Rhetoric of Medicine and Health EXAM

Health: An example can be seen as we know that dieting damages iIMMUNE systems, but more than ____% of women are on diets to be "healthy." Meanwhile, ____% fail and yoyo weight changes doubles the chances of early death. But socially, diets have become not only an industry but a goal to be "healthy"

50, 95

Along with Burke, rhetorician _______ Black is a key figure in enabling a rhetorical study of health and medicine: "rhetorical discourses are those discourses, written or spoken, which aim to _______ men"

Edwin, influence

In class, we discussed how Ebola was discussed as the "I_____ of Biological A______" on CNN. With Ebola's only purpose is to d____. The disease is depicted as foreign and r______ bodies seem as impure. It has a lingering stigma that may in reality spread racist d_______ and have racist origin points.

Isis, agents, destroy, radicalized, discourses

CDC Young women should avoid alcohol unless using birth control Puts responsibility of ____ control on woman Assumes women are having sex → must avoid alchol Gov involved with _____ Assumes women want to get pregnant/be mothers

birth, body

Sontag = Type 2 diabetes is often seen as bl_________ and dehumanizing. She asserts that the body is "not a b_______" and the ill are neither "unavoidable casualties nor the e_____."

blameworthy, battlefield, enemy

• Americans are insistently encouraged to consume vast quantities of anti-anxiety drugs and antidepressants, but _______ is never publicly celebrated o Wine eases vague unease due to stress

booze

Repressive hypothesis - Foucault Supposes that since the rise of the b________, any energy on purely pleasurable activities have been frowned upon. Sex has been treated as a private, practical affair that only takes plae between a husband and a wife. Sex has been prohibited, repressed. Improper sexual feelings can be released safely in prostitution and other outlets

bourgeoisie

Sontag • Overall message: body should not be a "battlefield" and the ill are not the enemy or unavoidable ________

casualties

Genre refers to various types, classes or categories of discursive practices. The members of these classes typically have common sets of ch__________ through which the genre may be identified. Medical writing is one such class

characteristics

Hyde - Discusses the rhetoric of euthanasia. • Persuading a patient to comply with a medical d_______ is more of an art than a science

decision

However, there comes great social power when ______ things - and social implications/ influences

defining

Sontag - Metaphoric trappings d_____ the experience of having cancer, inhibit people form seeking treatment early enough, make people irrationally fearful of effective measures like chemotherapy • Disease is not a _____ punishment or embarrassing and not necessarily a death sentence • The mystifications resulting from metaphors about cancer increase death

deform, curse,

Aids sontag - • Judged not just as a weakness but d________ - addicted tod rugs or sexually deviant or promiscuous • Cancer the cells are seen as spreading rapidly, in aids the cells are seen as _______ • It is seen as a slow disease characterized in terms of s_____ • Aids is in fact treatable - induces so much guilt and shame - metaphors need to be exposed and criticized

delinquency, dying, stages

Sontag - metaphors - they inhibit people from seeking treatment _______make people irrationally f_______ of chemotherapy, and make it seem like disease is a punishment, embarrassing and a death sentence. Her take is that the m________s of cancer/metaphors causes death.

early, fearful, mystifications

• The story teller or narrator creates narratives: selecting, ________organizing, altering, fabricating events and situations • Narratives work to function aesthetically to create a _____ memorable and compelling world for the reader/audience o Instructing how they should ______t, what they should find v_____ and what situations to avoid

editing, vivid, act, valuable

Some medical problems that have recently been identified are adhd, anorexia, chronic fatigue syndrome, ptsd, sexual dysfunction, panic disorder and pms. Obesity and alcoholism used to not be widely viewed in the medical profession as a disease.

examples of medicalization

• Narratives shapes a person's or culture's e________ identities, political community

experiences

To Mary Douglas, myth is an ex________ story which emerges from a group as an expression of its origin and terms of its _________ identity.

explanatory, collective

• Personal empowerment, open choice about the body you want • We can "choose" our bodies and the surgeons are the "gatekeepers" • Wrong body rhetoric enables patients to e______their complaints - outside circumstance responsible for their bodies o Their hidden right body is masked by rong body o Nature made the body, but plastic surgery can remake it

externalize

The phrase fighting disease persuades people that they have ______ at something when they cannot stop being ill

failed

Hyde believes Its Over, Debbie is both ______ and truth, its purpose being to get readers personally involved in public moral argument. So it does not matter if it is true or fiction, it is in Hyde's eyes performing its function as a n______

fiction, narrative

Parrhesia - to speak candidly, freely and _______Occupy was an opening

frankly

• Some things can be demedicalized like

homosexuality, masturbation

Burke says that ______ is the major means by which language functions

identification

Medicalization describes the process by which nonmusical problems become defined/treated as medical (usually in terms of ____ and _____

illness, disorders

The rhetorical nature behind both medicine and health have underlying social meanings and ________s. The way we define medicine and health = this rhetorical nature

implications

Burke defines rhetoric as an art of i______ o The use of words by human agents to form ______ or to induce actions in other human agents

influence, attitudes

Narrative is a sequence of some kind in which elements of the story are i_________ and develop towards a satisfying conclusion. If a narrative fails to reflect assumptions and values of its _______ then it most likely will be judged unsatisfactorily. I

interconnected, culture

Sontag - AIDS an infectious agent comes in from the outside, ______and takes permanent residence, alien tackover o Language of political p______ o The virus "lurks" • Aids is linked to shame and guilt

invades, paranoia

• Marketing does not so much _______false needs, as suggested by cultural critics, but rather seeks to understand the ______of potential consumers

invent, desires

Genre - Human need for a frame of reference lures the mind to generic classification • Whenever we encounter an object in the world, out apprehension of the object as some point will involve -________t within some larger class

locating

Sontag: • A body is often compared to complex, integrated systems such as a m_______ or economic enterprise, or f_______ or fortress

machine, factory

Two form: the discipline of the body where the hman body is treated like a _______: productive, economically useful Appears in military, education, workplace → make a more discipline, effective population Second is the regulation of ______n, focuses on reproductive capacity of the human body Appears in demography, wealth analysis, ideology - seeks to control population on a statistical level

machine, population

Medicalization shows the increasing amount of life problems that have been defined as _____ each with social _________ that come along with this development.

medical, implications

• Egg and sperm do interact on more m______terms, biology's refusal to portray them this is way is more disturbing • Even when egg is active, its described in feminine term "preparing" for sperm "p______" • We need to wake people up to sleeping metaphors in science

mutual, protective

• The rhetoric of language conveys the ease and wonder of plastic surgery, providing individual empowerment and featured as a desirable solution for those with body image issues o Applicants persuade surgeons of the "wrong ____" of their bodies to get surgecial "correction"

ness

Medicalization describes the process by which ______ problems become defined/treated as medical (usually in terms of illness and disorders)

nonmedical

Wald describes Typhoid Mary as a healthy carrier whose _________narrative led to a new way of thinking about social relationships and social r__________ Her status as an immigrant contributed to society's blaming and stigmatizing i________s because of their association with contagious disease. This is just one example - along with the SARS one used - of the outbreak narrative which involves an evolving story of disease emergence.

outbreak, responsibility, immigrants

Foucault utilizes the theory of the p________n, which was originally a prison design in which the jail cells would all be visible from a central viewing tower, as a metaphor for the operation of power and surveillance in contemporary society.

panopticon

The Occupy Wall Street movement exercised ethical p______. It called for people to be frank, and to speak the truth. It was an opening, and an opportunity for people to make a social change and to regain control. Occupy Wall Street also spoke to precarity because the people who were protesting were without pre_______ or security. These concepts relate to Foucault's lexicon as they have to do with the notion of power struggles.

parrhesia, predictablity

Social movements, patient organizations, individual ______s, and corporate entities like the p_______industry have all played a role in the process of medicalization.

patients, pharmaceutical

The term survivor leaves dead people to seem blameworthy/______

responsible

Occupy Wall Street - demonstration against wealth that occurred recently wanting re______of wealth - against the top 1% of earners

restribution

Visual Rhetoric • Public images often work in ways that are r_______l, their function being to persuade

rhetorical

• Across times plagues have been speculated, seen as god's displeasure had social and religious explanations • Human carriers become s__________s in these narratives, communicating social responsibility to know they can effect others • Disease breakouts as foreign or alien agents

scapegoats

• Narratives do more than relate things s_______, they possess a structure and order of meaning

sequentially

Medicalization Behaviors that were once seen as immoral/abnormal have become medical moving them from connotations of "badness" to ________"

sickness

• SARs people were depicted as hyper infective individuals with the infection "spewing germs out like t________" o Termed superspreader - someone who infects large numbers of people • Human carriers brings virus to life and spreads it • Photographs of people fearing human interaction with others wearing masks • Human's futile/useless wasy of defending themselves

teakettles

• Ideology can be likened to a belief system, basic assumption guiding mode of t________. Can be seen as systems of symbols, words, expressions that are stitched together

thinking

Sontag • Illnesses are described as invasive, u______, rebellious • As medicine became more effective, more military metaphors emerged • Disease is seen as an invasion of a____ organisms to which the body responds by its own military operations o We have defenses, medicine is aggressive • Disease is described as the enemy

unnatural, alien

________ Burke contributed to the theory of constitutive rhetoric by highlighting i______ rather than persuasion

Kenneth, identification

One case that demonstrates the genre of medical writing particularly well is the T______ experiments. The Tuskegee experiment was a study conducted by the US Public Health Service to trace the natural history of untreated s_____ in adult male black men.

Tuskegee, syphilis

There are three forms of narrative; a______ i________l, and c_______

aesthetic, instrumental, constitutive

In class, we discussed a CDC warning to women of childbearing _____ warning them not to drink lest they get pregnant. Several presumptions within this warning which reveals some i______ in the United States. It aligns with the belief that a woman's responsibility is the well-being of her o______, it has the presumption that women getting intoxicated are likely having s_____, and also takes accountability away from m____ for the well-being of the child.

age, ideology, offspring, sex, men

. Disease is often described as an "invasion of _______organisms: to which the body responds with "military ________" The body mobilizes its "defenses" and medicine against disease is "aggressive" against diseases that are "war" like. However, she believes this metaphors are "trappings that _d_____ the experience of having cancer" and have real consequences.

alien, operations, deform

Cancer patients who view their disease as an enemy have higher levels of depression, a______and poorer quality of life than those who ascribe more positive meanings Also tend to report higher pain s______ and lower coping scores Patients encouraged to fight may feel they have to s______ emotional distress to avoid upsetting others

anxiety, scores, suppress

Narratives aim to be ________, push ______ and shape the way we ______ language

appealing, agenda, structure

Burke = 20th century rhetorical theorist who developed a possibly procedure for rhetorical analysis. He took A_______s teaching into account while developing his theories on rhetoric

aristotle

• Medicalization obscures the differences between placing something under the sign of public health and placing something under the ______ of doctors to p_______

authority, prescribe

Certain common life processes have been medicalized as well such as c______ infertility, aging, menopause and death.

childbirth

Narrative can be evaluated along two criteria; narrative c_______ and narrative f_______. Coherence relates to the structural elements of the narrative, how the individual elements of the narrative are organized in order to achieve its intended effect. Fidelity is the truthfulness of a narrative.

coherence, fidelity

Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes implicit c________between two unrelated things which share _______ characteristics.

comparison, common

Although all thinking is interpretation and making ________, sometimes - according to Sontag - it is correct to be "against" interpretation. She claims that the relationship between the metaphors used to describe disease has a dehumanizing factor on _________

comparisons, personhood

Rose believes that medicalization was the result of the ______ for such a thing. The markets for medicalization already existed, people had problems and medical entities such as psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies offered _______ in response to this demand.

demand, solutions

Debbie is presented as d__________and her body is the only thing of focus. The story is too unconventional and too uncertain and ambiguous...In this way, the narrative is inviting readers and opening up a space for deliberation/ calling for a _______

depersonalized, response

Beyond medicalization: • Push on a market that actually wants it - people want this comfort • Marketers don't fabricate desires _______are out there

desires

Outbreak narratives - Meanwhile, human networks become channels of d________ and people are shown as helpless in defending themselves as human interaction is inevitable. Carriers become s_______ once again emphasizing one's social responsibility.

destruction, scapegoats

Genre Medical writing often takes a d______ perspective from the patient, viewing them not as a person but rather the s_______ of an experiment, that experiment being the search for the faults which create the illness specific to the patient. As a result of this, medical writing often avoids personifying verbiage when describing their patients, sticking to r______, clinical language.

detached, subject, rigid

Burke - metaphors are a _______ for seeing something in terms of something else

device

Mary Douglas says that through observation of what a culture considers to be _______, we may learn about their culture and their sense of order. We may learn what they look down upon as dirty and what they hold sacred and try to keep clean.

dirty

Panopticon is Symbolic of the formation of a d________ society Everyone is observed and analyzed, need for surveillance to operate society efficiently

disciplinary

• Even social implications in the gendering of medicalization as women's problems have been _________medicalized

disproportionately

Tuskegee study: . The writing style used in the reports of the experiment encourages readers to d______ themselves from the subject by highlighting the differences between the groups and de_________ the men involved. These sorts of conventions in scientific writing, Solomon tells us, not only encouraged neglect of e_____ questions but reveal the impersonal detachment and p_______of the researchers involved.

distance, dehumanizing, ethical, passivity

• Ideology can be seen as presenting a d_______ picture of the world, as certain ideologies hamper ones capability to employ their own cognitive abilities • Ideologies often work to n_______ or reiterate the existing status quo

distorted, naturalize`

• Hegemony consists of the power exercised by the d_______class • It is leadership or dominance of one social group over others • Emerges basically in every sphere of life • It is a giant ____ be woven by elites to which the public is caught

dominant web

• Medicalization has profound e_______ on everyday life

effects

Martin - She also demonstrates how positive terms are used to describe sperm while negative terms are used to describe +++

eggs

• There is a presumption that any body can become a better body • Tattoos, piercings → body modification is becoming more trendy • Plastic surgery used to be only for e_____ now more mundane and available to everyone • Plastic surgery advocates discourse effort to redefine the human body as plastic, malleable substance which surgeons can alter in order to get image ideals

elites

• Analyzes the plastic body as it is produced in the discourse of plastic surgery • Plastic surgery now seems readily available, personally e________ means to resolve body image issues

empowering

"Medicalization" according to Conrad is the way that the number of problems which have been defined as medical conditions has increased ________ Many issues, both psychological and physical, that were not considered to be problems in the realm of medicine _____ years ago today are seen as conditions which _____ medical attention

enormously, 100, need

Outbreak narratives have a ______ plot line: identifying the emerging infection, discussing the global _______ through which diseases travel, and chronicling the way the disease is contained and hard work of medical professions. The story is often distorted/exaggerated to fit the formula and shows people in fear of human interaction (photos of them wearing masks).

formulaic, networks

He found the analogy of the cadaver as a _____ to their medical training and the praise of dissection to be rhetorically enforced. Students hear two messages: the cadaver is a gift to their medical training, and the act of dissection is a unique way to learn human anatomy. They are encouraged to respect cadavers and take advantage to learn as much as possible

gift

Emily Martin believes that metaphor has been utilized to _______ the male's role in reproduction and m_______ the female's. She supports this by citing examples which discuss the r_________ of the male reproductive systems, contrasted with descriptions of the female system as w______ by the same standard

glorify, minimize, remarkability, wasteful

• Medicine created new ways of g_______people both i______ and collectively

governing, individually

Visual rhetoric helps constitute the ways we know, think and behave. Fountain analyzes a medical school's g_____ anatomy program and explores the relationship between students and faculty and the visual displays and bodies. He observed, took notes, interviewed teaching assistants and faculty. He found that there was a special r_______ language of the disciple of anatomy.

gross, rhetorical

• Genre is derived from Latin word "kind" or "class" and refers to various types, classes or categorical discursive practice • Share certain basic characteristics that allow specific works to be collected under the same general _______

heading

The things we consider "______" are often used for moral guidance and as an instrument of ______ control.

healthy, social

Lynch believed that Bush did not successfully execute upon the k______ of his situation, that is, he did not strike at the best possible moment. Bush waited too long before announcing his decision on the stem cell research issue, long after the point of greatest tension, and long after several solutions had been proposed on the issue.

kairos

This visual rhetoric ranges from the charts which break our bodies down into biological m______ which doctors are the mechanics of, to the very clothing which doctors wear. The white coat has become a nearly universal symbol of a doctor, along with the stethoscope.

machines

When he finally did make his decision, it was a lackluster one which left both sides disappointed. He identified the schism between science and religion as a M______one. This means that Bush presented the two sides as irreconcilable and totally opposed in nature. Bush's speech demonstrated the perspective that neither science or religion could be satisfied without leaving the other totally unsatisfied.

manichaean

The terrain of health and illness is changing/ adhd, anorexia, chronic fatigue syndrome, ptsd, pms were not classified as medical illnesses

medicalization

• Medicine like antidepressants and Viagra did not exist as depression and sexual dysfunctions was not yet______

medicalized

Sloane - • Metaphors are recommended to be used to create vivid ______pictures, for b_____ and to avoid c_______

mental, brevity, confusion

Constitutive rhetoric works by means of literature and ______

narratives

Medicine is not only rhetorical as it is reproduced in published texts; it is also rhetorical as a system of ______and values operate discursively in doctor-patient _______ conversations in hospitals, public debate on health _____, and systems of disease c_______

norms, interviews, policy, clarification

Anatomical gift comes social and cultural o______ to reciprocate o Students are encouraged to respect cadavers and take advantage of the dissection to learn as much as possible o Eventually these students will work as professionals to help treat others

obligation

Foucault sees biopower as responsible for the rise of capitalism. Human life came to be seen as important. Law became less interested in forbidding and condemning, more interested in normalizing and o________ conditions of life.

optimizing

Johnson's findings on lobotomy reflect the p______values which permeate the American ideology. He found variance on the perception of the results of lobotomies in women and men. When the lobotomy induced childishness and simplicity in women, it was praised. The same results for men however were looked upon with fear.

patriarchal

According to Burke, the old rhetoric's key term was "p______" and its stress was upon d______ design. The key term for the "new" rhetoric would be i________, which can include a partially u______factor in appeal

persuasion, deliberate, identification, unconscious

Burke proposes "identification" as an alternative to "p_______n" as the key term of the rhetorical process. He proposes the rewriting of rhetorical theory that considers rhetoric and motives in formal terms - acknowledging their effects in order to rethink judgment. Audiences participate in this discourse in which they are "p_______."

persuasion, persuaded

Health is also defined by public discourse that reflects p__________, governmental, insurance and m____ interests. The concept of health is often treated as a ________ and industry - as seen by the fact that the US spends more than any other country on our health care.

pharmaceutical, media, commodity

• Government often the ones regulating our _______good and private behavior - dictating personal health ideals o Hitler banned smoking out of concerns for public health and personal p_____

pleasure, purity

Rhetoric factors into this because the act of convincing the p_______ into respecting the e______of medical professionals was a rhetorical one. Medical experts needed to demonstrate through the use of both verbal and visual _______ that they could be trusted and that their judgement was valid.

population, expertise, symbols

• Corporate entities like the pharmaceutical industry and _______patients as consumers also have played significant role in medicalization

potential

Medicalization: With these definitions comes certain social control and _____ as they define certain behaviors, people and things. There is a highly ________ nature of medicalization and this discourse comes from many places.

power, rhetorical

Metaphor is important in medicine because it helps medical p__________s translate terminology into measures or d________which layman will understand. It likewise helps laymen describe to professionals their s_______s without having to have medical k________

professionals, descriptions, symptoms, knowledge

We know that patients who view their disease in these terms, as an "enemy", often have a lower _____ ___ _______as well as being more likely to suffer from psychologically _______symptoms.

quality of life, detrimental

Foucault argues a number of points in relation to power. Power is not a thing but a r_______ Power is not simply repressive but it is p______ Power is not just exercised at the governmental level, but rather it is prominent throughout the social body Power is omnipresent at every level of the social body (it is u_______) The exercise of power is s____ and warlike

relation, productive, universal, strategic

• The literary theorists Kenneth Burke expressed how genres are not simply categories, but are forms that exist due to the "creation of an appetite in the mind of the auditor, and the adequate satisfying of that appetite" (Jasinski). • They evolve overtime through r_______

repetition

• In popular and in scientific accounts of r________ biology relies on stereotypes central to our central _-____of male and female • Implied that female biological processes are less w_______ than male counterparts, social implications of patriarchy

reproductive, definitions, worthy

Sontag's take on metaphors is she wants to promote r________ to putting some metaphors into discourse - which may be in reality not as easy to accomplish. While she recognizes one simply ________ think without metaphors, that does not mean there are not some metaphors we should ______ from and retire.

resistance, cannot, abstain

• Socrates believed in dancing every morning → maybe we could do more for public health if government used money spent to curb __________ on promoting dancing

smoking

Burke - social identity is founded in language s______, i_____ even un_____

spontaneously, intuitively, unconsciously

• Martin's goal is to shine a brighter light on the gender s________ • Women menstruation can be seen as a failure → "d____", losing, chaotic disintegration • Male process remarkable transformation men can "________" several hundreds of sperm per day • No e_______m for female processes, females do not produce something deemed v_______

stereotypes, debris, produce, enthusiasm, valuable

• Oxford English Dictionary defines genre as "a particular s______ or category" especially of literary works or artwork in which is "characterized by a particular f_____, style or purpose." • The form in genre provides "instruction" on how to p______ and anticipate responding in a particular way (Miller).

style, form, perceive

Constitutive Rhetoric is a t_____ of discourse about the c_____ of language to create a collective i_____ for an audience

theory, identity

Hyde discusses Its Over, Debby essay that was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The narrative presents the un________and sanctions an act that is not currently allowed. The story is presented in a way filled with uncertainty. Despite simple, direct, fast paced sentences that describe facts in an economical matter, the story leaves out details that allude to the rationale behind the author's choices.

unpresentable

Cancer is one such affliction which often has metaphor involved in its discussion. Metaphors about cancer generally revolve around the nature of the illness as a "_____r" between the body of the host, often called a "s______r", and the cancer.

war, survivor

• Eggs are seen slowly aging "______" • Eggs are seen as large and passive, cannot move well • Sperm are active, velocity, s_____ • Sperm is described penetrating the egg • In reality the egg _____ sperm and adheres to it

wasted, strong, traps

• Slow death = physical w_____ out of a population, deterioration of a population

wearing

Ideology often functions in such a way that it recruits subjects among the individuals of a society. Ideology shapes its adherents _________ and often limits it to the constraints of that ideology. It creates certain p________ about the order of the world which may lead believers to ignore ideas which c_______ with their ideology.

worldview, presumptions, conflict

Along with Burke, rhetorician Edwin Black is a key figure in enabling a rhetorical study of health and medicine: "rhetorical discourses are those discourses, w______n or s_____, which aim to influence men"

written, spoken