph represents a single participant. False: There is a negative association between well-being and deep talk. Based on the graph, a person with higher than average well-being is likely to engage in less deep talk.

Identify the true and false statements about this graph, which depicts the association between well-being and deep talk.

Multiple regression: "Facebook use predicted eating disorders in students only when adjusting for social comparison behavior." "Children in Head Start programs were found to be more successful than regular students once researchers controlled for socioeconomic status." Not multiple regression: "Researchers found that age was indeed predictive of more conservative values." "Mediation was found to be helpful in treating substance abuse disorder in women but not in men."

Identify whether or not each psychological finding reported in the popular press represents multiple regression.

Moderator, external validity

In association research, when the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable, the third variable is called a(n) _______. This type of variable can help establish _______.

The critic is incorrect because the number of guests at the wedding is associated with relationship happiness even after the researchers controlled for personal income.

Jonide comes across a newspaper article with the headline, "Bigger Weddings Lead to Happier Marriages." She reads that researchers recruited 418 married couples from a local shopping center and collected their responses to a variety of survey questions, including some asking about the number of guests at their wedding and their relationship happiness (measured with questions about spousal satisfaction). This table presents the results of the study. CRITERION(DEPENDENT)VARIABLE:RELATIONSHIP HAPPINESSBETA95% CIFOR BETAPredictor(independent)variables:Number of guests at wedding0.32[.12, .52]Number of partners before marriage0.42[.22, .62]Years of education0.13[.01, .25]Personal income-0.21[-.37, -.07]Religiosity0.06[-.15, .27] A skeptic of this research says that the only reason that couples with larger weddings have happier marriages is that rich people can afford large weddings and rich people are happier. Which statement is the correct response to this critic?

Established: statistical validity construct validity Not established: internal validity external validity

Jonide comes across a newspaper article with the headline, "Bigger Weddings Lead to Happier Marriages." She reads that researchers recruited 418 married couples from a local shopping center and collected their responses to a variety of survey questions, including some asking about the number of guests at their wedding and their relationship happiness (measured with questions about spousal satisfaction). This table presents the results of the study. CRITERION(DEPENDENT)VARIABLE:RELATIONSHIP HAPPINESSBETA95% CIFOR BETAPredictor(independent)variables:Number of guests at wedding0.32[.12, .52]Number of partners before marriage0.42[.22, .62]Years of education0.13[.01, .25]Personal income-0.21[-.37, -.07]Religiosity0.06[-.15, .27] Identify the validities that are reasonably established in this study.

True: The number of guests at the wedding significantly predicts relationship happiness, even when religiosity is held constant. The beta of 0.32 suggests that couples who have more guests at the wedding are more likely to have happier relationships, after the researchers controlled for religiosity. False: Couples who are more religious are less likely to have happy marriages, even when the number of guests at the wedding is controlled for. Based on the results of multiple regression, we can conclude that the size of the wedding does cause a happier marriage. Religiosity presents a third-variable problem because it explains why the number of guests at the wedding and relationship happiness are associated.

Jonide comes across a newspaper article with the headline, "Bigger Weddings Lead to Happier Marriages." She reads that researchers recruited 418 married couples from a local shopping center and collected their responses to a variety of survey questions, including some asking about the number of guests at their wedding and their relationship happiness (measured with questions about spousal satisfaction). This table presents the results of the study. Identify the true and false statements about the results of the study.

True: This correlation tells him that students with higher grades are more likely to earn extra credit points than students with lower grades are. A scatterplot is the best way for Professor Espejo to represent his results. False: Professor Espejo's study involves one categorical and one quantitative variable. This correlation tells him that students with lower grades are more likely than students with higher grades to earn extra credit points.

Professor Espejo wonders if there is an association between students' grades and extra credit points earned in his classes. He examines the number of extra credit points his students earned and the percentage grade his students earned without extra credit. He finds r = .28. Identify the true and false statements about Professor Espejo's study.

There are third potential variables that might explain the relationship.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Suppose she finds that home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but that there is no correlation between job satisfaction at the first time point and home-life satisfaction at the second time point. Which statement explains why Professor Horvat can't conclude that home-life satisfaction causes job satisfaction?

Established: covariance temporal precedence Not established: internal validity

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Suppose she finds that home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction at the first time point and home-life satisfaction at the second time point. Which of the following three criteria for causation are established in Professor Horvat's study?

Applicable: positive not statistically significant weak Not applicable: negative statistically significant categorical moderate

Recently, researchers wanted to test the relationship between hours of exposure to violent video games and the number of real-life criminal behaviors. They found the following correlation between the two variables: r = .11, 95% CI [−.04, .26]. Identify the terms as either applicable or not applicable to this correlation.

scatterplot correlation coefficient r bar graph magnitude of difference between means

Sahil wants to investigate the relationship between reaction time and experience in tennis. He is considering different ways to operationalize tennis experience in his claim. Match each type of graph or data analysis method to the correct association claim. Reaction times decrease as the number of years playing tennis increases. Reaction times are shorter in tennis experts than in nonexperts.

Longitudinal Longitudinal Multiple-regression Multiple-regression

Sammy is interested in studying behavior problems. Identify the multivariate technique that Sammy should use to investigate each of her research goals. Labels can be used more than once. Sammy wants to find out whether self-esteem and behavior problems have a mutually reinforcing relationship. Sammy wants to find out whether self-esteem in elementary school predicts behavior problems in middle school. Sammy wants to find out whether there is an association between self-esteem and behavior problems even after adjusting for experience with bullying. Sammy wants to find out whether parenting style explains the association between self-esteem and behavior problems.

Curvilinear

The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) shows that performance increases with arousal up to a point, but beyond that, performance decreases as arousal increases. Which type of association is this?

Covariance

Which of the three causal criteria is usually established in a bivariate correlational study with a statistically significant association?