research quiz 4

Which action will the researcher take to improve construct validity? - Allow data collectors to know which subjects are assigned to which groups. - Ensure that operational definitions reflect theoretical constructs. - Make sure that the researcher is involved in data collection. - Utilize only one measurement method to measure study variables

- Ensure that operational definitions reflect theoretical constructs.

Multiple replications of an initial study conducted in different populations produce findings that do not match those in the initial study. The initial study may lack which type of validity? - Construct validity - External validity - Internal validity - Statistical conclusion validity

- External validity External validity is concerned with the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the study sample

- is the highest level and has absolute zero points. (Rule: The data must have absolute zero.)

- Ratio measurement

characteristics that can result in a person or element being excluded from the target population because the characteristic has a potential to introduce error into the study.

. Exclusion sampling criteria

- sampling requirements identified by the researcher that must be present for participants or elements to be considered part of the target population for possible selection to a study sample.

. Inclusion sampling criteria

- real-life or field setting for conducting research in which the researcher makes no attempts to control extraneous variables. - include participants' homes, workplace, and school

. Natural or field setting .

Use of structured and unstructured observations to measure study variables.

. Observational measurement:

naturalistic environment that the researcher has manipulated or modified in some way the control for the effect of extraneous variables.

. Partially controlled setting

- site or location for conducting a study. - may be natural, partially controlled, or highly controlled.

. Research setting

40. Which type of scale is most commonly used in a survey of patient satisfaction? 1. Likert scale 2. Numeric rating scale 3. Rating scale 4. Visual analog scale

1. Likert scale The Likert scale is designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study subjects and is the most commonly used of the various scales. A numeric rating scale is used to measure the degree of a concept on a continuum, such as pain on a scale from 1 to 10. A rating scale is like a numeric rating scale. A visual analog scale measures the strength, magnitude, or intensity of subjective feelings, sensations, or attitudes along a continuum and may be used to assess patient satisfaction, but it is not the most commonly used type of scale.

Which is a type of nonprobability sampling? A. Purposeful B. Simple random C. Stratified random D. Systematic

A. Purposeful Purposeful sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling

Which of the following is a type of nonprobability sampling? A. Purposive B. Simple random C. Stratified D. Systematic

A. Purposive Purposive or judgmental sampling is a nonprobability sampling method that involves the conscious selection by the researcher of certain subjects or elements to include in a study. Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and systematic sampling are probability sampling methods.

What Techniques Can Be Used for Data Analysis?

ANOVA and t-test require equal group sizes, which will increase power because the effect size is maximized.

Is a questionnaire a scale? A. YES B. NO

B. NO

Extent to which an individual's score on a scale can be used to estimate his or her present or concurrent performance on another variable or criterion; - a type of criterion validity. (p 469)

Concurrent validity:

measures used for the quantification of simple, concrete variables, such as strategies for measuring height, weight, or temperature, bp.

Direct measures:

(1) how well the scale's items reflect the concept's description in the literature (or face validity); (2) experts' evaluation of the relevance of items that may be reported as an index; (3) the study participants' responses to scale items

Evidence for contact validity includes

Tested by identifying groups that are expected to have vastly different scores on a instrument; also called known groups validity

Evidence of validity from contrasting groups:

type of measurement validity obtained by using two instruments to measure the same variable, such as depression, and correlating the results from these instruments; evidence of convergence validity is a moderate or strong positive correlation between the two measurements

Evidence of validity from convergence:

Type of measurement validity obtained by using two instruments to measure opposite variables, such as hope and hopelessness, evidence of divergent validity is a moderate or strong negative correlation between the two measurement

Evidence of validity from divergence:

artificially constructed environment developed for the sole purpose of conducting research, - such as a laboratory, research or experimental center, or test unit.

Highly controlled setting -

uses interval scales, which have equal numerical distances between intervals.

Interval level measurement

Method whereby data are assigned to mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories, with one category being judged to be (or is ranked) higher or lower, or better or worse, than another category. The internals between the ranked data are not necessarily equal, such as ranking pain as mild, moderate, and severe.

Ordinal-level measurement:

Extent to which an individual's score on a scale can accurately predict future performance; one type of criterion-related validity

Predictive validity:

is a nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgment about who will be most informative

Purposive sampling

is a convenience sampling technique with an added strategy to ensure the inclusion of subjects who are likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample, such as women, minority groups, and undereducated people.

Quota sampling

- type of error in which individuals' observed scores vary haphazardly around their true score - typed in wrong

Random measurement error:

Method of measurement in which the RATER makes a selection, sometimes numeric and sometimes not numeric. from among an ordered set of predefined categories to convey feelings, preferences, and other subjective perception. - For example, the FACES Pain Scale is commonly used rating scale to measure pain in pediatric patient.

Rating scales:

- point during a qualitative study when additional data collection provides no new information; rather, there is redundancy of previously collected data. - Sample size in a qualitative study is determined when THIS of data occurs.

Saturation

- Self-report form of measurement composed of several items deigned to measure a construct. - The participants respond to each item on the continuum or scale provided, such as a depression scale

Scale:

- Communication between the researcher and participant during which predetermined questions are asked in the same order for all interviews; - can be used to collect QUANTITATIVE DATA by assigning numbers to the answer options.

Structured interview:

- Clear identification of which behaviors are of interest and will be translated into data; - observations are precisely defined, recorded, and coded

Structured observational measurement:

- the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling criteria. - specific population -

Target population

- Communication between the researcher and the participant that begins with a broad question. - Participants are encouraged to elaborate on a topic, introduce new topics, and thereby control the content of the interview; commonly used to collect qualitative data

Unstructured interview:

- Spontaneous observation and recording of what is seen with a minimum of planning; - are commonly used to collect qualitative data.

Unstructured observations:

extent to which an instrument or measurement method accurately reflects or is able to measure the construct (or concept) being examined

Validity:

- Refers to a 100-mm line, with right angle stops and descriptive words of phrases at each end. - Study participants are asked to record the intensity, magnitude, or strength of their symptoms or attitudes on the line.

Visual analog scale:

1. A researcher conducts a study to examine the effects of breastfeeding on infant weight at age 6 months. Which type of measurement is used to measure the infants' weight? a. Direct b. Indirect c. Nominal d. Ordinal

a. Direct Direct measurement allows for measures of concrete factors, such as a person's height or weight. Indirect measurement measures abstract ideas or characteristics and often must use more than one measure to measure all aspects of the concept. Nominal level measurement is used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property, such as a disease diagnosis, but when categories cannot be rank ordered. Ordinal level measurement is used when data collected can be rank ordered.

What is causality?

- Cause and effect - positive relation between independent and dependent, - independent causes dependent variable to change,

- nonprobability sampling technique that includes a snowballing technique to take advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to hold characteristics in common. - Participants meeting the sample criteria are asked to assist in locating others with similar characteristics. - is synonymous with chain sampling and snowball sampling.

. Network sampling

list the nonprobability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling 2. Quota sampling 3. Purposive or purposeful 4. Network 5. Theoretical CQPNT

List the probability sampling methods

1. Simple random 2. Stratified random sampling 3. Cluster sampling 4. Systematic sampling csss

. Which is an accurate statement about measurement error? 1. Some error is always present in any measurement strategy. 2. There is no difference between the true measure and what is actually measured. 3. Direct measures, which generally are expected to be highly accurate, are not subject to error. 4. With indirect measures, the element being measured can be seen directly.

1. Some error is always present in any measurement strategy. Some error is always present in any measurement strategy. Measurement error is the difference between the true measure and what is actually measured. Direct measures, which generally are expected to be highly accurate, are subject to error. With indirect measures, the element being measured cannot be seen directly.

The goal of appropriate sampling in research is to 1. accurately reflect the characteristics of the target population. 2. completely define the traits of the accessible population. 3. identify all attributes of the sample population. 4. study an entire population.

1. accurately reflect the characteristics of the target population Sampling involves selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements with which to conduct a study. Samples are expected to represent a target population of subjects who meet eligibility criteria for inclusion in the study.

A researcher conducts a quasi-experimental study to determine whether there is improved weight gain among premature infants who are fed according to cue-based protocols. The researcher trained neonatal intensive care nurses to apply cue-based feeding to orally fed infants and notes a statistical difference in weight gain between infants fed according to cue-based protocols and those fed according to standard protocols. The reviewer notes that components of cue-based feedings are not clearly identified. This is a threat to 1. construct validity. 2. external validity. 3. internal validity. 4. statistical conclusion validity.

1. construct validity. Construct validity is concerned with the fit between conceptual and operational variables and requires adequate conceptual and operational definitions.

A researcher wishes to evaluate the reliability of a visual analog pain scale in a group of postoperative patients. The best way to do this is to compare results 1. to results of the test when given to another set of subjects. 2. to results from the same subjects using the FACES rating scale. 3. to results from a previous measure with a different visual analog scale. 4. to results from a group of subjects who have minimal or no pain.

1. to results of the test when given to another set of subjects. Reliability of a visual analog scale is best determined by the test-retest method, so the researcher should administer the test to two sets of subjects and compare the results. Comparing results using two different instruments does not determine reliability of the first measure. Comparing results from a previous measure using another version of the scale is a measure of alternate forms reliability. Changing the population does not allow for a test of the reliability of the measurement tool.

2. Which can be measured using direct measurement? 1. Anxiety level 2. Blood pressure 3. Diagnosis 4. Feelings

2. Blood pressure

A researcher notes a reliability score of 0.75 between two observers in a clinical drug trial evaluating whether the drug decreases anxiety. This score means that 1. there is 25% random error. 2. there is 75% random error. 3. this is an acceptable measure of reliability. 4. this measurement tool is not reliable.

2. there is 75% random error. The interrater reliability value represents reliability. A 0.75 measure indicates 75% reliability and 25% random error. Generally, interrater reliability is best at 0.90, and any value less than 0.80 should generate serious concern about the reliabili ty of the data or the data gatherer. This is a measure of interrater reliability and may not necessarily reflect on the reliability of the tool.

A researcher conducts a quasi-experimental study to determine whether there is improved weight gain among premature infants who are fed according to cue-based protocols. The researcher trained neonatal intensive care nurses to apply cue-based feeding to orally fed infants and notes a statistical difference in weight gain between infants fed according to cue-based protocols and those fed according to standard protocols. Which might be a threat to internal validity in this study? 1. The concept of cue-based feeding is not well defined. 2. The study sample is homogeneous. 3. Some infants developed gastroenteritis. 4. Not all nurses received cue-based protocol education.

3. Some infants developed gastroenteritis. Internal validity looks at the influence of extraneous variables on study outcomes. Inadequate definitions of constructs are threats to construct validity.

Which is a true statement about measurement theory? 1. A measurement method used by one individual will consistently produce different results when used by another individual. 2. Measurement theory was recently developed by musicians, statisticians, and other scholars to guide how things are measured. 3. The purpose of measurement is to obtain trustworthy data that can be used to address the study purpose and objectives, questions, or hypotheses. 4. The levels of measurement, from low to high, are ratio, interval, nominal, and ordinal.

3. The purpose of measurement is to obtain trustworthy data that can be used to address the study purpose and objectives, questions, or hypotheses. The purpose of measurement is to obtain trustworthy data that can be used to address the study purpose and objectives, questions, or hypotheses. The rules of measurement promote consistency in how individuals perform measurements; so a measurement method used by one individual will consistently produce similar results when used by another individual. Measurement theory was developed many years ago, by mathematicians, statisticians, and other scholars to guide how things are measured. The levels of measurement, from low to high, are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Prior to initiating a research study, a researcher conducts a power analysis to determine the sample size necessary for a power level of 0.8 and an alpha of 0.05. The researcher will 1. apply a quota sampling technique to improve generalizability. 2. decrease the sample size to minimize costs. 3. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error. 4. use stratified random sampling to minimize error.

3. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error.

If 100 potential participants meeting sampling criteria are approached to participate in a research study, and 5 patients refuse, then the refusal rate as a numeral would be _________________ percent.

5

The researcher understands that which of the following would be an example of systematic error? A. A thermometer that indicates the body temperature as 0.1°F higher than the accurate temperature. . B. The rapport of the subject with the data collector. C. The playfulness or seriousness of the situation during data collection. D. Variations in fatigue in subjects when measures are taken.

A. A thermometer that indicates the body temperature as 0.1°F higher than the accurate temperature. . All the temperature measures will be higher than the accurate temperature of the subject. There is no randomness to the error in measurement.

The research study has a threat to internal validity when which of the following occurs? A. A valid rival hypothesis exists. B. Findings are generalized beyond the target population. C. The results of statistical analysis are incorrectly interpreted. D. There is a mismatch between the conceptual and operational definitions.

A. A valid rival hypothesis exists. Although all the options are threats to validity, the only threat to internal validity is that of a valid rival hypothesis.

Match the definitions with the types of sampling. Subjects are not selected with probability sampling methods: A. Convenience sampling B. Probability sampling C. Cluster sampling D. Quota sampling E. Purposive sampling F. Network sampling

A. Convenience sampling Convenience sampling, also called "accidental sampling," is a weak approach because it provides little opportunity to control for biases; subjects are included in the study merely because they happen to be in the right

The risk of a type II error increases with which of the following? Select all that apply. A. Low levels of power . B. Small effect sizes . C. Type I error D. Small samples .

A. Low levels of power . B. Small effect sizes . D. Small samples . Options A, B, D are type II errors.

Which of the following would the nurse would not consider when critiquing the adequacy of a sample? A. Possibility of a type I error . B. Potential biases in the sample C. Sample size D. Sampling criteria

A. Possibility of a type I error . Type I error is not useful in judging the adequacy of a sample. The risk of a type II error, formally examined using power analysis, is prevented with an adequate sample size.

Which of the following is a type of nonprobability sampling? A. Purposive . B. Simple random C. Stratified D. Systematic

A. Purposive . Purposive or judgmental sampling is a nonprobability sampling method that involves the conscious selection by the researcher of certain subjects or elements to include in a study. Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and systematic sampling are probability

. A researcher conducting a qualitative study knows that saturation of information has occurred when A. additional sampling reveals redundant information. B. data collected confirms theoretical models. C. subjects participating are representative of the general population. D. the desired sample size has been reached.

A. additional sampling reveals redundant information.

- number and percentage of study participants who agree to take part in a study. The percentage is calculated by dividing the number of participants agreeing to participate by the number approached. For example, if 100 subjects are approached and 90 agree to participate, the acceptance rate is 90%: (90 / 100) x 100% = 0.90 x 100% = 90%.

Acceptance rate

focus group

Allow to express your feelings, ideas

13. Which intervention should be included in research designs that test causality? A. An experimental test of the treatment as it is commonly provided B. Carefully developed to provide the most effective treatment possible . C. Designed to minimize the differences between groups D. Unknown to increase knowledge of its usefulness

B. Carefully developed to provide the most effective treatment possible . An intervention for an experimental study should be carefully developed and the study designed to maximize the differences between groups, thus increasing the chances of demonstrating that the treatment is effective.

How can the adequacy of a quantitative study's sample size best be evaluated? A. Analyzing the samples of previous studies B. Conducting a power analysis C. Determining the number of subjects in the target population D. Examining the design validity

B. Conducting a power analysis A power analysis is the best way to determine the adequacy of the sample size to protect against making a type II error in quantitative studies. Power is the capacity of the study to detect differences or relationships that exist in the population.\

What type of design validity is concerned with the fit between the conceptual and operational definitions of variables and that the instrument measures what it is supposed to in the study? A. External validity B. Construct validity C. Internal validity D. Statistical conclusion validity

B. Construct validity Construct validity is concerned with the fit between the conceptual and operational definitions of variables and that the instrument measures what it is supposed to in the study? External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the study. Internal validity is focused on determining if study findings are accurate or are the result of extraneous variables. Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world.

The sample includes adults over the age of 18, able to read and speak English, and hospitalized for their first abdominal surgery. What is this an example of? A. Exclusion sampling criteria B. Inclusion sampling criteria C. Population statistics D. Sample characteristics

B. Inclusion sampling criteria Adults over the age of 18, able to read and speak English, and hospitalized for their first abdominal surgery are examples of inclusion sampling criteria. Inclusion criteria are those characteristics that the subject or element must possess to be part of the target population. Exclusion criteria identify participants that are ineligible to join the study. Population and sample characteristics are descriptive features of the population.

Nurse researchers wanted to study the characteristics of parents who have abused their children. They initially identified parents who consented to participate in the study. Next, they asked these subjects to identify other individuals who might participate in the study. What sampling method was used in this study? A. Convenience B. Network . A. Purposive B. Systematic

B. Network . Network or snowball sampling takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to have characteristics in common to identify subjects who would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain in any other way. Convenience sampling, also called accidental sampling, is a relatively weak approach because it provides little opportunity to control for biases; subjects are included in the study merely because they happen to be in the right place at the right time. Purposive or judgmental sampling is a nonprobability sampling method that involves the conscious selection by the researcher of certain subjects or elements to include in a study. Systematic sampling is used when an ordered list of all members of the population is available. The process involves selecting every kth individual on the list, using a starting point selected randomly.

Match the definition with the types of sampling. Sample selection ensures that each element has a chance to be selected for the study. A. Convenience sampling B. Probability sampling C. Cluster sampling D. Quota sampling E. Purposive sampling F. Network sampling

B. Probability sampling . In probability sampling, every member (element) of the population has a probability higher than zero of being selected for the sample. To achieve this probability, the sample is obtained randomly.

When the nurse is critiquing a study, it is important to identify which of the following possible sources of bias? A. Establishing a control group B. Purposive sampling. C. Random assignment D. Timed intervention

B. Purposive sampling Purposive sampling is a nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgment about who will be most informative. Subjects may be selected in a biased way. C. Random assignment

When the nurse is critiquing a study, it is important to identify which of the following possible sources of bias? A. Establishing a control group B. Purposive sampling . C. Random assignment D. Timed intervention

B. Purposive sampling . Purposive sampling is a nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgment about who will be most informative. Subjects may be selected in a biased way.

Which of the following is not an example of a scale? A. Likert B. Questionnaire C. Rating D. Visual analog

B. Questionnaire A questionnaire is not a type of scale. The scale, a form of self-report, is a more precise means of measuring phenomena than a questionnaire. The Likert scale is designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study subjects. Rating scales are the crudest form of measurement involving scaling techniques. The visual analog scale (VAS) is typically used to measure strength, magnitude, or intensity of individuals' subjective feelings, sensations, or attitudes about symptoms or situations.

Which of the following is not an example of a scale? A. Likert B. Questionnaire Correct C. Rating D. Visual analog

B. Questionnaire Correct A questionnaire is not a type of scale. The scale, a form of self-report, is a more precise means of measuring phenomena than a questionnaire. The Likert scale is designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study subjects. Rating scales are the crudest form of measurement involving scaling techniques. The visual analog scale (VAS) is typically used to measure strength, magnitude, or intensity of individuals' subjective feelings, sensations, or attitudes about symptoms or situations.

A researcher was conducting a phenomenological study of the lived experience of losing a limb. A convenience sampling method was used to obtain subjects. Subjects were recruited for the study until an equal number of males and females were obtained. The total sample was 14 (7 males and 7 females). What is the sampling method used in this study? A. Purposive B. Quota C. Stratified random

B. Quota The sampling method described in this example is quota sampling. Quota sampling is a convenience sampling technique with an added strategy to ensure the inclusion of subjects who are likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample, such as women, minority groups, and undereducated people.

The number of participants or sample size in a qualitative study is adequate when which of the following occurs? A. A power analysis indicates the power of 0.8 is achieved. B. Saturation of data is achieved, and additional subjects provide no new information. C. The sample size is large enough to identify differences between groups in the study. D. The statistical analysis techniques identify significant findings.

B. Saturation of data is achieved, and additional subjects provide no new information. In qualitative studies, the sample size is adequate when saturation of data is achieved in the study area. Saturation of data occurs when additional sampling provides no new information, only redundancy of previously collected data. Power analysis, finding significant differences between groups, and using statistical analyses to identify significant findings are important in judging the adequacy of sample size in quantitative studies.

The number of participants or sample size in a qualitative study is adequate when which of the following occurs? A. A power analysis indicates the power of 0.8 is achieved. B. Saturation of data is achieved, and additional subjects provide no new information. C. The sample size is large enough to identify differences between groups in the study. D. The statistical analysis techniques identify significant findings.

B. Saturation of data is achieved, and additional subjects provide no new information. In qualitative studies, the sample size is adequate when saturation of data is achieved in the study area. Saturation of data occurs when additional sampling provides no new information, only redundancy of previously collected data. Power analysis, finding significant differences between groups, and using statistical analyses to identify significant findings are important in judging the adequacy of sample size in quantitative studies.

Match the definitions with the types of sampling. Phenomenon that occurs when the selected subjects—measurement values vary in some way from those of the population: A. Random variation B. Systemic variation . C. Target Population D. Sampling frame

B. Systemic variation . Systematic variation, or systematic bias—a serious concern in sampling—is a consequence of selecting subjects whose measurement values differ in some specific way from those of the population. This difference usually is expressed as a difference in the average (or mean) values between the sample and the population.

In a study of patients who have dementia, a researcher wishes to examine the effects of moderate exercise on patients' abilities to perform self-care. The researcher decides to use subjects between 70 and 80 years of age who have been diagnosed with dementia for less than 1 year. A patient who is 65 years old meets A. eligibility criteria. B. exclusion criteria. C. inclusion criteria. D. sampling criteria.

B. exclusion criteria.

Influence or action in a study that distorts the findings or slants them away from the true or expected

Bias:

A researcher asked nurses in a hospital to participate in a study that examined the leadership of the hospital. A total of 500 subjects were asked to participate, and 200 consented to be in the study. What is the refusal rate for this study? A. 20% B. 40% C. 60% . D. 80%

C. 60% . Five hundred subjects were asked to participate and 300 refused. The refusal rate is 300 ÷ 500 = 60%. The acceptance rate was 200 ÷ 500 = 40%.

The nurse researcher understands that bias is a serious problem in a study because of its effect is to which of the following? A. Change the setting of the study B. Control the study findings C. Distort the study findings . D. Reduce change of error

C. Distort the study findings .

Which of the following is considered the most powerful design a researcher can use to examine causality? A. Correlational B. Descriptive C. Experimental . D. Quasi-experimental

C. Experimental . The experimental design is chosen to obtain a true representation of cause and effect by the most efficient means. The purpose of a correlational design is to examine relationships between or among two or more variables in a single group in a study. A descriptive study may be used to develop theories; identify problems with current practice; make judgments about practice; or identify trends of illnesses, illness prevention, and health promotion in selected groups. Use of a quasi-experimental design facilitates the search for knowledge and examination of causality in situations in which complete control is not possible.

The nurse researcher is explaining the purpose of control in a study design. This would include which of the following? A. Establish the credibility of the researcher. B. Highlight design flaws. C. Increase the probability that the results are true to reality. . D. Interfere with the validity of the findings.

C. Increase the probability that the results are true to reality. . As control increases, the likelihood that the study findings are an accurate reflection of reality increases.

In a pilot study to help train a group of data collectors who will evaluate children's pain using a FACES rating scale, the researcher examines the reliability of the scores of each data collector. This is an example of which type of reliability measure? A. Alternate forms reliability B. Internal consistency reliability C. Interrater reliability D. Test-retest reliability

C. Interrater reliability Interrater reliability measures whether two or more observers measure the same attributes. Alternate forms reliability seeks to determine whether two forms of an instrument measure the same attributes. Internal consistency reliability addresses the correlation of each question to other questions within the scale. Test-retest reliability measures whether the same attribute is consistent from one testing time to another.

. Which statement is true about systematic sampling? A. A nonrandom starting point is used when selecting subjects. B. It can be used when the desired sample size is unknown. C. It provides a random chance for inclusion as a subject. D. Subjects have an equal chance for inclusion in the study.

C. It provides a random chance for inclusion as a subject. Systematic sampling provides a random but not equal chance for inclusion.

The statement that heart disease is caused by stress, high cholesterol, gene expression, and dietary patterns reflects which perspective? A. Causality B. Effect C. Multicausality . D. Probability

C. Multicausality . Multicausality holds that several interrelating variables can be involved in causing a particular effect. Causality basically means that things have causes, and causes lead to effects. An effect is something that is produced by an agency or cause; result; consequence. Probability addresses relative rather than absolute causality.

Prior to initiating a research study, a researcher conducts a power analysis to determine the sample size necessary for a power level of 0.8 and an alpha of 0.05. The researcher will A. apply a quota sampling technique to improve generalizability. B. decrease the sample size to minimize costs. C. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error. D. use stratified random sampling to minimize error.

C. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error. The minimum acceptable level of power for a study is 0.8, which results in a 20% chance of a type II error. This study has a 40% chance of such an error and is unacceptable. To increase the power, the researcher should increase the sample size. Quota sampling and stratified random sampling do not necessarily affect a study's power.

27. The type of nonprobability design that is most likely to yield a representative sample is A. convenience sampling. B. accidental sampling. C. quota sampling. D. network sampling.

C. quota sampling. Quota sampling involves convenience sampling but adds techniques to ensure that certain subject types are represented.

Relationship that includes three conditions: 1) there must be a strong correlation between the proposed cause and effect; 2) the proposed cause must precede the effect in time; and 3) the cause must be present whenever the effect occurs

Causality:

- Degree to which an instrument actually measures the theoretic construct that it purports to measure; - this involves examining the fit between the conceptual and operational definition of a study variables.

Construct validity:

- extent to which items on a scale include the major elements relevant to the construct being measured. - Evidence for contact validity includes (1) how well the scale's items reflect the concept's description in the literature (or face validity); (2) experts' evaluation of the relevance of items that may be reported as an index; and (3) the study participants' responses to scale items

Content validity:

- nonprobability sampling technique in which subjects are included in the study who happened to be in the right place at the right time, with the addition of available subjects, until the desired sample size is reached ; - AKA referred to as accidental sampling.

Convenience sampling -

- extent to which scores on an instrument can be used to predict another variable or score; - related validity includes predictive and concurrent validity

Criterion-related validity:

Which of the following can be inferred from design validity? A. Presence of threats with serious biases B. Study integrity C. Whether the study design tests the framework propositions D. All the above

D. All the above Design validity encompasses the strengths and threats to the quality of a study design. Assessment of design validity includes all the above characteristics.

. The nurse researcher understands that a type II error may occur because of which of the following? A. A small sample B. Recently developed scales C. Minimal controls D. All the above .

D. All the above . All the options may result in a type II error.

What is the purpose of replication studies? A. To decrease the acceptance of erroneous results B. To establish the credibility of findings C. To extend the generalizability of findings D. All the above .

D. All the above . Replication of studies is critical to building a scientific body of knowledge by accomplishing all the above options.

The nurse understands that test-retest reliability includes which of the following? A. Assesses the consistency of repeated measures B. Assumes that the variable to be measured will remain the same at two testing times C. Assumes that variability in values is a result of measurement error D. All the above Correct

D. All the above Correct

The nurse understands that measurement errors can be related to which of the following? A. A theoretical framework B. Survey tools C. The difference between the true score and what is measured D. All the above Correct

D. All the above Correct Theoretical frameworks, survey tools, and true versus actual measurements can cause measurement errors because they are not congruent with the research question or hypothesis

The researcher would like to produce trustworthy data from measurements used in a study. Which of the following would the researcher ensure? A. Measurement error is reduced. B. Rules are provided to guide measurement. C. Values are assigned consistently from one subject to another. D. All the above are correct.

D. All the above are correct. To produce trustworthy data, all the options are necessary.

Which of the following is an example of random measurement error? A. Actual measures smaller than the true measure B. Including elements of hope in our measure of self-concept C. Measuring blood sugar immediately after breakfast D. Punching the wrong key when entering data into the compute

D. Punching the wrong key when entering data into the compute Punching the wrong key is an example of random error. In random measurement error, the difference between the measured value and the true value is without pattern or direction (random).

A nurse researcher conducted a grounded theory study of the self-care behavior of patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Ten subjects were selected because they were judged to have strong self-care behavior, and 10 subjects were selected because of their poor self-care behavior. What sampling method was used in this study? A. Cluster B. Convenience C. Network D. Purposive .

D. Purposive . Purposive sampling was used in this study because the researcher consciously selected subjects because they were judged to have strong or poor self-care behavior. In cluster sampling, a researcher develops a sampling frame that includes a list of all the states, cities, institutions, or clinicians with which elements of the identified population can be linked. Also known as multistage sampling, groups, not individuals, are randomly selected.

Match the definitions with the types of sampling. Technique used to select underrepresented groups in the population: A. Convenience sampling B. Probability sampling C. Cluster sampling D. Quota sampling E. Purposive sampling F. Network sampling

D. Quota sampling Quota sampling uses a convenience sampling technique with an added feature—a strategy to ensure the inclusion of subject types likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample, such as females; minority groups; and the older, poor, rich, and undereducated. The goal of quota sampling is to replicate the proportions of subgroups present in the target population.

1. Grades on a multiple choice final examination are an example of which level of measurement? A. Ordinal B. Interval C. Nominal D. Ratio

D. Ratio Grades on a multiple choice final examination are an example of ratio level of measurement. Ratio measurement is the highest level and has absolute zero points. (Rule: The data must have absolute zero.) With ordinal-level measurement, data are assigned to categories that can be ranked. Interval-level measurement uses scales, which have equal numerical distances between the intervals. Nominal-level measurement is the lowest of the four measurement categories and is used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property by the categories cannot be rank-ordered.

Which of the following methods provides a sample that is most likely to be representative of the target population? A. Convenience sampling B. Purposive sampling C. Quota sampling D. Simple random sampling

D. Simple random sampling Simple random sampling is a probability sampling method designed to achieve representativeness of the sample. Convenience, purposive, and quota sampling methods are nonprobability methods that produce a sample that has a higher potential for bias and is less representative of the population than a sample selected with a probability sampling method.

A research article states that "participants were recommended by others already in the study." What is this an example of? A. Convenience sampling B. Quota sampling C. Random sampling D. Snowball sampling .

D. Snowball sampling . AKA network sampling

. A researcher asked nurses in a hospital to participate in a study that examined the leadership of the hospital. A total of 500 subjects were asked to participate, and 200 consented to be in the study. What does the sample in this study demonstrate? A. A probability sampling method B. Quota sampling C. Representativeness D. Systematic variation .

D. Systematic variation . Systematic variation or bias is great when a large number of the potential subjects decline to participate in a study, resulting in a high refusal rate. In this study, 300 subjects refused to participate for a 60% refusal rate.

A researcher asked nurses in a hospital to participate in a study that examined the leadership of the hospital. A total of 500 subjects were asked to participate, and 200 consented to be in the study. What does the sample in this study demonstrate? A. A probability sampling method B. Quota sampling C. Representativeness D. Systematic variation .

D. Systematic variation . Systematic variation or bias is great when a large number of the potential subjects decline to participate in a study, resulting in a high refusal rate. In this study, 300 subjects refused to participate for a 60% refusal rate.

A researcher selected only people with a high intelligence quotient (IQ) to be in her study so that they would perform well on the multiple-choice tests administered to measure the subjects' knowledge in the study. This study demonstrates which of the following? A. Cluster sample B. Representative sample C. Stratified random sample D. Systematic variation in the sample .

D. Systematic variation in the sample . Systematic variation or bias is a consequence of selecting subjects whose measurement values differ in some specific way from those of the population. In this example, the subjects selected had a mean IQ higher than the members of the population. In cluster sampling, a researcher develops a sampling frame that includes a list of all the states, cities, institutions, or clinicians with which elements of the identified population can be linked. Representative sample is a sample whose characteristics are comparable to those of the population from which it is drawn. Stratified random sampling is used in situations in which the researcher knows some of the variables in the population that are critical for achieving representativeness.

Control techniques are used in studies by researchers to increase which of the following? A. Applicability B. Generalizability C. Reliability D.Validity

D. Validity The purpose of a design is to maximize control over factors that can interfere with the validity of the findings. Just as the blueprint for a house must be individualized to the specific house being built, so must the design be made specific to a study. The control provided by the design increases the probability that the study results will accurately reflect reality.

Which of the following scales measures pain with facial expressions instead of numbers? A. Likert scale B. Rating scale C. Semantic differential scale D. Visual analog scale

D. Visual analog scale This is a visual analog scale. The Likert scale is designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study subjects. Rating scales are the crudest form of measurement involving scaling techniques. The semantic differential scale is composed of a set of scales that use pairs of adjectives that reflect opposite feelings.

According to sampling theory, findings can be generalized to the A. individuals in the same social class as the sample. B. individuals receiving care in the same type of setting. C. sample under study. D. target population

D. target population One should be able to generalize findings to the target population.

20. Match the definitions with the types of sampling. Specific selection of subjects with certain characteristics by the investigator to be in the study: A. Convenience sampling B. Probability sampling C. Cluster sampling D. Quota sampling E. Purposive sampling . F. Network sampling

E. Purposive sampling . With purposeful sampling, sometimes referred to as "judgmental" or "selective sampling," the researcher consciously selects certain participants, elements, events, or incidents to include in the study.

- degree to which the phenomenon studied is present in the population or to which the null hypothesis is false. In examining relationships, it is the degree or size of the association between variables; also refers to the effectiveness of an intervention in quasi-experimental and experimental research.

Effect size

What do you call population in a sample?

Elements, Subjects sometimes called your participant

Compares two versions of the same instruments or two observers measuring the same event.

Equivalence:

Match the definitions with the types of sampling. Securing individuals through social contacts for the study: A. Convenience sampling B. Probability sampling C. Cluster sampling D. Quota sampling E. Purposive sampling F. Network sampling .

F. Network sampling .

AKA internal consistency reliability, addresses the correlation of each question to other questions within the scale.

Homogeneity,

What is the characteristic of the subjects that will allow them to be a part of the target population or study?

Inclusion sampling criteria

quantification of abstract concepts that are measured by the extent to which the indicators or attributes of the concepts are present. Scales are examples of indirect measures, such as the use of the FACES pain scale to measure pain. involves measuring abstract concepts such as anxiety or feelings

Indirect measures / indicators

Structured or unstructured verbal communication between the researcher and study participant during which data are collected for a study

Interview:

Organized set of rules for assigning numbers to objects so that a hierarchy in measurement from low to high is established. The levels of measurement are ratio, ordinal, nominal, and interval RONI

Levels of measurement:

- type of scale designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study participants. - It contains a number of declarative statements, each of which if followed by a response scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree; other response scale descriptor may be used

Likert scale:

type of scale designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study participants. It contains a number of declarative statements, each of which if followed by a response scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree; other response scale descriptor may be used.

Likert scale:

Lowest of quantification used when data can be organized into exclusive and exhaustive categories, but the categories cannot be compared or ranked-ordered. EXAMPLE: Variables such as gender, race, marital status, and diagnoses are measured at THIS level.

Nominal-level measurement:

- techniques in which not every element of the population has an opportunity for selection, - such as convenience sampling, quota sampling, purposive sampling, network sampling, and theoretical sampling.

Nonprobability sampling - non random sampling

- probability that a statistical test will detect a significant difference or relationship if one exists, which is the capacity to reject a null hypothesis .ly

Power

- technique used to determine the risk of a type II error so that the study can be modified to decrease the risk if necessary and ensure that the study has adequate sample size. Conducting a power analysis includes alpha (level of significance), effect size, and standard power of 0.8 to determine the sample size for a study.

Power analysis

- a sampling technique in which every member (element) of the population has a probability higher than zero of being selected for the sample, - such as simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.

Probability sampling:

- Selection of participants who possess certain characteristics, - such as having experience or being knowledgeable of the culture or phenomenon for a qualitative study. - The researcher selects the participants consciously, making this a nonprobability or nonrandom sampling method.

Purposive:

nonprobability convenience sampling technique in which th proportion of identified groups is predetermined by the researcher to increase the sample's representativeness of the population.. --Sampling may be used to ensure the inclusion of study participants who are likely to be underrepresented

Quota sampling:

- percentage of potential subjects who declined to participate in the study. The study should include their reasons for not participating. - This rate is calculated by dividing the number refusing to participate by the number of potential subjects approached and then multiplied by 100%. For example, if 100 subjects approached, and 10 refuse to participate, the refusal rate is (15 / 100) X 100% = 0.15 x 100% = 15%.

Refusal rate

Blueprint for conducting a study; maximimizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings and guides the planning and implementation of a study in a way that is most likely to achieve the intended goal.

Research design:

location where experiment took place

Research setting

Who causes bias in the research?

Researcher, participants, the duration of the study, measurement tools

- number and percentage of participants who drop out of a study before it is completed, creating a threat to the internal validity of the study. - This rate is calculated by dividing the number of participants dropping out of a study by the original sample size. For example, if the sample size was 200, and 20 participants dropped out of the study, then (20 / 200) x 100% = 10%.

Sample attrition

defines the selected group of people or elements

Sample:

- list of the characteristics essential for inclusion or exclusion in the target population.

Sampling criteria / eligibility criteria

- Nonrandom measurement error that occurs consistently with the same magnitude and in the same direction; f - or example, a weight scale that inaccurately weighs all participants 3 pounds heavier than their actual weight.

Systematic measurement error:

- Method of sampling often used during grounded theory studies; - involves recruiting eligible participants on the basis of their ability to advance the emergent theory.

Theoretical sampling

Occurs when the researcher concludes that no significant difference exists between the samples examined when, in fact, a difference exists. - The null hypothesis is regarded as true when it is, in fact, false.

Type II error:

A researcher plans to utilize a systematic random sampling method from a population of 5000 eligible subjects, using a sample of 200 subjects. Beginning at a randomly selected point on the list of subjects, what is the gap between elements? a. 25 b. 50 c. 100 d. 200

a. 25 In systematic sampling, the researcher selects every kth individual on a list, beginning at a randomly selected starting point. The population size is divided by the desired sample size to give the gap between elements. 5000/200 = 25. A gap of 50 between elements would be . for a sample size of 100 subjects. A gap of 100 between elements would be . for a sample size of 50 subjects. A gap of 200 between elements would be . for a sample size of 25 subjects

When conducting a study in which it is not possible to determine the true number of subjects who meet eligibility criteria and obtaining a random sample would be time consuming and expensive, the researcher will use which sampling method? a. Cluster sampling b. Simple random sampling c. Stratified random sampling d. Systematic sampling

a. Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is often used when the researcher is unable to identify the individual elements making up the population and when obtaining a random sample is time consuming or expensive. Simple random sampling is the most basic random sampling technique and is usually used when the population is clearly identifiable.

A nurse conducts a study to examine the effects of a new intervention on FEV1 levels in patients with COPD and uses all patients admitted to a hospital during a 2-month period. This is an example of which type of sampling method? a. Convenience b. Network c. Quota d. Random

a. Convenience In convenience sampling, the researcher uses subjects as they are available until the desired sample size is reached. Network sampling uses social networks to obtain subjects who might not be readily accessible otherwise. Quota sampling involves convenience sampling but adds techniques to ensure that certain subject types are represented. Random sampling attempts to ensure that all potential subjects have equal, random chances to participate

6. A researcher studying the effects of an intervention on symptoms measures the time from intervention to absence of symptoms and reports this in the number of days. This measure represents which level of measurement? a. Interval b. Nominal c. Ordinal d. Ratio

a. Interval Interval level measurement uses interval scales, which have equal numerical distances between intervals. Nominal level measurement is used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property, such as a disease diagnosis, but when categories cannot be rank ordered. Ordinal level measurement is used when data collected can be rank ordered. Ratio level measurement uses all aspects of other types of measurement: mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, ordered ranks, equally spaced intervals, and a continuum of values

. A researcher may use which strategy to reduce the potential for measurement error when evaluating obesity in study subjects? a. Measure weight, abdominal girth, and BMI on all subjects. b. Train multiple data collectors to take measurements. c. Use scales in several different clinical settings to obtain data. d. Utilize a single measure, such as BMI, applied to all subjects.

a. Measure weight, abdominal girth, and BMI on all subjects. Obesity is less precise than some concepts, so multiple methods to measure obesity should be used to minimize measurement error. Using multiple data collectors and multiple instruments, such as scales, increases the risk of measurement error. Using multiple data collectors and multiple instruments, such as scales, increases the risk of measurement error. Obesity is less precise than some concepts, so multiple methods to measure obesity should be used to minimize measurement error.

Which of the following are accurate statements about the research setting when conducting research? Select all that apply. a. Three common settings for conducting nursing studies are natural, partially controlled, and highly controlled. b. All studies are strengthened by having more than one setting, making the sample more representative of the accessible population. c. The selection of a setting in quantitative and qualitative research is based on the purpose of the study, accessibility of the setting or sites, and number and types of participants available in the setting. d. Laboratories are considered a highly controlled setting in which experimental studies often are conducted. e. Conducting a study in a natural setting means that the researcher manipulates or changes the environment for the study.

a. Three common settings for conducting nursing studies are natural, partially controlled, and highly controlled. c. The selection of a setting in quantitative and qualitative research is based on the purpose of the study, accessibility of the setting or sites, and number and types of participants available in the setting. d. Laboratories are considered a highly controlled setting in which experimental studies often are conducted.

A researcher wishes to study the effects of a nursing intervention on children with cancer and obtains a sample of school-age children hospitalized for cancer treatment in a local hospital. This sample represents the a. accessible population. b. general population. c. target population. d. theoretical population.

a. accessible population.

A study in which subjects are assigned by the researcher into experimental and control groups increases a. bias. b. control. c. manipulation d. validity.

a. bias. Bias occurs when the attitudes or motivations of the researcher cause a deviation from a true measurement of the study variables. This may occur when researchers control assignment to study groups. Control is used to manage manipulation of variables and to reduce extraneous factors in the environment that might alter outcomes. Manipulation of independent variables is used to evaluate changes in dependent variables. Researcher control over assignment into groups does not increase a study's validity

The benefit to using a sample that utilizes narrow sampling criteria is that there is increased a. control of extraneous variables. b. generalizability. c. heterogenicity. d. range of values and scores.

a. control of extraneous variables. A sample that is narrowly defined is more homogeneous and has greater control of extraneous variables. The narrower the sample,the less generalizable it is. A narrow sample is homogeneous, not heterogeneous. A narrow sample will have a smaller range of values and scores.

A pilot study reveals a wide variation in measurement values among subjects with an overall mean value that is higher than among the general population. By increasing the sample size in a subsequent study, the researcher expects to a. decrease the variation of scores among subjects. b. increase the variation of scores among subjects. c. decrease the mean value of scores among subjects. d. increase the mean value of scores among subjects.

a. decrease the variation of scores among subjects. The random variation of scores is the expected difference in values that occurs when different subjects from the same sample are examined. As sample size is increased, this variation decreases. The systematic variation is related to selecting subjects whose measurement values differ from those of the population. Increasing the sample size has no effect on mean scores.

Can purposive (purposeful) sampling cause bias? a. yes b. no

a. yes JUDGEMENTAL or SELECTIVE = creating bias

Which setting is the most highly controlled setting? a. A nursing home unit b. A research sleep lab c. A school-based clinic d. An intensive care unit

b. A research sleep lab

Which of these sampling techniques is least likely to produce findings that are generalizable to a larger population? a. Cluster b. Convenience c. Quota d. Systematic

b. Convenience There is little opportunity to control for bias in a convenience sample.

Which of the following are true statements about external validity? Select all that apply. a. External validity is concerned with the fit between the conceptual and operational definitions of variables and that the instrument measures what it is supposed to in the study. b. External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the study. c. External validity is focused on determining if the study findings are accurate or are the result of extraneous variables. d. Threats to external validity include mono-operation bias and inadequate definitions of constructs. e. Threats to external validity include interaction of selection and intervention, setting and intervention, and/or history and intervention. f. Threats to external validity include participation selection, participant attrition, history, and maturation.

b. External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the study. e. Threats to external validity include interaction of selection and intervention, setting and intervention, and/or history and intervention.

1. Which of the following are true statements about randomized controlled trials (RCTs)? Select all that apply. a. The RCT design is noted to be the weakest methodology for testing the effectiveness of an intervention. b. In a RCT design, participants are randomized to the intervention and control groups to reduce selection bias. c. Blinding or withholding of study information from data collectors, participants, and their healthcare providers can enhance the potential for bias. d. RCTs may be carried out in a single setting or in multiple geographic locations to decrease sample size and obtain a more representative sample. e. RCTs, when appropriately conducted, are considered the gold standard for determining the effectiveness of healthcare interventions.

b. In a RCT design, participants are randomized to the intervention and control groups to reduce selection bias. e. RCTs, when appropriately conducted, are considered the gold standard for determining the effectiveness of healthcare interventions In a RCT design, participants are randomized to the intervention and control groups to reduce selection bias. RCTs, when appropriately conducted, are considered the gold standard for determining the effectiveness of healthcare interventions. An RCT design is noted to be the strongest methodology for testing the effectiveness of an intervention. Blinding or withholding of study information from data collectors, participants, and their healthcare providers can reduce the potential for bias. RCTs may be carried out in a single setting or in multiple geographic locations to increase sample size and obtain a more representative sample.

A nurse researcher understands there are numerous concepts relevant to quantitative research designs. What concept best describes the following example, "Patient diagnosis, age, pre-surgical condition, and complications after surgery are interrelated causes of the length of patients' hospital stays"? a. Probability b. Multicausality c. Causality d. Bias

b. Multicausality

A researcher conducts a study to identify the relationship of lifestyle choices to the development of chronic diseases. The researcher surveys subjects and identifies diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, and renal disease in study subjects. These measures represent which level of measurement? a. Interval b. Nominal c. Ordinal d. Ratio

b. Nominal Nominal level measurement is used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property, such as a disease diagnosis, but when categories cannot be rank ordered. Ordinal level measurement is used when data collected can be rank ordered. Ratio level measurement uses all aspects of other types of measurement: mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, ordered ranks, equally spaced intervals, and a continuum of values.

A researcher conducts a survey of patients seen in an inner-city ambulatory clinic to determine barriers to receiving health care. The target population includes African-American, Hispanic, and Somali immigrant patients, as well as a variety of foreign-born students from a nearby university. The researcher chooses subjects from the African-American, Hispanic, and Somali immigrant populations to participate. This is which type of sampling? a. Network b. Purposive c. Quota d. Theoretical

b. Purposive With purposive sampling, the researcher consciously selects certain participants to include in the study and may or may not include all typical subject types. Network sampling takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to have characteristics in common. Quota sampling involves techniques to ensure that certain subject types are represented to improve the representativeness of the total population. Theoretical sampling is used in qualitative research to develop a selected theory and subjects are selected based on their ability to provide relevant, varied, and rich information for theory generation

A researcher begins a study with 250 subjects, and 50 subjects drop out before the study is concluded. The researcher will declare 20% as the sample a. acceptance rate. b. attrition rate. c. refusal rate. d. retention rate.

b. attrition rate.

A researcher conducts a quasi-experimental study to determine whether there is improved weight gain among premature infants who are fed according to cue-based protocols. The researcher trained neonatal intensive care nurses to apply cue-based feeding to orally fed infants and notes a statistical difference in weight gain between infants fed according to cue-based protocols and those fed according to standard protocols. The reviewer notes that parents who gave consent to participate in the study were from a higher socioeconomic class than the population. This is a threat to a. construct validity. b. external validity. c. internal validity. d. statistical conclusion validity.

b. external validity. External validity is concerned with the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the study sample.

A researcher develops a 7-point Likert scale to evaluate fefeelings of well-being in patients who are undergoing chemotherapy. The researcher administers this measure to other similar patients in other medical centers. This is done to a. decrease mono-operation bias. b. improve the test-retest reliability. c. increase interrater reliability. d. strengthen the operational definition of constructs.

b. improve the test-retest reliability. To improve the reliability of the measurement tool, it should be tested in various settings to determine whether it gives consistent measures each time it is used. Mono-operation bias occurs when only one measure is used to evaluate an outcome. Interrater reliability refers to consistent results that occur when various people administer study measures. Evaluating the consistency of a measurement tool does not affect the operational definition of constructs

- Is the sample great than the population? a. yes b.No

b.No

Which statement is true about a quantitative research design? a. A research design is a blueprint for conducting a quantitative study that minimizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings. b. A research design is a blueprint for conducting a quantitative study that minimizes control over factors that could interfere with the reliability of the findings. c. A research design is a blueprint for conducting a quantitative study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings. d. A research design is a blueprint for conducting a quantitative study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the reliability of the findings.

c. A research design is a blueprint for conducting a quantitative study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings.

Which type of research design focuses on implementation of a treatment by the researcher? a. Correlational b. Descriptive c. Experimental d. Longitudinal

c. Experimental Experimental and quasi-experimental studies are designed to examine causality between a researcher-implemented treatment and a study outcome.

. Which type of setting is most commonly used in qualitative research? a. Controlled b. Multiple c. Natural d. Partially controlled

c. Natural

. Among subjects with coronary artery disease, a researcher identifies three levels of symptoms which can be categorized by severity. This represents which level of measurement? a. Interval b. Nominal c. Ordinal d. Ratio

c. Ordinal Ordinal level measurement is used when data collected can be rank ordered. Interval level measurement uses interval scales, which have equal numerical distances between intervals. Nominal level measurement is used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property, such as a disease diagnosis, but when categories cannot be rank ordered. Ratio level measurement uses all aspects of other types of measurement: mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, ordered ranks, equally spaced intervals, and a continuum of values.

A researcher wishes to examine whether a teaching program for parents increases adherence to a drug regimen among children with seizure disorders. A convenience sample of children in a large teaching hospital is proposed. To prevent confounding of the results by socioeconomic status and type of health insurance, the researcher will utilize which additional sampling technique? a. Cluster b. Network c. Quota d. Theoretical

c. Quota Sampling may be used to ensure the inclusion of study participants who are likely to be underrepresented

To decrease the probability of systematic variation in a study to evaluate the effects of a teaching program on disease management, the researcher will use which sampling process? a. Cluster sampling b. Convenience sampling c. Random sampling d. Systematic sampling

c. Random sampling Random sampling decreases the probability of systematic bias.

. To attribute causality of a posttest measure in an experimental study, the independent variable will be a. administered to control group subjects only. b. administered to subjects selected by the researcher. c. administered to treatment group subjects. d. defined loosely to avoid bias.

c. administered to treatment group subjects.

A nursing professor administers three versions of a final examination to a class of students and compares the examinations for reliability. This is a measure of a. homogeneity. b. interrater reliability. c. equivalence. d. test-retest reliability.

c. equivalence. Alternate forms reliability, or stability, seeks to determine whether two forms of an instrument measure the same attributes.

26. A researcher wishes to study the effects of effective sleep hygiene on sleep quality and behavior among children diagnosed with attention deficit disorder. To minimize mono-operation bias, the researcher will a. accurately describe conceptual and operational definitions. b. adequately discuss construct validity in the introduction. c. evaluate multiple sleep hygiene techniques. d. utilize a double-blind data collection methodology.

c. evaluate multiple sleep hygiene techniques. Mono-operation bias occurs when only one method of measurement is used to assess a construct and can be minimized with the use of multiple measures.

A researcher conducts a study to examine possible contributors to glycemic control in a group of subjects who have type 2 diabetes mellitus in a local community. A convenience sample of patients includes patients from 28 to 65 years old who range in weight from normal to obese, with time since diagnosis ranging from several months to several years. To determine causality in this study, the researcher will a. discuss outcomes in terms of the probability that education will improve glycemic control. b. increase the manipulation of the independent variable to allow greater control by the researcher. c. identify multicausal variables that may influence the outcome of glycemic control measures. d. limit the study to younger persons only to minimize the effects of extraneous variables.

c. identify multicausal variables that may influence the outcome of glycemic control measures. Multicausality is the presence of multiple causes for an effect. In this study, patient age, weight, and length of time of diagnosis may all influence the outcome and should be addressed as factors that may alter the results. Probability addresses relative and not absolute causality and may be used when given effects are not produced consistently. In this case, increasing the manipulation of the independent variable does not alter the influence of multiple causes. Limiting the study to patients of a certain age only controls for one extraneous variable.

Prior to initiating a research study, a researcher conducts a power analysis to determine the sample size necessary for a power level of 0.8 and an alpha of 0.05. The researcher will a. apply a quota sampling technique to improve generalizability. b. decrease the sample size to minimize costs. c. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error. d. use stratified random sampling to minimize error.

c. increase the sample size to avoid a type II error.

A researcher reviews demographic characteristics of potential study subjects, such as age and gender, to determine whether these characteristics may influence the outcome of the study. This is done to help ensure a. construct validity. b. external validity. c. internal validity. d. statistical conclusion validity.

c. internal validity. Internal validity looks at the influence of extraneous variables on study outcomes. Construct validity is concerned with the fit between conceptual and operational variables and requires adequate conceptual and operational definitions.

In a quasi-experimental study using a convenience sample of subjects from a local high school, the researcher asks potential subjects to volunteer for placement in either a "low sugar" diet program or a "regular sugar" diet program. This technique for assigning participation may compromise a. construct validity. b. external validity. c. internal validity. d. statistical conclusion validity.

c. internal validity. Internal validity looks at the influence of extraneous variables on study outcomes.

8. The nurse researcher understands that the levels of measurement, from low to high, are a. nominal, interval, ratio, and ordinal. b. nominal, ordinal, ratio, and interval. c. nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. d. nominal, interval, ordinal, and ratio.

c. nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. The traditional levels of measurement were developed by Stevens (1946), who organized the rules for assigning numbers to objects so that a hierarchy in measurement was established. The levels of measurement from low to high are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio (NOIR).

A researcher wishes to conduct a survey of attitudes about illness among young adults with cystic fibrosis. The researcher contacts a nearby regional medical cystic fibrosis clinic, where 250 young adults who have cystic fibrosis are seen. A group of 50 young adults are selected to complete the survey. These 50 people are the a. accessible population. b. elements of the population. c. sample population. d. target population

c. sample population.

A nurse researcher compares the outcomes of administration of a bronchodilator either via nebulizer or by metered-dose inhaler and collects data on subjects in a pediatric inpatient hospital unit. This is an example of which type of setting? a. Controlled b. Field c. Natural d. Partially controlled

d. Partially controlled

A researcher conducts a quasi-experimental study to determine whether there is appropriate weight gain among premature infants who are fed according to cue-based protocols. The researcher trained neonatal intensive care nurses to apply cue-based feeding to orally fed infants and notes a statistical difference in weight gain between infants fed according to cue-based protocols and those fed according to standard protocols. The reviewer critiquing the study notes that not all nurses completed the cue-based feeding module. This would affect which type of validity? a. Construct validity b. External validity c. Internal validity d. Statistical conclusion validity

d. Statistical conclusion validity Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions based on statistical analyses are an accurate reflection of the real world. This can be threatened by anything interfering with consistent implementation of a variable, including inadequate training of individuals who implement the intervention. Construct validity is concerned with the fit between conceptual and operational variables and requires adequate conceptual and operational definitions. External validity is concerned with the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the study sample. Internal validity looks at the influence of extraneous variables on study outcomes.

.A researcher reviews study data about head circumference in newborns and notes that study personnel are measuring from the end of the measuring tape and not from the zero point, which is 1 cm from the end. This is an example of which type of measurement error? a. Indirect b. Random c. Reliability d. Systematic

d. Systematic Systematic error is the variation in measurement values from the calculated average that occurs systematically either because the instrument is also measuring something else, or because the instrument is set to a scale that is off the true measure. In this case, the personnel are inadvertently adding a centimeter to the measurements.

A researcher wishes to evaluate the management of chemotherapy side effects in children with acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). Children with ALL in this study are an example of which of the following? a. Accessible population b. Element of the population c. Sample population d. Target population

d. Target population

In a study evaluating pulse oximetry measures in infants, a researcher notes that the pulse oximeter probes are attached to infants' feet in different ways. This represents which type of measurement error? a. Environmental b. Equipment c. Subject d. User

d. User User errors are caused by the person using the equipment and can include variations by the same user, different users, or changes in supplies used to operate the equipment. Environmental error includes things such as temperature, barometric pressure, or static electricity that might affect how well the equipment works or how the subject responds. Equipment error may be related to calibration or the stability of the equipment. Subject error occurs if the subject alters the equipment or the equipment alters the subject.

. An important measure to decrease threats to internal validity in an experimental study is to a. apply the intervention consistently. b. improve the precision of measurement methods. c. increase the sample size. d. randomly assign subjects to study groups.

d. randomly assign subjects to study groups. An important threat to internal validity is any concern about subject selection and assignment to groups. Randomly assigning subjects to treatment and control groups helps to minimize this threat. Consistent application of the intervention and improved precision of measurements help minimize threats to statistical conclusion validity. Increasing sample size minimizes threats to external validity.

A researcher uses a sample whose members have characteristics like those of the population from which it is drawn. This is an example of a a. cluster sample. b. purposive sample. c. random sample. d. representative sample.

d. representative sample. Representativeness means that the sample, accessible population, and target populations are alike in as many ways as possible. Knowing a sample as a cluster sample, purposive sample, or random sample tells how it was created but does not define a representative sample.

18. A researcher conducts a pilot study using a convenience sample of children with seizure disorders. A reviewer of this study's manuscript may conclude that the findings of this study a. are generalizable to most children with seizures. b. have little credibility; they are extremely biased. c. provide no useful information. d. should be replicated using a wider population.

d. should be replicated using a wider population. Representativeness of the sample is a concern in convenience sampling, and generalizability is therefore limited. In a convenience sample, representativeness of the sample is a concern, and generalizability is therefore limited. Not all studies with a convenience sample are more biased than studies with other sampling methods.

A researcher wishes to conduct a study to determine the effects of an intervention on high school students. In this study, high school students represent the a. accessible population. b. elements of the population. c. sample population. d. target population.

d. target population.

When using stratified random sampling, the researcher can a. achieve greater control over subject selection. b. avoid discussion of the effects of extraneous variables. c. lower the costs associated with sampling. d. use a smaller sample size.

d. use a smaller sample size. With stratification, the researcher can use a smaller sample size and achieve the same degree of representativeness in relation to the stratified variable as a large sample acquired through simple random sampling. The researcher does not achieve greater control of subject selection, since random selection is still used. Discussion of extraneous variables should always occur, even with stratified random sampling techniques. There is no guarantee that costs will be less with this type of sampling technique

A researcher wishes to study the effects of preoperative teaching on anxiety levels among toddlers and preschoolers undergoing surgery. To reduce the potential for measurement error, the researcher will a. ask study subjects to describe feelings of anxiety. b. develop a new tool to measure anxiety levels in children. c. rely on multiple observers to collect data for this study. d. use a standardized checklist of anxiety behaviors.

d. use a standardized checklist of anxiety behaviors.

If you studying an intervention on elementary students? Target is the __________-

elementary students

What do we use for a Qual?

interview, written text, observation (Unstructured , Structured)

Networking aka

snowball