Rhetorical Terms A

Chiasmus

"reverse parallelism". The second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g., "learned unwillingly") paralleled by another A,B structure ("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So instead of writing, "What is learned unwillingly is forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten." Similarly, the parallel sentence, "What is now great was at first little," could be written as, "What is now great was little at first."

Simile

A comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc.) known to the reader. Examples: When you compare a noun to a noun, the simile is usually introduced by like: I see men, but they look like trees, walking. After such long exposure to the direct sun, the leaves of the houseplant looked like pieces of overcooked bacon. The soul in the body is like a bird in a cage.

Parenthesis

A final form of hyperbaton, consists of a word, phrase, or whole sentence inserted as an aside in the middle of another sentence. Parenthesis can be circumscribed either by dashes--they are more dramatic and forceful--or by parentheses (to make your aside less stringent). This device creates the effect of extemporaneity and immediacy: you are relating some fact when suddenly something very important arises, or else you cannot resist an instant comment, so you just stop the sentence and the thought you are on right where they are and insert the fact or comment. Examples: But the new calculations--and here we see the value of relying upon up-to-date information--showed that man-powered flight was possible with this design. Every time I try to think of a good rhetorical example, I rack my brains but--you guessed--nothing happens. But in whatever respect anyone else is bold (I speak in foolishness), I am just as bold myself.

Litotes

A particular form of understatement, is generated by denying the opposite or contrary of the word which otherwise would be used. Examples: Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any good. If you can tell the fair one's mind, it will be no small proof of your art, for I dare say it is more than she herself can do. --Alexander Pope A figure lean or corpulent, tall or short, though deviating from beauty, may still have a certain union of the various parts, which may contribute to make them on the whole not unpleasing. --Sir Joshua Reynolds He who examines his own self will not long remain ignorant of his failings. Overall the flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable to the palate.

Analogy

A similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based. Like a simile without like or as and more down to earth Example: When your enemy comes to you in pain, you must do anything in your power to help ease that pain. Note: If your enemy comes to you in pain like a child comes to you in pain, wouldn't you do anything in your power to ease that pain?

Synecdoche

A type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, or any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa). Examples: Farmer Jones has two hundred head of cattle and three hired hands. Get in here this instant or I'll spank your body. [Whole for part--i.e. "body" for "rear end"] Put Beethoven on the turntable and turn up the volume. [Composer substituted for record] A few hundred pounds of twenty dollar bills ought to solve that problem nicely. [Weight for amount] He drew his steel from his scabbard and welcomed all comers. [Material for thing made]

Epithet

An adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a noun by naming a key or important characteristic of the noun, as in "laughing happiness," "sneering contempt," and "untroubled sleep." Sometimes a metaphorical epithet will be good to use, as in "lazy road," "tired landscape," "smirking billboards," "anxious apple."

Distinctio

An explicit reference to a particular meaning or to the various meanings of a word, in order to remove or prevent ambiguity. Example: To make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon is impossible; by "impossible" I mean currently beyond our technological capabilities.

Metonymy

Another form of metaphor, in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the subject with which it is to be compared. Examples: You can't fight city hall. This land belongs to the crown. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread. Boy, I'm dying from the heat. Just look how the mercury is rising. The pen is mightier than the sword. Meet the Press!

Procatalepsis

By anticipating an objection and answering it, permits an argument to continue moving forward while taking into account points or reasons opposing either the train of thought or its final conclusions. Often the objections are standard ones: Example: It is usually argued at this point that if the government gets out of the mail delivery business, small towns like Podunk will not have any mail service. The answer to this can be found in the history of the Pony Express . . . .

Metaphor

Compares two different things by speaking of one in terms of the other. A metaphor asserts that one thing is another thing, not just that one is like another. Examples: Then Jesus declared, "I am the bread of life." Thus a mind that is free from passion is a very citadel; man has no stronger fortress in which to seek shelter and defy every assault. Failure to perceive this is ignorance; but to perceive it, and still not to seek its refuge, is misfortune indeed. --Marcus Aurelius The mind is but a barren soil; a soil which is soon exhausted and will produce no crop, or only one, unless it be continually fertilized and enriched with foreign matter. --Joshua Reynolds

Metabasis

Consists of a brief statement of what has been said and what will follow. Examples: Such, then, would be my diagnosis of the present condition of art. I must now, by special request, say what I think will happen to art in the future. --Kenneth Clark We have to this point been examining the proposal advanced by Smervits only in regard to its legal practicability; but next we need to consider the effect it would have in retarding research and development work in private laboratories. I have hitherto made mention of his noble enterprises in France, and now I will rehearse his worthy acts done near to Rome. --Peacham Now that I have made this catalogue of swindles and perversions, let me give another example of the kind of writing that they lead to. --George Orwell

Hypophora

Consists of raising one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that paragraph to answer it. Example: What behavior, then, is uniquely human? My theory is this . . . .

Hyperbole

Deliberately exaggerates conditions for emphasis or effect. Example: There are a thousand reasons why more research is needed on solar energy

Understatement

Deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is, either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. Examples: Henry and Catherine were married, the bells rang, and everybody smiled . . . . To begin perfect happiness at the respective ages of twenty-six and eighteen is to do pretty well . . . . --Jane Austen You know I would be a little disappointed if you were to be hit by a drunk driver at two a.m., so I hope you will be home early.

Rhetorical Question

Differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no. It is used for effect, emphasis, or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the facts at hand. Example: But how can we expect to enjoy the scenery when the scenery consists entirely of garish billboards?

Antithesis

Establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure. Example: To love is to hate. Life can be cruel and kind. Full of hope and heartache.

Aporia

Expresses doubt about an idea or conclusion. Example: It is hard to know which ice cream is better, banana or coffee.

Epistrophe

Forms the counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. Example: And all the night he did nothing but weep Philoclea, sigh Philoclea, and cry out Philoclea. --Philip Sidney

Hyperbaton

Includes several rhetorical devices involving departure from normal word order. One device, a form of inversion, might be called delayed epithet, since the adjective follows the noun. Goal is to add a little flair Examples: She had a personality indescribable. His was a countenance sad. It was a long operation but successful. Let's go on a cooler day and less busy.

Zeugma

Includes several similar rhetorical devices, all involving a grammatically correct linkage (or yoking together) of two or more parts of speech by another part of speech. Thus examples of zeugmatic usage would include one subject with two (or more) verbs, a verb with two (or more) direct objects, two (or more) subjects with one verb, and so forth. The main benefit of the linking is that it shows relationships between ideas and actions more clearly. Examples: The runner lost his race and his scholarship. The man ran a hundred miles but out of time.

Apostrophe

Interrupts the discussion or discourse and addresses directly a person or personified thing, either present or absent. Its most common purpose is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back. Example:

Anadiplosis

It repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the next. It can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of logical progression: Example: In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. --John 1:1

Allusion

Makes a reference to a place, person, or something that happened. This can be real or imaginary and may refer to anything, including paintings, opera, folk lore, mythical figures, or religious manuscripts. Example: The strength of her voice reminded me of Whitney Houston.

Antanagoge

Placing a good point or benefit next to a fault criticism, or problem in order to reduce the impact or significance of the negative point. Example: True, he always forgets my birthday, but he buys me presents all year round. Example: The new anti-pollution equipment will increase the price of the product slightly, I am aware; but the effluent water from the plant will be actually cleaner than the water coming in.

Sententia

Quoting a maxim or wise saying to apply a general truth to the situation; concluding or summing foregoing material by offering a single, pithy statement of general wisdom: Examples: But, of course, to understand all is to forgive all. As the saying is, art is long and life is short. For as Pascal reminds us, "It is not good to have all your wants satisfied."

Parallelism

Recurrent syntactical similarity. Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed similarly to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence. Examples: This wealthy car collector owns three pastel Cadillacs, two gold Rolls Royces, and ten assorted Mercedes. He liked to eat watermelon and to avoid grapefruit. To think accurately and to write precisely are interrelated goals.

Amplification

Repeats a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over. It allows you to call attention to, emphasize, and expand a word or idea to make sure the reader realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion. Example: In my hunger after ten days of rigorous dieting I saw visions of ice cream--mountains of creamy, luscious ice cream, dripping with gooey syrup and calories. Example: He showed a rather simple taste, a taste for good art, good food, and good friends.

Conduplicatio

Resembles anadiplosis in the repetition of a preceding word, but it repeats a key word (not just the last word) from a preceding phrase, clause, or sentence, at the beginning of the next. Example: If this is the first time duty has moved him to act against his desires, he is a very weak man indeed. Duty should be cultivated and obeyed in spite of its frequent conflict with selfish wishes.

Eponym

Substitutes for a particular attribute the name of a famous person recognized for that attribute. Eponyms often border on the cliche, but many times they can be useful without seeming too obviously trite. Example: Is he smart? Why, the man is an Einstein. Has he suffered? This poor Job can tell you himself. Example: An earthworm is the Hercules of the soil.

Climax

The arranging of words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight, or emphasis. Example: The ground began to heave. Windows rattled; then they broke. Objects started falling from shelves. Water heaters fell from their pedestals, tearing out plumbing.

Enumeratio

The detailing parts, causes, effects, or consequences to make a point more forcibly: Example: I love his eyes, his hair, his nose, his cheeks [etc.].

Asyndeton

The omitting of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. The lack of the "and" conjunction gives the impression that the list is perhaps not complete. Compare: Example:She likes pickles, olives, raisins, dates, pretzels.

Anaphora

The repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences, commonly in conjunction with climax and with parallelism. Can be used with questions, negations, hypotheses, conclusions, and subordinating conjunctions. Example: Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing what they would find at the top of the hill, not knowing that they were so near to Disneyland.

Polysyndeton

The use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. It often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up. Examples: They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and played and talked and flunked. Use polysyndeton to show an attempt to encompass something complex: The water, like a witch's oils, / Burnt green, and blue, and white. --S. T. Coleridge [He] pursues his way, / And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies. --John Milton The multiple conjunctions of the polysyndetic structure call attention to themselves and therefore add the effect of persistence or intensity or emphasis to the other effect of multiplicity. The repeated use of "nor" or "or" emphasizes alternatives; repeated use of "but" or "yet" stresses qualifications. Consider the effectiveness of these: We have not power, nor influence, nor money, nor authority; but a willingness to persevere, and the hope that we shall conquer soon.

Parataxis

Writing successive independent clauses, with coordinating conjunctions, or no conjunctions Examples: We walked to the top of the hill, and we sat down. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. The Starfish went into dry-dock, it got a barnacle treatment, it went back to work.

Exemplum

citing an example; using an illustrative story, either true or fictitious: Examples can be introduced by the obvious choice of "For example," but there are other possibilities. For quick introductions, such as those attached to a sentence, you might use "such as," or "for instance." Examples placed into separate sentences can be introduced by "A case in point," "An instance," "A typical situation," "A common example," "To illustrate, let's consider the situation," and so forth.

Symploce

combining anaphora and epistrophe, so that one word or phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase is repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences: Example: To think clearly and rationally should be a major goal for man; but to think clearly and rationally is always the greatest difficulty faced by man.

Personification

metaphorically represents an animal or inanimate object as having human attributes--attributes of form, character, feelings, behavior, and so on. Ideas and abstractions can also be personified. Examples: The ship began to creak and protest as it struggled against the rising sea. We bought this house instead of the one on Maple because this one is more friendly.