SCSC 641- EXAM 1
Crop Specific working collections
-Cotton: College Station, TX -Rice: Aberdeen, ID -Barley: Aberdeen, ID -Sorghum: Griffin, CA
Examples of mendelian variation
-Soybeans (native to china); varieties selected for medicinal purposes, food, and feed. -grain sorghum; domesticated in NE africa, transported by man across Africa where new species selected in West and Southern Africa. -Corn evolved and selected in Mexico; eventually selected for roasting, popping, etc.
How to find superior autopolyploid
-convert large sum of diploid genotypes and then start a crossing and selection program (ex sugar beets, cms diploid x autotetraploid > triploid that is sterile but root is the economic product) -introgression (ex. potato)
Apomictic breeding requirements
-cross compatible sexual germ plasm or facultative apomictic plants -apomicts that produce pollen -effective crossing techniques -recoverability of obligate or highly apomictic progeny
Sources of Variation
-current culitivars -current inbred lines from public programs -colleagues -obsolete cultivars/germplasm lines/inbred lines -material from location where variability is the greatest
NPGS collection contains...
-domestic and foreign plants -wild and weedy relatives -cultivars -inbred parental lines -elite breeding lines -rare and endangered species -genetic stocks
Aneuploid uses
-locating genes to chromosomes -linkage studies -chromosome substitution lines -lots of uses are circumvented by molecular genetics
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI)
-maintains collection of Musa -International institute charged with oversight of genetic resources and biodiversity collection and preservation. -provide training for scientists in gene preservation
Key challenges for NPGS
-managing and expanding NPGS operational capacity and infrastructure to meet the increased demand for germplasm and associated information -developing and applying cryopreservation and/or vitro conservation methods for clonal germplasm
Pecan characterization
-monoecious -dichogamy -exhibit chalazogamy (the growth of pollen tube through chalza instead of the micropyle)
Mankind Selections
-non shattering -large seed -non dormancy -resistant to temp, higher yield, etc.
Haploidy uses
-producing a completely homozygous diploid or pure line -mutation studies -genetic studies -in self compatibility spp. used to produce inbred lines -deriving haploids
Efficiency of apomictic breeding
-releases wide range of variability -permanent hybrid vigor (in obligates) -escape from sterility problems in wide species crosses -simplified seed production
indicators of apomixis
-seed set in isolated female (I.e. male and female plants) -uniform progeny looks similar/identical to parents -high seed set in absence of good pollen -failure of hybridization -twin seedlings -multiple embryo sacs within an ovule
Nature Selections
-shattering -many small seeds -non-uniform maturity -dormancy -nature discards most mutations of aberrant types
autopolyploid pros
-tend to have higher veg. growth -most successful come from diploids with low chromosome numbers -suggested that optimum autoploidy levels exist (ex. corn= diploid has max vigor, banana=tetraploids are seedless, blackberries, no difference)
What will the the result of utility patents on cultivars (and why not germplasm)?
-they will expand genetic diversity bc the variety of product will have to be public info/knowledge at the end of the patent period (20 from filing) rather than being discarded under a trade secret such as hybrids -they will stimulate cultivar development because business operate this way: patents allow for licensing between parties such that patented material can be exchanged "freely". That is, UP provides for freedom of access but only through licenses
Cloning uses
-to develop breeding lines when seed production is inadequate -for genetic studies when genetic uniformity is required
· Fundamental Requirements of Patentable Inventions:
1. New or novel: can't be identical to something already invented and any disclosure or offers for sale more than a year ahead of application makes the invention "prior art" and will cause for denial of the patent 2. Useful: avoids patents of such things a perpetual motion machines, however, some inventions ahead of their time that most see no useful purpose (Bill gates: internet) 3. Non-obvious: anything outside the ability of one having ordinary skill in the art. Subjective and Difficult (and it really means "not predictable" relative to plant varieties)
PVP requirements
1. Novel: variety not previously known publicly 2. Uniform: any variations are describable and predicatble 3. Stable: variety remains unchanged when sexually reproduced 4. Distinctive: differs by one or more characteristics
Today, intellectual property can be protected by:
1. patent 2. copyright 3. trademark 4. PVP (UPOV) 5. contracts 6. Trade Secrets
Facultative Female x apomictic male F1 results
50:50 ratio of sexual and apomictic (evidence suggests this actually varies from species to species); the apomictic types are recombinations' but will be apomictic and stable to whatever degree of facultative
How NPGS Genebanks Function
Acquire, maintain, document, evaluate, distribute. Objectives are to conserve genetic diversity and make it available to researchers, breeders, educators, and producers
Seed Storage
Dry seed: 6% or less moisture (sealed in moisture proof containers), -20 to 5 degrees F; can last a few years, or centuries
Universal Protection of Varieties (UPOV), 1960
Europe's effort at protecting breeders rights; includes essentially derived varieties
What can a utility patent protect that a PVP/UPOV can't?
Extended profits from an outstanding cultivar
When/where did plant breeding begin?
Fertile Crescent: Grains China: Rice Pakistan/India: Cotton Central America: beans, squash, cotton
National Seed Storage Lab
Fort Collins, base collection, long term storage
Animal germplasm collection serves:
Industry- over 900,000 large and small stakeholders and breeders companies Universities- conserving research populations and providing samples for research activities Gov't agencies- department of interior, NIH, USDA Global community- developing and supporting Animal-GRIN database and conserving germplasm
Vavilov vs La Cinco
La cinco proposed that a single plant would adapt; took some wheat and planted it in Russia, went back in the spring and only rye (native plant) had grown. Proposed that wheat had adapted and turned into rye-- accepted by scientists. Vavilov said this wasn't true and current czar had him arrested and sentenced to life in prison
South Mexican/Central American center of origin
Maize, Lima Bean, NW Cotton
Example of outcrossing in nature
PECANS
NPGS Success Story
Peanut wilt virus story thanks to PI that collected peanut resistance to wilt virus in 1952
South American center of origin
Potato, Tomato, Pima Cotton
Regional Plant Introduction Stations
SouthEast: Griffin, CA NorthEast: Geneva, NY NC: Ames, IA West: Pullman, WA
Chinese center of origin
Soybeans, cucumber, pear, sugar cane
mediterranean center of origin
Wheat, Clovers, Cabbage, Peppermint
Abyssinian center of origin
Wheat, Grain Sorghum, Okra
Near Eastern center of origin
Wheat, barley, alfalfa, fig
Chalazogamy
a process of fertilization in which the pollen tube penetrates to the embryo sac through the tissue of the chalaza.
Protandry
a state in hermaphroditic systems that is characterized by the development of male organs or maturations of their products before the appearance of the corresponding female product, thus inhibiting self-fertilzation
Uruguay Round of Negotiations
a trade agreement to dramatically lower trade barriers worldwide (GATT and TRIPS); created the World Trade Organization; modified term of patent to 20 years instead of 17
Apomixis (without mixing)
an asexual process resulting in the formation of plantlets or seeds; apomictic seed the process occurs in plant parts normally associated with sexual reproduction
Allotetraploid
an organism that contains two sets of chromosomes from two different species; usually results from the failure in meiosis resulting in reduced egg and/or pollen gametes (ex. G. herbaceum (AA) x G. raimondii (DD))
Autopolyploid variation
an organism that has 2 sets of chromosomes derived from the same species (I.e. itself). probably results from a failure of meiosis resulting in unreduced egg and/or pollen games (ex. gametes -2n, 2n+3=3n sterile triploid, 2n+2n=tetraploid and maybe fertile)
USDA/ARS National Germplasm Program
animal genetic resources (semen, ova, embryos) enable researchers and producers to respond to different threats and challenges; worlds' largest animal germplasm collection located in Ft. Collins
Plant Patent
applicable to asexually reproduced new varieties of plants (I.e. cultivated sports, mutants, hybrids, and newly found seedlings); excludes others from asexually reproducing the plant
Utility Patents
applies to new and useful processes, machines, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof; most common type of US patent
Total CGIAR holding...
arguably the most important gene bank in the world for poor/global food security; 1,000,000 seed samples distributed in 1990s
Epicenter (greatest genetic diversity)
as one moves away from the epicenter, diversity decreases and speciation increases
Indo/malayan center of origin
banana, coconut palm, black pepper
Mendelian variation
centers of origin/domestication
GRIN
computer database
CGIAR and World Genebanks
consultative group in international agricultural research (CGIAR), a consortium of 16 international centers, plays a major role in genetic and biodiversity preservation; collect, characterize, and conserve PLANT, FISH, TREES and LIVESTOCK diversity; NO IPR can be applied to material
Interspecific hybridization (genus species 1 x genus species 2)
development of sterile or veg. reproducible (incl. apomixis) hybrids. Opportunity to develop huge amount of heterosis and never lose it (ex. cultivars of pears, cherries, grapes, roses, etc.)
Adventitious embryony
differs from apospory and diplospory in that no embryo sac is formed; embryo arises from a somatic cell
carpellate or pistillate
female flower
parthenogenesis
fertilization is not required, autonomous development of endosperm (occurs in insect and animal kingdoms)
pseudogamy
fertilization of the polar nuclei is required for endosperm development (only occurs in plants)
vivipory apomixis
formation of platelets or bublets (ex. mother of thousands, Mexican hat plant, etc.)
agamospermy (without gametes)
formation of seeds without union of eggs and sperm pollination and fertilization of polar nuclear may occur
Shattering definition
generally dominant trait that insures the survival to the next generation by dispersing seed of the next generation
Plant Breeding Definition
genetic adjustment of plants to the service of mankind; improvement of the quantity/quality of the economic product in plants
Patent
grant issued by the federal gov't giving the owner a temporary right to exclude all others from making, using, or selling the invention.
Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA), 1970
granted some protection to sexually reproduced crop species and provided a policy platform for US to cooperate in UPOV; administered through the USDA, not PTO; research exclusion that allowed breeders to use PVP'ed cultivars as parents in developing cultivars; included essentially derived varieties
Haploidy
haploid plants contain the haploid number of chromosomes in their somatic cells; will obviously be sterile
dioecious plants
have male and female reproductive structures on different plants (ex. asparagus)
Why collect germplasm?
keys to genetic diversity for such things such as resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, nutritional quality, pharmaceuticals, etc.
Germplasm definition
living tissue from which new plants can be grown (I.e. seeds, plant tissue, pollen, or even a few cells)
Plant Patent Act (1930)
made to protect and stimulate development of asexually reproduced crop varieties; provided exclusive rights to propagate patented plants by asexual means for 17 years; designed to encourage research investment in vegetatively reproduced crop species
Indian center or origin
main: Rice, cucumber, old world cotton, Hemp
Staminate
male flower
What does apomixis affect?
megaspore genesis and mega gametogenesis but not microsprorogenesis (I.e. apomictic plants produce normal pollen (n); occurs in both as porous diplosporous plants
"Essentially derived" plants
more than 75% of the original parent's gene pool; marketing EDV is illegal without permission
diplospory (with spores)
need
National Plant Germplasm System
network of public and private organizations dedicated to preserving genetic diversity, coordinated by ARS, established in 1862
Asexual Reproduction
new plants develop cells in the absence of sexual process (I.e. vegetative reproduction/propagation, roots, tubers, stolons, rhizomes, etc.)
can embryo producing fertilization take place in the male gamete on the facultative apomictic plant
no, it can only take place in the female gamete on the facultative apomictic plant
autopolyploid issues
not very important in nature bc there are problems usually with aberrant chromosome behavior and therefore a high degree of sterility
Obligate apomixis
only produces apomictic progeny; NO VARIABILITY (ex. hexaploidy dallasgrass)
Legal monopoly
originally 17 years due to master-apprentice relationships
Intellectual property
personal property resulting from the creative mind or intellect
What flowers display barriers in pollination?
pin flower and thrum flower
Chasmogamy
plant reproductive mechanism in which pollination occurs in chasmogamous flowers (commonly showy with open petals encircling exposed reproductive parts)
Clone
plants propagated vegetatively from a single plant; genetically identical barren mutations, to the parent plant
Monoecious plants
produce male and female flowers on the same plant
National Germplasm Resources Lab
responsible for oversight of exploration, exchange with other countries, cataloguing all incoming accessions (assigns PI numbers), distributes to various points in the system
NAGP Collection use
samples from over 6000 animals have been used to solve industry problems, facilitate genome research (ex. testing for lethal genes)
cleistogamy
self-fertilization that occurs within a permanently closed flower
Plant types covered in utility patent
sexually producing flowers and plants (flowers and seeds), genetically engineered plant;, covered for 20 years, excludes all others from making, using or selling; NO RESEARCH EXCLUSION
facultative apomixis
some sexual seed are produced, providing for the opportunity for selection of new and superior types; I.e. facultative apomictic plant produces apomictic seed and sexual gametes.
Introgression
species one has resistance to disease, species 2 is cultivated. Introgression between the two species to gain resistance in the cultivated species.
National Clonal Repositories
storage of living material such as trees and ornamentals -Apples: Geneva, NY -Hickory: Brownwood, TX -Papaya: Hilo, HI -Peaches: Davis, CA
Safeguarding US and Global Food Security
the USDA/ARS National Plant Germplasm System and National Animal Germplasm Program
Allotetraploid species uses
to identify ancestral parents (interspecific fertility indicates genomic relationship and allows breeders/geneticists to determine if wild relatives can be useful in breeding programs) and to produce new genotypes and maybe species
The more sexuality is expressed in the facultative apomict, the better female parent the plant will be
true
Apospory (without spores)
unreduced embryo results from a somatic cell in the ovule
EPO
utility patent-like protection in Europe in 2003; since 1991, the EPO will grant a patent on genes that cover a number of varieties/cultivars/species, but not a single cultivar
Central asiatic center of origin
wheat, flax, old world cotton, onion, apple
What will be the result in the US relative to crop cultivars?
· Isolated gene pools, reduced genetic gain, losers are the farmer and the US consumer · OR expanded experimentation, competition for market share leading to better cultivars, increased genetic gain, more/cheaper/better food/fiber products
