SAT Physics

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At high velocities, the kinetic energy of a moving object such as a proton

begins turning into mass

True velocity at any time during projective motion

√vx^2 + vy^2

For a charge to experience a force in a magnetic field, its velocity must ...

have a component that is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines

A wave pulse, when reflected off a fixed end, will ...

invert and return on the opposite side of the string with the same amplitude

Balanced v unbalanced forces

Balanced: Ef=0 Unbalanced: Ef=ma

Diffraction

Bending of a wave around a barrier Ex: sound waves bending around the corner of a building

Diffraction

Bending of a wave around a barrier or through an opening

Refraction

Bending of a wave due to a change in medium Speed and wavelength always change, but frequency does not change

Reflection

Bouncing a wave off of a barrier

Single slit opening with light through the slit

Bright light in center of a screen getting dimmer toward the edges of the screen

Induction

Bringing charged rod near electroscope Leaves go back to normal when it is moved away

Bohr model of the atom

Built upon the Rutherford model of the atom Said that excited, low pressure gases give off their own bright-line spectrum Said electrons only radiate energy in the form of light when they change orbits An electron can not orbit at just any radius around the nucleus, but only at certain quantized orbits Electrons can change orbits when they absorb or emit energy (if gets exactly enough energy to jump one level, jumps one level. If gets enough, can jump multiple levels. If doesn't get enough energy, ignores it) Once an electron absorbs enough energy to lift it to the highest energy level, it can escape from the atom altogether and any excess energy is converted to kinetic energy (atom is ionized) When an electron is in a higher energy level, it can jump down to a lower energy level by releasing energy in the form of a photon of light (energy of photon is equal to the difference between the energy levels the electron moves between)

Capacitance

C=q/v Q: charge on one of the plates V: voltage across the plates Proportional to A/d A: area of each plate d: distance between the plates

Heat

Can change phase or temperature

Open system

Can exchange both matter and energy with the surroundings Ex: pot of boiling water allowing water vapor to escape into the air

Closed system

Can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings Ex: test tube with stopper in it

Isotopes

Can have different masses

Charge stored on capacitor

Capacitance x potential (V)

Double slit opening with light through the slits

Central bright band with alternating light and dark bands toward the edges of the screen Two sources of light waves Waves interfere constructively in some places (bright-antinodes) and destructively in others (dark-nodes)

Net work

Change in ke

Acceleration

Change in velocity / time

Conventional current

Charge flows from positive to negative in a circuit

Resistance-capacitance circuit

Circuit containing a battery, a resistor, and a capacitor in series

Speed of object moving in circle

Circumference/period(time for one revolution)

Line of charges, electric field is 0

Closest to smallest charge

Conductors

Conduct because they have loosely bound electrons

3 ways of transferring heat

Conduction, convection, radiation

1st law of thermodynamics

Conservation of energy in ISOLATED systems (NOT CLOSED OR OPEN) ΔU = Q - W ΔU: change in internal energy of a system Q: heat W: work that a system does WORK DONE ON A SYSTEM: W IS NEGATIVE Heat lost by one liquid gained by the other when they mix

Charge accelerating through a potential difference

Conservation of energy: 1/2 mv^2 = q(vf-vi)

Thermal conductivity

Constant Rate of heat transfer

Generator

Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

Movement of positive charges

Current

Capacitor discharging

Current flows in opposite direction as it did with battery connected

Concave lens

DIVERGENT

Wave speed

Depends on medium

Electroscope

Device consisting of a metal ball or plate connected to a metal rod with two thin metal leaves attached at the bottom Rod and leaves insulated Study how leaves separate when a charged object is brought near Can be used to study how charges distribute themselves

Calorimeter

Device that isolates objects to measure temperature changes due to heat flow

Heat engine

Device that uses heat to perform work Three essential features: 1.) heat is supplied to the engine at a high temperature from a hot reservoir 2.) part of the input heat is used to perform work 3.) the remainder of the input heat that did not do work is exhausted into a cold reservoir, which is at a lower temperature than the hot reservoir

Magnification

Di/do

Net work

Difference between heat exhausted and heat absorbed

Theoretical max efficiency of a heat engine

Difference between temps/max temp

What happens to current if the magnet leaves the field as opposed to entering the field

Direction of current reverses

What happens to current if the magnet reverses direction

Direction of current reverses

What happens to current if the poles of the magnet moving into a loop are switched

Direction of current reverses

Second right hand rule

Direction of the force acting on the wire Fingers in direction of magnetic field, thumb in direction of current of wire, magnetic force of the wire will come out of your palm Fingers follow B, thumb follows I, palm indicates F Thumb points in direction of velocity of the charge when looking for the direction of the force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic field

Magnetic field

Directly proportional to current in wire and inversely proportional to distance from wire

Wave frequency

Directly proportional to energy

Magnetic fields current carrying wire

Directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance

Faraday

Discovered that if the flux in a loop or coil of wire changes, then a current is created and flows through the loop or coil of wire (electromagnetic induction)

JJ Thompson

Discovered the electron Said all atoms contain electrons Said atoms are naturally neutral

Superposition

Displacements of the waves that coincide at each point can be added to find the height of the wave created by constructive or destructive interference

Falling object

Distance = 1/2 g t^2

Acceleration due to gravity depends on...

Distance from the center of the earth and mass of the earth

Speed

Distance/time

Concave lenses are

Divergent

Temperature _______ during a phase change

Does not change The heat is used to change the state of the substance, not the temperature

Empty capacitor

Does not resist the flow of current and thus acts like a wire

Magnetic field lines

Drawn from the North Pole of a magnet to the south pole

Energy of a photon

E=(6.63x10^-34)f=(6.63x10^-34)(3x10^8)/λ

Binding energy

E=mc^2

Mass and energy are convertible equation

E=mc^2

Why does a prism disperse white light into the colors of the spectrum?

Each wavelength of light has a slightly different index of refraction

Specific heat

Ease with which one can raise the temperature of something The larger it is, the larger the amount of heat required to raise its temperature a certain number of degrees and the more heat is released if it cools by a certain number of degrees Does not change based on the amount of the substance Heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 kg or 1 g of a material by 1°C of 1 K Water: 1

Electric potential

Ed

Forces in constant velocity or not moving object

Ef=0 A=0

Forces in equilibrium

Ef=0 A=0

Unbalanced forces

Ef=ma A is not 0 (object accelerates)

Electric field

Electric field lines always point in the direction a POSITIVE charge would feel a force Magnitude: E=F/q F: force Q: charge

Direction of electric field

Electric field points in the same direction as an electric force points when it is acting on a POSITIVE charge (fields point away from positive charges and toward negative)

All charges produce ______ and all moving charges produce _______

Electric fields Magnetic fields

Process used by generator?

Electromagnetic induction

Beta decay

Electron (0/-1 e) emitted

Longest ➡️ shortest wavelength: electron, proton, alpha particle

Electron, proton, alpha particle

Rutherford model of the atom

Electrons orbit around the nucleus Didn't know about energy levels

What is friction caused by?

Electrostatic force Electrons in 2 surfaces repelling each other

Alpha decay

Emits an alpha particle (4/2 He) from its nucleus

Convex lens

Enlarged virtual image when object is placed closer than focal length No image when object is at the focal length Real enlarged image when object is placed between 1 and 2 focal lengths away Reduced image if object is placed farther than 2 focal lengths away

atomic number

Equal to the number of protons in an atom of that element

Double slit interference pattern

Evidence that light has a wave characteristic The path difference for light arriving at the first maximum from two different slits is equal to one wavelength Increasing the separation between the two slits will compress the observed interference pattern Increasing the wavelength will cause the maximums displayed on the screen to spread out

Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom

Excited gases emitted a bright-lime emission spectrum When the electron makes a transition to a higher energy level, it has absorbed energy When the electron makes a transition to a lower energy level, it has emitted energy The energy levels of the electron are quantized

Centripetal force

F= (mv^2)/r R: radius of circle

Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field

F=ILBsinθ I: current in wire L: length of wire in the magnetic field B: magnetic field (T) θ: angle between the length of wire and the magnetic field

Force of spring

F=kx

Newtons 2nd law

F=ma

Electric force on charge due to uniform fields

F=qE E: electric field Q: charge

Electric force

F=qe

Magnetic field

F=qvb

Force on a charge moving through a magnetic field

F=qvbsinθ Q: charge in coulombs V: velocity in m/s B: magnetic field in teslas θ: angle between the velocity and the magnetic field

Friction for accelerating object

F=uN

Line of charges, where is electric field 0?

Far from bigger charge Look at the electric field vectors, must cancel out

Converging/convex lens

Farther than twice the focal length: image reduced, inverted, real At 2f: image same size, inverted real Between f and 2f: image real, inverted, enlarged At focal length: no image Closer than focal length: virtual, enlarged, upright

Speed of sound

Fastest though densest materials

Work

Fdcosθ = ΔKE=(.5m)(vf^2-vi2) OR = ΔPE θ: angle between force and displacement If force and displacement in same direction, fd

Force on charge in uniform electric field

Fe = qe

Scalar

Has magnitude only, no direction Ex: temperature, mass, volume, time, distance

Law of entropy

Heat flows from hotter to cooler body

Phase change

Heat increases potential (NOT KINETIC) energy of a system Q=mL Q: heat M: mass L: heat of transformation

Radiation

Heat is transferred by electromagnetic waves

Heat capacity

Heat needed to raise the temperature of an object as a whole by 1°C or 1 K Q=mcΔt=mc(tf - ti) Q: heat M: mass C: specific heat Δt: change in temperature

One calorie

Heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius

Magnification

Hi/ho = - di/do

Positive charges naturally want to move from a point of ____ potential to ____ potential

High, low

Crest

Highest point of a wave

Δt

Horizontal distance / horizontal velocity

Heat

How much heat required to rise the liquid water from 0°C to 30° C? Heat needed = mass x specific heat x change in temperature

Index of refraction

How much light slows down in a more dense medium N=c/v N: index of refraction C: speed of light in air (3x10^8) V: speed of light in medium

Amount of voltage and current produced in a coil of wire depends on...

How quickly the magnetic field lines are crossed by the wire (faster=larger current) and number of coils (more coils=more voltage and current)

Ideal gas

Hypothetical gas whose molecules have no IMFs (intermolecular forces) Random motion No volume Elastic collisions Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is proportional to the temperature in KELVIN At relatively low pressures and high temperatures, many gases behave in nearly ideal fashion Most gases can be treated as ideal

Acceleration is directly proportional to the electric field

If the electric field doubles, the acceleration doubles

Magnification

Image distance / object distance

Isothermal process

Internal energy change is 0

Wavelength

Inversely proportional to energy

De Broglie wavelength of a moving particle

Inversely proportional to the momentum of the particle

Acceleration due to gravity

Inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the center of the earth 1/(r^2)

Real images

Inverted Positive image distance

Converging/concave mirror

Inverted image farther away than focal point, but right size up when closer than focal point

If volume remains constant during a process...

Isochoric (P1)/(T1) = (P2)/(T2) TEMP IN K

3 types of systems

Isolated Closed Open

Isolated system

It cannot exchange energy or matter with the surroundings Ex: insulated thermos flask

How does a material become magnetic?

It is placed in a strong external magnetic field and the domains become aligned with the external magnetic field

The conversion between mechanical energy and heat energy was first developed by

Joule

Electric field

K(q/r^2) K: 9x10^9

Kelvin and Celsius equation

K= C + 273

Kinetic energy

KE=(1/2)mv^2

Heat energy

Kinetic energy of molecules that is transferred spontaneously from a warmer substance to a cooler substance

Heat

Kinetic energy of molecules transferred from a warmer substance to a cooler one

Distance between two charges where the electric field is 0

Kq/(r^2 = kq/(1-r)^2

Electric field

Kq/(r^2)

Electric potential

Kq/r

Electric field

Kq/r^2

Coulomb's law (force between 2 charges/2 charges separated by a distance)

Kq1q2/(r^2)

Electric potential energy

Kqq/r

Electric force

Kqq/r^2

An observer watching a moving object will see

Length contract in the direction of motion, it's clock slow down, and its mass increase by the equation E=mc^2

Polarized

Light vibrates in only one plane

Law of charges

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract

Vaporize

Liquid to gas

Colors

Long wavelength (low frequency) ➡️ short wavelength (high frequency) Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet (ROYGBV)

Sound waves are

Longitudinal

Ground state energy

Lowest energy of electrons Electrons in the orbit nearest the nucleus

Equilibrium position

Lowest point in the swing of a pendulum

Trough

Lowest point of a wave

Conservation of momentum

M1vi1 + m2vi2 = m1vf1 + m2vf2

Net force

Ma

Weight

Ma Newtons

Nucleus

Made up of positively charged protons, neutral neutrons, and negative electrons

Which fields (uniform gravity, uniform electric, uniform magnetic) cannot change the speed of the object acted upon?

Magnetic only (they cause objects to move at a constant circular speed)

Vector

Magnitude and direction Ex: force, velocity, displacement, momentum

How to solve force problems

Make forces pos/neg depending on direction

Momentum

Mass x Velocity How difficult it is to move an object from rest or to stop a moving object

Balancing two things

Mass x distance from balancing point on one side must equal the mass x distance from the balancing point on the other side

Temperature to melt

Mass x heat of fusion

Amplitude

Maximum displacement from equilibrium (angle or linear horizontal distance)

Amplitude

Maximum displacement of a wave

Entropy

Measure of the disorder or randomness of a system Greater the disorder, greater the entropy If a system is highly ordered, the entropy is low Solids have lower entropy than gas

Ammeter

Measures current Connected in series with resistor (so same current passes through ammeter and resistor) Low resistance (so they don't add to the total resistance of the circuit and thus decrease the current)

Voltmeter

Measures voltage Connected in parallel with the resistor (so the voltage will be the same across the voltmeter and the resistor) High resistance (so that current will not want to flow through them and bypass the resistor)

Weight on elevator on scale

Mg + ma

Forces on an incline - normal

Mgcosθ

Normal force on ramp

Mgcosθ

PE

Mgh

Forces in an incline - gravity parallel to surface

Mgsinθ

Friction force on ramp

Mgsinθ

Threshold frequency

Minimum energy and frequency that an incoming photon must have to be able to dig an electron out of a metal and give enough kinetic energy to the electron to escape in the photoelectric effect Minimum frequency of incoming light necessary to release an electron from a metal surface For light above the threshold frequency, a brother light means more photons, and thus more electrons released from the metal Electrons have no kinetic energy up to the threshold frequency and then their kinetic energy is proportional to the frequency of the incoming light

Elastic collision

Momentum and KE conserved

Shorter wavelengths refract _____ than longer wavelengths in glass

More

Light passing between mediums

More dense ➡️ less dense: defracted away from normal

Electric field lines

More lines for stronger charges

Electron has ______ acceleration than a proton in a uniform electric field

More, smaller mass

Parallel circuits dissipate the _____ power

Most

How to increase the amount of voltage induced in a coil

Move the magnet faster through the coil Move a stronger magnet through the coils of wire Move the magnet through more coils of wire Move more coils of wire around a magnet Move more magnets simultaneously through a coil of wire

Electromagnetic induction

Moving a magnet through a coil of wire and generating a current

Minimum speed at top of roller coaster

Mv^2/r = mg

Max speed for car turning with friction to not slip

Mv^2/r = uN = umg

Angular momentum

Mvr Mass, velocity, radius CONSERVED

Snell's Law of Refraction

N1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2 N1 and n2: indices of refraction θ1: angle of incidence θ2: angle of refraction

Pulley problems

Net acceleration of system: m1: lighter m2: heavier ((Heavy-light)g)/(heavy+light)

Pully with table

Net acceleration: ((Hanging - table mass x coefficient of friction) g)/(hanging + table mass)

Constant velocity

Net force is 0

Positively charged rod brought near knob of electroscope

Net negative charge

Neutron

No charge

Adiabatic process

No heat added or removed

Static system

No velocity and no acceleration

Mass is converted into ______ to hold the nucleus together

Nuclear binding energy So when two atoms combine, the total mass is a little less When a nucleus is split, it doesn't need all of its original binding energy anymore, so some of it is released as heat

Frequency (harmonic motion)

Number of cycles per unit time Not affected by change in amplitude, only change in length or gravity

Frequency

Number of revolutions per second

Frequency

Number of waves passing a certain point per second

Dynamic equilibrium

Object has constant velocity not equal to 0

Static equilibrium

Object has constant velocity of 0 (not moving)

Harmonic motion / vibrational motion

Object in motion follows a repeated path at regular time intervals Ex: mass on a spring, pendulum Period and frequency depend on the length of the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity Velocity highest at equilibrium point

Newtons 1st law

Objects at rest remain at rest and objects in motion remain at constant velocity

Inelastic collision

Objects stick together Momentum conserved but KE is not

Sign of image distance

Opposite to sign of image height

Resistance

Opposition to the flow of current Electrical equivalent of friction Ohms

Momentum of a photon

P=(6.63x10^-34)/λ

Power circuits

P=IV=I^2 R = (V^2)/R P: power I: current V: voltage R: resistance

Potential energy electron

PE=qv

Conservation of energy

PEi + KEi = PEf + KEf

Uniform magnetic field

Parallel field lines (arrows)

Drawing ray diagrams

Parallel ➡️ far focal point Center of lens ➡️ keep going

Magnetic field lines

Point into south and away from north

Electric force acting on a ____ charge will _______

Positive, will match the direction of the electric field The force acting on a negative charge is opposite the field direction

Heat dissipated in circuit

Power x time

Charles Law

Pressure remains constant during a process Isobaric (V1)/(T1) = (V2)/(T2) TEMP IN K

Energy of a photon is _______ to its frequency

Proportional

Capacitance

Proportional to area/distance

Energy of a photon

Proportional to its frequency

Temperature

Proportional to the square of the average speed of each molecule

For an object in free fall, the distance fallen is ...

Proportional to the square of time

Period of pendulum

Proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum

The width of the central antinode produced an interference pattern is

Proportional to the wavelength of the light

Adding vectors

Put tip to tail

How to melt ice and then raise the temperature of the water

Q = mLf + mcΔt

Heat absorbed or released by an object as a result of change in temperature equation

Q=mcΔt Q: heat M: mass C: specific heat Δt: change in temperature (final temperature - initial temperature) (temperature: average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance)

Photon

Quantum of light Separate bundles of light that share a wavelength, frequency, and speed Planck showed that light could be treated as tiny bundles of energy called photons Showed that the energy of a photon was proportional to its frequency

Images formed by a pinhole camera

Real, inverted

Frequency

Reciprocal of period Number of cycles/number of seconds

A lens forms an image due to the phenomenon of...

Refraction

Hooke's Law

Restoring force = -kx K:spring constant X:displacement

Frequency

Revolutions per second/min/etc

A force must be in the _____ direction as the velocity to change the velocity

Same

Astronaut throws tool

Same but opposite impulses

Parallel circuits

Same voltage Proportional current

Series v parallel circuits

Series: resistors get the same current Parallel: resistors get the same voltage

A moving object is ______ than when it is at rest

Shorter

Rutherford alpha-scattering experiment

Shot alpha particles at very thin gold foil to probe the inner structure of the atom in an experiment He expected the alpha particles to pass straight through the foil because he believed Thompson's model that the atom should not offer any resistance to the alpha particles Most of the alba particles passed through undeflected, but some went off at an angle and others bounced back off of the gold foil and completely reversed their direction Conclusions: 1.) Atom is mostly empty space since most particles passed through undeflected 2.) Atoms have a nucleus because some particles deflected at an angle and some reversed direction 3.) an atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus that has most of the mass of the atom. Electrons are scattered around the nucleus

A moving clock will run more _____ than a clock that is at rest

Slowly

Fusion

Small nuclei combine into larger nuclei and energy is released No radioactive products produced as a result Large amount of energy released Ex: sun

Quantum

Smallest piece of something Quantum of negative charge is the electron Light is quantized (occurs in multiples of some smallest value)

Sublimate

Solid to gas

Melt

Solid to liquid

Doppler effect

Source moving away has longer wavelengths and lower frequency

Magnetic field

Space around a magnet in which another magnet will feel a force

Projectile motion

Speed decreases on the way up and increases on the way down Net force and acceleration are down

Kelvin temp of gas doubled...

Speed of gas particles increases by √2 Average kinetic energy of particles doubles

Wavelength

Speed/frequency

Radioactive elements

Spontaneously emit particles from its nucleus because the energy of the nucleus is unstable Ex: uranium, radium, and carbon

Neutral atom

Still has charge, just equal protons and electrons

Capacitors

Store charge and electric field in a circuit E=v/d E: electric field V: volts D:distance between the plates Current eventually dies out as heat energy is lost through the resistor

Thermodynamics

Study of heat transfer

Electron

-1.6 x 10^-19C

Projectile motion

-Vertical velocity not constant (gravity) -horizontal velocity is constant -horizontal acceleration is 0 -Vertical velocity changes direction -final y velocity is the same as initial y velocity

Two weights on pulley

Sum of masses x a = WEIGHT BIG - WEIGHT SMALL

Internal energy of a substance

Sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the molecules in a substance

Period of oscillation for a spring system

T = 2 pi √m/k

Absolute zero

Temperature of 0 Kelvin All molecular motion ceases

Boyles law

Temperature remains constant during a process Isothermic P1V1 = P2V2

Refraction of light from less dense ➡️ more dense

The beam bends towards the normal

Law of conservation of angular momentum

The closer an orbiting planet is to the sun, the smaller the orbital radius and the greater the velocity

Constructive interference

The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a larger amplitude When two waves in phase with each other meet at the same time in the same medium

Einstein's theory of special relativity

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames The speed of light is constant in all reference frames, regardless of any relative motion between an observer and a light source (everyone in any reference frame will measure the same value for the speed of light regardless of how fast he or she is moving relative to the light source)

Wavelength

The length of one complete vibration of a wave (crest to crest or trough to trough)

Which lightbulb is brightest in a circuit

The lightbulb (treat as resistor) that dissipates the most power

Two charged spheres of equal size carry a charge of +6 C and -4 C. The spheres are brought in contact and they reach an equilibrium charge. They then are separated. What is the final charge on each sphere?

The magnitude of the equilibrium charge is 6 + -4 = 2. When the spheres separate they divide the charge evenly, with each having a charge of +1 C

Why is achieving the speed of light impossible?

The object would have to have 0 length, its clock would stop, and it would have infinite mass

Which circuit will dissipate the most power?

The one with the least resistance (parallel)

Centi

10^-2

Milli

10^-3

Micro

10^-6

Nano

10^-9

Kilo

10^3

Mega

10^6

To determine the direction of a magnetic field due to the flow of electrons in a wire OR direction of magnetic force if given electron flow instead of conventional current

1st right hand rule with LEFT hand

Standing waves

2 identical waves traveling in opposite directions in the same medium at the same time create a series of nodes and antinodes Sending waves down a rope attached to a wall: the incident and reflected waves will reinforce each other in some places and cancel each other in other places. Results in a series of antinodes (loops) where constructive interference is occurring and nodes (points of no displacement between the loops) where destructive interference is occurring. Standing waves produced and water waves pass through a double slit (2 openings). The resulting semicircular wave patterns interfere with each other, creating nodes and antinodes

Nuclear fusion

2 lighter atoms (such as 2 atoms of 2/1 H) fuse to form a heavier atom (3/1 H)

Speed in circular motion

2 pi r / period

Constructive interference

2 waves occupying the same space at the same time building on each other and creating a larger amplitude wave The large wave is called an antinode Waves are in phase when they interfere constructively After the waves pass through each other, they continue moving as if they had never interfered 2 waves move toward each other on one rope and the waves are on the same side of the rope

Destructive interference

2 waves of equal amplitude approach each other on opposite sides of the rope The waves destroy each other for the instant they are occupying the same point on the rope A node (point of no displacement) is created at that point, resulting in a flat rope Waves are out of phase when they interfere destructively After the waves pass through each other, they continue moving as if they never interfered

STP (standard temperature and pressure)

273K (0°C) and 1 atm

Speed of light/electromagnetic waves

3 x 10^8 m/s

Alpha particle

4/2 He Mass: 4 Number: 2

Angle to launch at to reach max range

45°

Nuclear fission

A large atom like uranium splits into 2 smaller ones like xenon and strontium

Fission

A large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei Usually caused artificially by shooting a slow neutron at a large atom, which absorbs the neutron and splits into two smaller atoms along with the release of more neutrons and some energy

At any two points having the same height in projectile motion....

A projectile will have the same speed

Percent efficiency of a heat engine

%E = work/Qhot x 100 Qhot: amount of input heat

Universal gravitation

(Gm1m2)/(r^2) R:distance between the two centers G: 6.67x10^-11 Proportional to product of masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers

Maximum efficiency of engine

(Max temp - min temp)/max temp KELVIN

Ideal gas law

(P1V1)/(T1) = (P2V2)/(T2) TEMP IN K

Centripetal acceleration

(V^2)/r

A/Z X

A: mass (number of protons and neutrons) Z: atomic number (number of protons) X: element

Real images

ALWAYS inverted

More dense ➡️ less dense

AWAY FROM NORMAL

Gravity field of a planet picture

All arrows point into the mass

Second law of thermodynamics

All spontaneous processes proceeding in an isolated system lead to an increase in entropy Isolated systems naturally pursue disorder Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the reverse direction Entropy increases until a system reaches equilibrium

Entropy in isolated systems

Always increases

Current

Amount of charge moving through a conductor per second Symbol: I Amps

Lenz's Law

An induced electric current flows in a direction that opposes the charge that induced it

Law of reflection

Angle of incidence = angle of reflection as measured from a line normal (perpendicular) to the barrier

Total internal reflection

Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle Light passing through glass is reflected inside the glass

Kinetic theory of gases

Assumptions: 1.) gases are made up of particles whose volumes are negligible compared to the container volume 2) gas atoms or molecules exhibit no intermolecular attractions or repulsions 3.) gas particles are in continuous, random motion, undergoing collisions with other particles and the container walls 4.) collisions between any two gas particles are elastic, meaning that no energy is dissipated and kinetic energy is conserved 5.) the average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute (Kelvin) temperature of the gas, and is the same for all gases at a given temperature

The image of an object placed infinitely far away from converging convex lens...

At f

Gas

Atoms move rapidly and are far apart IMFs (intermolecular forces) are weak Expands to fill any volume Takes on shape of container Compressible Defined by pressure, volume, temperature (K), and amount of gas in moles

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons/different masses

Temperature

Average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance

Horizontal motion

Ax=0 Vx = Δx/t Δx = vxt

Vertical motion

Ay = 10 Vy = viy + gt Δy = viy t + 1/2 g t^2

Linear thermal expansion

Type of heat expansion Increase in any one dimension of the solid Change in length is proportional to the original length and the change in temperature of the solid

Volume thermal expansion

Type of heat expansion Increase in the volume of the solid Change in volume is proportional to the original volume and its change in temperature

Ohm's Law

V=IR Voltage=current x resistance

Speed of a wave

V=fλ=λ/T V: speed F: frequency λ: wavelength T: period

Max height projectile

Vf^2 = vi^2 + 2(-10)Y Vfy: 0

Vf

Vi + at OR vi + gt if falling object

Vf^2

Vi^2 + 2 aΔx

Transverse waves

Vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave Ex: the wave at sporting events

Polarization

Vibrates in only one plane Only transverse waves NOT longitudinal waves like sound

Electromagnetic waves

Vibration of an electric and magnetic field that travels though space at an extremely high speed and does not need a medium to travel through Visible light, radio waves, and microwaves

X ray v ultraviolet v visible light

Visible light has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency X rays have the shortest wavelength and highest frequency Longest wavelength ➡️ shortest wavelength: visible light, ultraviolet, x ray

Horizontal launch

Viy = 0

Amplitude

Volume for sound and brightness for light

Work of a moving charge

W=-q(Vf-Vi)

Energy

Watts x seconds

Doppler effect

When a sound source is moving toward you, you hear a slightly higher pitch than if the sound source is at rest relative to you When a sound source is moving away from you, you hear a slightly lower pitch

Refraction

When a wave passes from one medium into another Changes wavelength and speed

Ionization

When electrons are added to or removed from an atom Negative ions: extra electrons Positive ions: deficiency of electrons

Newtons 3rd law

When objects interact, an equal and opposite force is always exerted between them

Capacitor full of charge

Will not allow current to flow and thus acts like a broken wire

Protons move ________ electric fields

With Electrons move against

Area under force x displacement graph

Work

Work energy theorem

Work and energy are transferable Ex: ball lifted gets potential energy of 100, work is also 100 because all of the work went into the potential energy

Heat added

Work done + heat exhausted

Efficiency

Work done / heat added x 100

Electric potential

Work we would have to do on a charge to move it AGAINST an electric field ΔV=work/q Aka voltage

Power

Work/time

All objects fall at same acceleration because

The ratio of weight to mass is a constant for all objects

The closer an orbiting body (satellite) gets to the planet...

The smaller the r, the faster the speed Total energy and angular momentum constant

When distance is held constant, velocity is proportional to...

The square root of acceleration

Convection

The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) Air near floor heated, expands, becomes less dense, rises. As it rises, it cools, becomes more dense, and falls to the floor

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

There is a limit to the accuracy of the measurement of the speed (or momentum) and position of any subatomic particle The more accurately we measure the speed of a particular particle, the less accurately we can measure its position and vice versa WE CANNOT SIMULTANEOUSLY MEASURE THE POSITION AND SPEED (OR MOMENTUM) OF A SUBATOMIC PARTICLE WITH COMPLETE ACCURACY

Electrons and protons are placed into the same electric field...

They will both experience the same magnitude of electric force but in opposite directions The electron has less mass, so the same force will cause it to have a greater acceleration than the proton

Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr

Thomson: plum-pudding model Rutherford: planetary model Bohr: quantized energy level model

Right hand rule

Thumb in direction of current Fingers curl on side that you are looking at Way fingers point is the direction of the net magnetic field AKA Thumb along v, fingers along b, palm shows force

First right hand rule

Thumb in direction of current (I) of wire. Fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field produced by that current

Waves travel faster in ____ springs than ______ springs

Tight, loose

Period

Time for a wave to vibrate once

Period (harmonic motion)

Time for one complete cycle of motion Not affected by change in amplitude, only change in length or gravity

Period

Time for one revolution

period

Time for one vibration of the wave

Half life

Time it takes for half the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay Graph: Exponential decay curve

Two plates of a capacitor

Top is positively charged Bottom is negatively charged

Charge

Total conserved

Parallel circuit

Total resistance: 1/r total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 Voltage across each resistance is the same (same as the total): v total = v1 = v2 = v3 Current divides in an inverse proportion to the resistance: I1 = V1/R1 I2=V2/R2

series circuit

Total resistance=R1 + R2 + R3 Total current= total voltage / total resistance Same current passes through every resistor Current through each resistor is equal to the total current Voltage divides proportionally among the resistances according to Ohm's Law (V=IR) V1=I1R1 V2=I2R2

Conduction

Touching charged rod to electroscope Leaves do not go back to normal when it is moved away

Transfer of charge

Transfer of electrons Charge is always conserved, any charge lost by one object must be gained by another object

Mechanical wave

Transfers energy from one place to another

Heat pump

Transfers energy opposite the natural direction of natural heat flow

Resistance parallel

1/R + 1/R = 1/Rtotal

Period

1/frequency

Domain

A cluster of magnetically aligned atoms

Focal length curved mirror

Half radius

Δx

1/2(vf + vi)t OR vit + 1/2 a t^2 OR

Potential energy of a capacitor

1/2QV

Electron

0/-1 e or e- Mass: 0 Charge: -1 Location: electron orbitals around the nucleus Number in atom: atomic number

Angle of incidence air

1

Joules and calories equation

1 calorie = 4.186 joules

Two postulates of special relativity

1.) all inertial reference frames (constant velocity) are equivalent-speed of light and all laws of physics are the same 2.) all observers will measure the same value for the speed of light regardless of any relative motion between the observer and the light sources (even if light was emitted from a moving source, it would continue to have velocity of c) Object moves at speed of light, time at object slows down, object contracts in length, mass increases SPEED OF LIGHT ALWAYS ALWAYS ALWAYS C

Kepler's laws

1.) the central massive body is at one of the two foci 2.) the orbiting body moves faster when it is nearer the central body 3.) T^2 is proportional to r^3

Proton

1.6 x 10^-19C

Neutron

1/0 n Mass: 1 Charge: 0 Location: nucleus Number in atom: atomic mass - atomic number

Proton

1/1 H Mass: 1 Charge: +1 Location: nucleus Number in atom: atomic number

Δy

1/2 g t^2

Potential energy in a spring

1/2 k x^2

Planck's Constant

6.63 x 10^-34

Any two launch angles totaling _____ degrees will have the same range

90° Ex: a projectile launched at 30 degrees will have the same range as if it is launched at 60°

Velocity at max height of projectile motion

=initial horizontal velocity because the y velocity is 0 at the max height

Heat energy

Flows from hotter body to lower body

Pressure

Force / area

Ball in circle

Force and acceleration both going into the center

Coulomb's Law

Force between two charges: (Kq1q2)/(r^2) K: 9x10^9

Strong nuclear force

Force holding protons together than is greater than the repulsion between them due to like charges repelling Result of binding energy of the nucleus

Uniform circular motion

Force is perpendicular to velocity

Centripetal force

Force needed to keep object moving in circle (Mv^2)/r

Pressure

Force that the atoms exert on the walls of the container through collisions Measured in pascals/atmospheres

Restoring force

Force trying to restore pendulum to equilibrium Greatest at amplitude (acceleration also greatest at amplitude but velocity is 0) and 0 as the pendulum passes through the equilibrium position

Sound waves

Frequency: detected as pitch Amplitude: detected as volume Harmonics: detected as quality or tone (telling the difference between two voices)

Coefficient of friction

Friction force / normal force

Coefficient of friction

Frictional force/normal force

Torque

Frsin θ For equilibrium, sum of forces must be 0 and sum of torques must be 0

Impulse

F∆t = m∆v = mvf - mvi Area under force x time graph Change in momentum

Gravity formula

G (m/r^2)

Gamma decay

Gamma ray emitted Only energy changes, not atomic mass or number

Highest ➡️ lowest energies for electromagnetic waves

Gamma rays, x rays, visible light, radio waves

Longitudinal wave

Gathering up spring in a bunch then letting it go The spring vibrates in a direction parallel to the direction of motion of the wave Ex: sound

Convering convex lens object moved toward f

Gets bigger

Least amount of time to cross river

Go directly across

Harmonic motion potential energy

Greatest at the greatest displacement from equilibrium

Restoring force

Greatest when the stretch of the spring is the greatest

Amplitude

Half height of wave

photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal

Four types of radioactive decay

alpha, beta, gamma, and positron

Law of reflection

angle of I ncidence = angle of reflection

Friction for an object at rest or at constant veloci

f=forward force

Conduction

transfer of heat through direct contact


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