Response to loss of biodiversity

- What is the precautionary principle?

"where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation." Action is taken to conserve or protect a species even though there is uncertainty whether a development project, or process may threaten the loss of a species or ecological process. This principle suggests that we should not allow anything to happen that could lead to the irreversible loss of biological resources through ignorance of the impact or because we think that the resource is of no value. Our responsibility to future generations implies that we need to maintain our biological resources because of their potential future use as well as their intrinsic value.

Objectives os FFG

(a) to guarantee that all taxa of Victoria's flora and fauna can survive, flourish and retain their potential for evolutionary development in the wild (b) to conserve Victoria's communities of flora and fauna (c) to manage potentially threatening processes (d) to ensure that any use of flora or fauna by humans is sustainable (e) to ensure that the genetic diversity of flora and fauna is maintained (f) to provide programs: - of community education in the conservation of flora and fauna - to encourage co-operative management of flora and fauna through, amongst other things, the entering into of land management co-operative agreements under the Conservation, Forests and Lands Act 1987 - of assisting and giving incentives to people, including landholders, to enable flora and fauna to be conserved - to encourage the conserving of flora and fauna through co-operative community endeavours.

Convention on Biological Diversity What Level? When was it created? Who was created it by? Purpose?

- international - 1984 - United Nations Environment Program - First direct action taken by UN to protect the biodiversity of the class Purpose: The Earth's biological resources are vital to humanity's economic and social development. As a result, there is a growing recognition that biological diversity is a global asset of tremendous value to present and future generations. At the same time, the threat to species and ecosystems has never been so great as it is today. Species extinction caused by human activities continues at an alarming rate. In response, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) convened the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in November 1988 to explore the need for an. international convention on biological diversity. Soon after, in May 1989, it established the Ad Hoc Working Group of Technical and Legal Experts to prepare an international legal instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

Nine matters that epbc act applies to

- world heritage properties - national heritage places - wetlands of international importance (often called 'Ramsar' wetlands ) - nationally threatened species and ecological communities - migratory species - Commonwealth marine areas - the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park - nuclear actions (including uranium mining) - a water resource, in relation to coal seam gas development and large coal mining development.

example of species richness limitation

An example of the limitation of the number of species is a recent survey of fish species in the Murray-Darling river system. Although over 40 species were found, only 35 of these were native fish and six of these species are rare, including the Murray Cod and the Trout Cod. In addition, most of the individual fish recorded were introduced species, the most significant being the European Carp.

Define Endemic

Animal or plant that is native or restricted to a certain place

4. Captive Breeding Program:

Breeding outside natural habitat, in an environment that is closely monitored and controlled by humans. Purpose: Increases population of species, to sustain population of endangered species Can cause inbreeding if there is smaller population, genetic diversity hard to achieve Resource demanding can only be applied to a few species Minimum viable population sizes, Hybridisation is a problem Can contribute to conserving biodiversity by education Specifically breed different types of phenotypes and introduce them into the wild. Ensuring long term existence of species Healesville sanctuary: Mountain pygmy, insurance population

Determine the advantages and disadvantages of using species richness or species diversity

Disadvantages of Species Richness: - Does not detect the genetic variation that may be present within a species. - Partially represents ecosystem diversity its limitation is that it ranks each species equal, a rare - species is equal to a common species or introduced species. Advantage of Species Richness: - tell use how many type of species there are and that there are many niches - Species Richness Does not give idea how species diversity changes, how many organism individuals within each species has dropped to twenty years, this is not detected with a species richness test but is recognised in a species diversity test - Takes into account the significance of species populations. More clarity of level of diversity - Communities are considered to have a higher diversity if similar trophic level species are present in about the same numbers, rather than being dominated by only a few species. - Dominance of species

Identify factors affect different levels of biodiversity throughout the planet?

Diversity of Genes: inbreeding, reducing population sizes, removing different species colonies, - Limiting factors; physical, chemical, biological factors

- What is an Environmental Impact Assessment? - What are its aims and its overall purpose?

EIA legislation was enacted federally in Australia in 1974 and in most states in 1978 to establish procedures where potential environmental impacts of proposed developments are carefully assessed before any decision making. It is an assessment that reports the potential environmental impacts of a proposed construction or development project prior to its implementation. Aims: To ensure that likely environmental effects are considered before decisions are made To promote awareness about environmental value To encourage environmentally sensitive design, planning and management To involve the public in decision making

Example of reintroduction in Victoria

Example of Reintroduction in Victoria: Brush tailed rock wallaby being captivity bred, putting them in the wild it. Threats - Predation from invasive species (e.g. the European Fox) - Decline in genetic diversity due to low population level and long-term isolation - Large and intense bushfires - Competition - between feral goats and rabbits - Drought, disease and unpredictable events Helmeted honey eaters, did not have the behaviours to identify predators and died anyway: The species translocated has been decimated so much that can't recover

factors that threaten ecosystem diversity

Habitat destruction and habitat modification Habitat fragmentation - separation of the population of species, creating two different

Factors that threaten species diversity

Habitat destruction and habitat modification: - increases competition among species and individuals for living space, essential necessities like food. hence reduces the number of species and populations in ecological community, thus reducing biodiversity. habitat fragmentation: Exotic Species: out compete with indigenous species for niches, weed species especially dominate the region hence reducing species diversity Pollution: Sensitive species are more likely to be effected and die out, low tolerance for pollution

Factors that threaten biodiversity

Habitat destruction, loss, fragmentation, degradation, modification Pest species, Exotic species Overexploitation of plant and animal species, Poaching POLLUTION OF SOIL, WATER AND ATMOSPHERE Global Climate change

The benefits of biodiversity conservation can be categorised as follows:

I. BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES Food for humans and for cultivated animals Medicinal and pharmaceutical resources Breeding stocks, population reservoirs Resources not yet identified (future resources) Wood products Ornamental plants and animals Potential agents for crop improvement or biological control II. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Protection of water resources Soils formation and protection Nutrient storage and cycling Pollution breakdown and absorption Contribution to climate stability Maintenance of ecosystems Recovery from unpredictable events III. SOCIAL BENEFITS Research, education and monitoring Recreation & tourism Cultural values

- What is an Environmental Impact Statement (or Environmental Effects Statement)? - What does it contain? - What is required to be included

In victoria, a statement with the environment assessment of the potential environmental impacts or effects of a proposed development may be capable of having on the environment. An Environment Effects Statement (EES) usually contains: • A description of the proposed development • An outline of public and stakeholder consultation undertaken during investigations and the issues raised • A description of the existing environment that may be affected • Predictions of significant environmental effects of the proposal and relevant alternatives • Proposed measures to avoid, minimise or manage adverse environmental effects (provides safeguards and mitigation effects) • A proposed program for monitoring and managing environmental effects during project implementation.

how is species richness calculated?

Line transect Quadrats Species survey

2. Conserve Remnant Vegetation:

Management practices to conserve remnant vegetation such as improving the connection of corridors, fencing vegetation areas, replanting, and controlling the growth of weeds. The conservation of remnant vegetation is important as vegetation is rapidly disappearing due to the clearing and overgrazing of land, and also inappropriate burning. Conservation of remnant vegetation will provide social benefits, protect against salinity and soil erosion and assist in maintaining water quality Improving the connection of wildlife corridors, Social benefits, protect against salinity, soil erosion, maintenance of water quality Important as vegetation is disappearing due to threats such as deforestation, grazing Examples: Vegetation corridors control pest and animal population near remant vegetation is controlled so that is the remaining vegetation is not reduced further by fauna. Very little vegetation left, big patch in the central highlands Effectivenes of strategies include: • Vegetation corridors provide habitats, increased gene flow, reducing impact on genetic drift for animals but as a consequence they have also spread disease, genetic swamping, make corridor vulnerable to fire • Fencing is cheap, does not allow animals move between patches • Herbicides target weeds however the consumption of herbicides by animals is harmful to them Replanting increases efficiency of ecosystem, reduces co2 in air,

How effective is reintroduction?

Many reintroduction programs involving captive breeding face various difficulties. Programs have failed due to disappearance of the species from area they were introduced in, eliminated by (e.g pesticides or invasive predators). Success is likely when captively bred population are genetically similar to the original population in the area they are to be introduced in. which is difficult to achieve since individuals in the captivity program may have originated from another area, or when genetic variation in captivity is inadequate. In captivity it is paramount to simulate the habitat of the target species to encourage survival behaviors and decrease vulnerability of the reintroduced population. Furthermore, animals in programs can become overconfident with human contact, endangering them and local residents when released.

Example of translocation in victoria

National Recovery Plan for the Barred Galaxias (Galaxias fuscus) The Barred Galaxias are listed as endangered under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 as well as the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Has suffered severe decline in range and abundance due to trout predation, competition, bushfires and drought The 2009 Black Saturday bushfires had affected 50% of the known range of Barred Galaxias populations from Lake Mountain to Mt Disappointment Was translocated from Kalatha Creek and Luke Creek to Taponga River respectively Post-translocation monitoring has shown that translocated fish from both populations have survived and expanded in range at the translocated sites.

Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act

National scale: Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 This Act allows the Commonwealth to provide leadership on issues relating to the environment and recognises that states and territories need to carry out the actual management of natural resources. Aims: provide for the protection of the environment, especially matters of national environmental significance - conserve Australia's biodiversity - protect biodiversity internationally by controlling the international movement of wildlife - provide a streamlined environmental assessment and approvals process where matters of national environmental significance are involved - protect our world and national heritage - promote ecologically sustainable development.

How does conserving remnant vegetation improve biodiversity?

Provides a healthy and strong environment for native flora and fauna to live - wildlife corridors Protects soil from erosion, salinity, maintenance of high water quality as well as a constant water flow in existing rivers and streams These patches of remaining bushland are vital wildlife corridors for native species, allows gene flow. provides both food and shelter for our native species. The entire ecosystem is balanced by each component; the tree roots prevent the soil from erosion and salinity levels are maintained at healthy levels, reducing low turbidity in water. The flora and fauna of the area then have access to clean water which keeps them healthy. The healthier the organisms, the stronger the ecosystems, which results in a high biodiversity.

- Ramsar Convention -

RAMSAR is a convention responsible for conserving and preserving habitat for migratory birds at both ends of their migratory path. In this Convention a nation designates wetlands of international significance and protects these sites to ensure safe and secure areas for migratory birds to use. In Victoria we have 11 RAMSAR listed sites. international treaty however applies nationally to wetlands?

What is remnant vegetation

Remaining patches of bushland like sections of native trees, shrubs, and grasses still remaining. Clearing of vegetation is one of the threatening processes for biodiversity.

5. Wildlife habitat corridors:

Remnant, artificially generated created habitats that link larger areas of wildlife habitat. Corridors provide a means by which animals and plants seeds can move between larger areas. Habitat fragmentation mending, habitat expansion for different species Bogong highplains: 60 m in length, address conservation issues for roads, underpass, targeted for mountain pygmy possum, in order to protect and enhance biodiversity Increase habitat and biodiversity Can be overpasses or underpasses not just large Advantages: They work, increases gene flow, reduces impact of geneti drift Disadvantage: Cost a lot, can help disease spread from immune population to no immunity population Spread of disease and pest More research needs to be shown how useful they are

Shannon-weiner

Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H) This diversity index is based on the question: How difficult is it to predict correctly the species of the next individual collected? The values of the Shannon-Weiner Index usually range between 1.0 and 3.5, but can be zero in communities made up of a single species to a maximum of log S. The higher the value, the higher the species diversity. Commonly used for freshwater ecology

How is species diversity measured

Shannon-weiner and simpson's diversity index

Simpson's index

Simpson's Diversity Index (D), which is based on the probability of two specimens belonging to the same species. Simpson's Diversity Index ranges from 0, which indicates low diversity, to a maximum of (1 - 1/S), which indicates very high diversity. The index gives relatively little weight to rare species and more weight to common species.

Species diversity

Species diversity is defined as the number of species and abundance of each species that live in a particular location.

What is the difference between species richness and species diversity

Species richness is simply a count of species, whereas species diversity is the number of species and abundance of each species living in that particular location.

- Responses to the loss of biodiversity: - What are they, what do they aim to do, when do they apply? - CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was released in 1973 and seeks to restrict the commercial exploitation of endangered species in order to maintain their genetic biodiversity. international scale, country to country It requires Nations who have ratified the Convention to regulate and enforce the international trade of these species through permits, licenses and prohibitions. CITES has been largely ineffective due to: Not all nations signing and ratifying the Convention Continued illegal trading, poaching and smuggling of endangered species. CITES will allow exemptions to its rules for genuine scientific research. Research can be used as a smokescreen to continue or commence commercial trade in endangered species.

- Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act

The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (FFG Act) is the key piece of Victorian legislation for the conservation of threatened species and communities and for the management of potentially threatening processes.

Factors that affect genetic Diversity

The bottle neck effect: The few survivors, from chance events such as flood or fires, that reproduce to give the next generation may by chance be an unrepresentative sample of the original population. The Founder Effect: - When a small number of individuals from a population establish a new population genetic variation can be lost. When a small unrepresentative sample of a population leaves to colonise a new region, this is known as the founder effect. Habitat destruction: Reduces individuals in a population and species in the habitat hence instigating a loss of genetic material and thus genetic diversity. Habitat fragmentation: no gene flow between separated LBP populations, separated lbp population becomes more genetically different. small populations lead to inbreeding, more prevalent disease.

Translocation and Reintroduction How does it improve biodiversity:

Translocation in wildlife conservation is the capture, transport and release of species or other ecological material from one place to another. Reintroduction is the deliberate or accidental translocation of a species into the wild in areas where it originally existed at a certain point, but is no longer present there. Conserves species especially keystone/ indigenous species, Increase species diversity. decreasing the risk of the extinction of species. The strategy aims to increase the range of a species and establishes new populations in various different locations. This helps in ensuring the risk of the species becoming extinct is minimal. Effect of reintroduction: Involve captive breeding - problem is that the cause of extinction may still be there even if they are reindtroudcing Population your releasing is genetically similar to the population that was there is more likely to succeed Animals can be more courageous to approach urban areas endangering them If an area didn't have the species before its harder for the introduced population to the area to survive. They can also become an invasive strategy Expanding the distribution range of species Genetic biodiversity plays a big role Can fail is lack specific habitats and other survival needs, relevant to species

How effective is Translocation?

Translocation increases the range of a species to areas it has not previously inhabited. the introduced species may interfere with established relationships in the ecosystem, acting as an invasive species. Translocation programs can fail due to the lack of specific habitats and other survival needs required by the species. For translocation programs to be effective, the initial introduced population should be genetically diverse to avoid a genetic bottleneck and to make the population less susceptible to possible threats.

Effectiveness of management strategies used to conserve remnant vegetation

Vegetation corridors: Allows the movement of animals between patches, provides habitats, avenues for possible recolonisation and allowing the exchange of genes between subpopulation to reduce the impact of genetic drift and inter-breeding. However, vegetation corridors can aid the spread of disease of animals between patches, fires, suppressing genetic variation and it is costly to maintain. Fencing: cheap and controls grazing, invasive species, encourages regeneration of native plants. However, it increases the impact of gene flow as it does not allow animals to move from one patch of land to the other. Herbicides: Control weeds to allow natives to regenerate. However, herbicides may harm plants or animals who consume it. Replanting: Increases efficiency of ecosystem by increasing contact between patches of land to reduce genetic drift, provide habitat, absorb harmful gases and CO2 in the atmosphere, and help in restoring a healthy and fluent ecosystem. Cons: replanting is a time consuming, costly process.

null vs alternative hypotheis

When conducting scientific research we set up a hypothesis to test the difference between the two conditions. One type of hypothesis is the null hypothesis (denoted as H0), which states that there is NO DIFFERENCE between the two conditions. The alternative hypothesis is (H1), is that THERE IS A DIFFERENCE between conditions.

- Management strategies to conserve the Leadbeater's Possum (what is it, why is it suitable): - Captive Breeding - Wildlife Sanctuary - Translocation

Wildlife Sanctuary: protected from most human threats, introduced species, safe haven for species to populate and increase their numbers, undisturbed. Captive Breeding Program: Breeding outside natural habitat, the environment is closely monitored and controlled by humans. increases population of species, Ensuring long term existence of species Can cause inbreeding if there is smaller population, genetic diversity hard to achieve Specifically breed different types of phenotypes and introduce them into the wild. Capture and transport of species that was once present but is no longer Translocating wildlife from one location to another How does it improve biodiversity: Conserving species, keystone species Increase species diversity lbp habitat reduced, can not migrate without help of humans, habitat fragmentation is a problem however might not be able to adjust to new habitat, genes, adaptations meant for original habitat

Define ecosystem diversity

ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of different types of habitats or ecosystems available.

- What types of things can we compare using a PVA? - Management strategies

effectiveness of mangement strategies altering conditions Evaluate existing recovery efforts; Explore and evaluate the potential impacts of habitat loss or the consequences of assumptions for small populations

- How might we evaluate data from a monitoring program used to inform a PVA? - (Step 10 of a PVA) - Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index, Simpson's Diversity Index

if the index has increased from when we first applied the strategy biodiversity has increased.

- What does 'statistically significant' mean? - How does it apply to a statistical test?

is the probability that an effect is not due to just chance alone. It is an integral part of statistics hypothesis testing a result is considered significant not because it is important or meaningful, but because it has been predicted as unlikely to have occurred by chance alone The alternative hypothesis is confirmed when the 2 means have a difference of 2 or more std deviations. Thus the change is proven statistically significant hence there has been a Reliable change from the original condition..

- How would we monitor a species in the long term to gather data in a PVA? - (Step 9 of a PVA)

nest boxes surveys stag watching

What is species richness

number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape or region simply a count of the different species in that region

- What is a population viability analysis? - How is it conducted?

risk assessment that estimates the probability of a species becoming extinct for a selected time interval computer model based on mathematical modelling that determine the probability of a population surviving in its conditions. It requires data on : morphology, environment, distribution, biotic interactions, behaviour, population demography, genetics and physiology.

Define species diversity

species diversity refers to number of different species

- Identify and describe the strengths and weaknesses of the EIA process - Can it be used to stop development? Why or why not?

takes into consideration the opinions of stakeholders and the community, identifies potential harmful risks to the environment and ways to mitigate them, way of preventing unacceptable negative impact to the environment from development recommend monitoring procedures to be followed after the action is completed depsite the fact that it may conclude to reject the project it doesn't have the power to stop its development only reccommend it. No it cannot be necessarily used to stop development, it is up to the government minister who makes the final decision on whether the project should go ahead. The EIA only makes recommendations on how to minimise the negative impact of the project on the environment, whether it should go ahead or not,

Define genetic diversity

the variety of genetic information contained in individual plants, animals and micro-organisms

How is the simpson's index measured?

total number of individuals counted p = number of individuals from a species/total number of individuals from all species Simpson's index (D) = 1 - p^2

-How is standard deviation used to determine change in an ecosystem?

two means are obtained from data collected. Standard deviation is measured and if the two means are different from each other by two standard deviations then a change in the ecosystem is confirmed.

Factors that threaten cultural diversity

war, development

- When would we apply the precautionary principle?

when an endangered species, ecosystem may be potentially threatened by development

- How does the PP relate to conservation status?

wouldn't it be more significant for species that are high risk, critically endangered, vulnerable.