Second Language Acquisition

Zone of Proximal Development

(I + 1) the zone of proximal development includes all the functions and activities that a learner can perform only with the assistance of someone else. The person in this scaffolding process, providing non-intrusive intervention, could be an adult, or another peer who has already mastered that particular function. Therefore, when it comes to language learning, the authenticity of the environment and the affinity between its participants are essential elements to make the learner feel part of this environment. Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this happen.

Five Variables for Instructing Second Language Learners

(a) vocabulary as a major curricular objective (b) using visuals to reinforce concepts and vocabulary (c) implementing cooperative learning and peer-tutoring strategies (d) using native language strategically (e) modulation of cognitive and language demands

Strategies for Teaching Subject Matter and for Developing ELL CALP

1) providing comprehensible input 2) providing explicit instruction 3) integrating content and language objectives 4) supporting students' use of English to discuss and consider subject matter content

Five Principles of Linguistic Style

1. THE PRINCIPLE OF STYLE-SHIFTING: There are no single-style speakers. 2. PRINCIPLE OF FORMALITY: Any systematic observation defines a formal context in which more than the minimal attention is paid to speech. 3. THE VERNACULAR PRINCIPLE: The vernacular, in which minimal attention is paid to speech, is the most regular in its structure and in its relation to the history of the language. 4. THE PRINCIPLE OF ATTENTION: Styles may be ordered along a single dimension, measured by the amount of attention paid to speech. 5. PRINCIPLE OF SUBORDINATE SHIFT: Speakers of subordinate dialects who are asked direct questions on language shift their speech irregularly towards or away from the superordinate dialect.

Contrastive Analysis

A comparison of the linguistic system of two languages.

Language Functions

A language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used for example, giving instructions or introducing ourselves. In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly. These include: describing processes, comparing or contrasting things or ideas, and classifying objects or ideas.

Dialect

A variety of language which is spoken in one part of a country or by people belonging to a particular social class.

Needs of Second Language Learners

Accepting Environment Recognition of culture ESL instruction Meaningful Context Academic Context Academic Language Content Instruction Consideration for Testing and Daily Assignments

Piaget's View on Language

According to Piaget, children construct knowledge about language through a complex process of assimilation, stressing the inherent capability of a child's brain to adapt to stimulation. By contrast, Vygotsky stresses the social nature of language learning, emphasizing the environment within which a child is raised. Language is a reflection of thought.

The Five Primary Linguistic Elements

Acquiring any language means learning five primary linguistic elements: phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics.

Experimental or Simplified Speech

Also known as the Advanced Language Proficiency stage. When the learner develops a level of fluency and can make semantic and grammar generalizations.

Formulaic Speech

Also known as the Intermediate Language Proficiency stage. The learner knows about 6,000 receptive words and begins to make complex statements, state opinions, ask for clarification, share thoughts, and speak at greater length.

Lexical Chunks

Also known as the Speech Emergence Stage. The learner knows about 3,000 receptive words and can communicate using short phrases and sentences. Long sentences typically have grammatical errors

Private Speech

Also known as the early production stage. When the learner knows about 1,000 receptive words and speaks in one or two word phrases. The learners can use simple responses, such as yes/no, either/or.

Instructional Conversations

An interactive approach that emphasizes active student involvement. It involves talking about text w/ students to provide opportunities for using language to learn language and concepts. Language is expressed naturally and the content is meaningful and relevant to students.

Metalinguistic Knowledge

An understanding of the properties and function of language...that is, an understanding of language as language.

Bandura's View on Social Learning

Bandura explains the manner in which individuals learn new behaviors through a process that involves observation, interaction and modeling. Similar to Chomsky, his theory reflects language as a very important element of development that requires both cognitive and social input. Throughout one's lifetime, the consistent interaction to other people's behavior lead to our own adoption or imitation of the behaviors of others depending on whether we choose to do it. This change in behavior is what Bandura defines as learning. The fact that such learning occurs in a social and interactive context is what renders the theory the name of social learning. The process through which social learning occurs is comprehensive, dynamic and interactive.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading and writing about subject area content material. This level of language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time and support to become proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to seven years. Recent research has shown that if a child has no prior schooling or has no support in native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up to peers. Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding of content area vocabulary. It includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced. Information is read from a textbook or presented by the teacher. As a student gets older the context of academic tasks becomes more and more reduced. The language also becomes more cognitively demanding.

Chomsky's Theory of Language Acquisition

Chomsky developed the idea of a "transformational grammar". It is the notion of language as a bi-partite concept: language is acquired by nature and language is enhanced by social exposure. Language acquisition is a comprehensive process that integrates innate and external elements under the assumption that there is a set apparatus within each human being that enables this to happen. The combination of social and cognitive elements that serve as triggers to learning is notable for giving more emphasis on the study of how the brain works during the process of language acquisition. For this focal reason, Chomsky views the theory of linguistics as a "meta-theory' where mental, psychological and cognitive processes supersede a mere behavioral input. Chomsky argues that language is comprehensive; it involves listening, accepting and rejecting information, conceptualizing the input, organizing it and producing further language within the parameters of the social context where the language take place is being shared and within the limits of our natural capabilities. However, there is an additional dimension that ultimately separated Chomsky from his contemporaries, and it is the idea that all these processes occur in a part of the brain where a proposed "apparatus" enables all this to occur: The Language Acquisition Device.

Additive Bilingualism Versus Subtractive Bilingualism

Cummins draws the distinction between additive bilingualism in which the first language continues to be developed and the first culture to be valued while the second language is added; and subtractive bilingualism in which the second language is added at the expense of the first language and culture, which diminish as a consequence. Cummins (1994) quotes research which suggests students working in an additive bilingual environment succeed to a greater extent than those whose first language and culture are devalued by their schools and by the wider society.

Total Physical Response

Developed by James Asher, and also called "The comprehension approach," this method relies on students beginning learning by listening. Use the target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction, and emphasizes communicative activities throughout the language learning course.

CALLA-Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

Development of academic language skills & explicit instruction for content and language. Scaffold instruction. Explicit instruction of learning strategies and development of critical thinking to acquire language proficiency. Based on the cognitive approach. It teaches students to use their prior knowledge as a means to learning.

Gersten Sheltered English Instruction Theory

Early Exit Bilingual: some initial instruction in L1, primarily for reading but also for clarification, instructions in L1 are phased out rapidly

ELPBO-English Language Proficiency Benchmarks and Outcomes

English Language Proficiency Benchmarks and Outcomes. A document that is used as a basis to develop curriculum and program for ELLs.

The Multiple Intelligences

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory combines both cognitive and behavioral concepts that are diverse and specific to the intelligences of each individual. Visual and Spatial Intelligence Linguistic Intelligence Logical Mathematical Intelligence Body Kinesthetic Intelligence Musical and Rhythmic Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence

Hymes' View of Language

Hymes' model of discourse analysis:There is a connection between society, culture and language His model of discourse analysis (SPEAKING) S- setting and scene P- participants E- ends, purpose, goals A- act sequence (form and order of event) K- key (cues that establish the tone, manner or spirit I- instrumentalities (forms and styles of speech) N-norms G- genre(kind of speech acts)

More Knowledgeable Others

In Vygotsky's MKO is not a set individual. It is whoever possesses the skills or knowledge about a specific subject or task at hand which will eventually lead the rest of the group towards more learning on that subject or task. A MKO can be a peer, a family member, a role model, or the teacher. The discourse that occurs from the exchange of ideas and knowledge from those who are most knowledgeable to others, help people build upon their current body of knowledge, and learn new information. The strategy to do this is called scaffolding, and the aim of it is to create and build confidence and skill among the learners in their zones of proximal development.

Bandura's Taxonomy of Learning

Interactive Methods-People learn from others through conversation, discourse and open communication. The exchange of new information and feedback mediates learning. Dynamic Method-people go from one source to another to get different kinds of input and in the process of receiving this input new behaviors continue to be learned, accepted or rejected and then modeled and adopted. Consistent Methods-people are constantly exposed to other people's behaviors either in communal context at work, school, church and the neighborhood, to an independent context through the media and the internet. Intrapersonal Methods-people exchange of traits and characteristics that are inherent to each person involved in the process of communication. Engaging in conversation, sharing information, creating bonds, establishing rules, becoming part of a social system and a group allows for this method of communication to set the conditions for learning.

Labov's Language Theory

Labov worked in the area of dialects. His work and advanced study of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) proved that this dialect is a distinct variety of English, has rules and syntax, grammar just like any other language follows. He dedicated his work to de-stigmatizing this dialect and to show teachers that AAVE is a regular system of language and that if we teach speakers of this dialect w/methods as we teach ELLs, there should be success.

Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition

Language distance Native language proficiency Knowledge of the second language Dialect and register Language status Language attitudes The Learner Diverse needs Diverse goals Peer groups Role models Home support The Learning Process Learning styles Motivation Classroom interaction

Dual Language

Language majority and minority are schooled together

Majority language

Language that is the official language used as medium of instruction in schools.

Ramirez Sheltered English Instruction Theory

Late Exit Bilingual: students continue to have 40% of instruction in L1 even after classified fluent in English

Formal Methods to Assess Oral Language

MELA-O, Woodcock Munoz Language, IDEA

Roadblocks to Second Language Learners

Overemphasis on correctness. Students are forced to speak-major cause of poor articulation and grammatical control, as well as stress overload. Students are forced to complete work above their competence level-above their stage of development in language acquisition.

The Five Stages of Second Language Acquisition

Preproduction Early Production Speech Emergence Intermediate Fluency Advanced Fluency

The Silent Way

Promoted that people learn language by forming rules and applying them, relying on their own thinking processes or cognition to learn.

Accelerators to Second Language Learners

Purpose of using language is real and natural-the focus is on communication. Acceptance of all language attempts made-promotes confidence. Modeling of correct grammar as students responses is restated. Students speak only when they're ready-not forced too soon. Language has a purpose for the learner.

Rossel and Baker Sheltered English Instruction Theory

SEI: students of different L1s together; teachers use English and aids to focus on content rather than language

Operant Conditioning Theory

Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior. • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. • Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Acquisition Activities for Second Language Learners

Teachers should devote most class time to acquisition activities. Learning activities should play a smaller role in the classroom, and can also be done as homework. In terms of academic content, Sha-nahan and Beck (2006) concluded that in terms of English literacy development, the core instructional components that are effective with native English speakers, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension, are effective with students learning English as a second language. Further, many of the same instructional approaches that are effective in delivering instruction with native English speakers, such as instruction that is systematic and explicit, will be effective with second language students.

Faculty of Language in the Narrow Purpose (FLN)

The FLN involves critical thinking, decision making, inferring, computation, if/then conclusions and the capacity of recursion. Recursion is the key element in FL and is the main ingredient that sets humans apart from other living things. Recursion is basically a programming technique within the brain which assigns tasks to diverse areas to do certain duties. In other words, it is uniquely human component that composes the generative and universal capacity for language.

IDEA

The IDEA Oral Language Proficiency Test assesses four basic areas of English oral language proficiency: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Syntax, and Verbal Expression which includes Articulation; testing for mainstreaming

Discourse Competence

The ability to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a whole out of a series of utterances in logical cohesion. Mastery of how to combine meanings and forms to create a text in different modes Examples: Telephone inquiry Narrative text Oral report

The Natural Order Hypothesis

The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order which is predictable according to Krashen. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learner's age, L1 background, conditions of exposure and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.

Connotative Meaning

The additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meanings. It shows emotions or attitudes towards what that word refers to. The non-literal, suggested or implied meaning of a word.

Code Switching

The alternating use of two languages at the word, phrase and sentence level with a complete break between languages in phonology

Denotative Meaning

The central or core meaning of a lexical item. Its conceptual meaning.The literal meaning of a word

The Monitor Hypothesis

The monitor acts in planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness and he/she knows the rule. There is individual variation among language learners with regard to monitor use. He distinguishes those learners that use the monitor all the time (over-users), those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the monitor appropriately (optimal users). Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the monitor.

Vygotsky's view on Scaffolding

The process of scaffolding can be paraphrased as a period of constructive dialogue and interaction where the individual's prior and current knowledge comes together with that of other people. The discourse that comes from sharing, particularly when tasks need to be accomplished with the aid of others who can help accomplish them, are conducive to learning. Theoretically, the optimal learning environment is one in which students who know more than others will help their peers to attain the higher classroom goals by sharing their knowledge with others, thus benefitting everyone in the classroom as a learning community. These students serve as pillars within the classroom sociology and Vygotsky identifies them as the MKO's or More Knowledgeable Others.

Evolution of Language

The sociolinguist Fishman studied how languages evolved and changed over time. His work on various languages studied closely the evolution of languages. Languages such a Gaelic, Welsh and Yiddish survive but with fewer speakers and literate adults. This work brought him to topics such as the forces in society that help such languages survive and the identity of the language users.Language is linked to ethnicity, religion, and nationalism. As such language within its history and belief systems works towards preserving languages as a link to history and ethnicity. Language is representational of a history and culture. If the language dies, so does the culture.

Silent Period

The stage when a learner knows perhaps 500 receptive words but feels uncomfortable producing speech. The absence of speech does not indicate a lack of learning and teachers should not try to force the learner to speak. Comprehension can be checked by having the learner point or mime. Also known as the Receptive or Preproduction stage.

Restricted Code Verses Elaborated Code

The two codes of Bernstein.The restricted code is used among speakers with similar backgrounds who share much of the same background knowledge and experiences. This code is more restricted in that the users tend to use certain grammatical features with less frequency because the interlocutors understand each other's assumptions, perspectives, feelings, ways of speaking. The elaborated code is used with speakers who do not share the same background or experiences. This code is more elaborate in the use of grammar structures, pronouns, amount of language used to express ideas because the interlocutors are not as familiar with the backgrounds, experiences, assumptions, outlooks, perspectives etc. of each other. Therefore they use more words, phrases, forms to express meaning.

Community Language Learning

This method evolves from Curran's counseling learning approach. It emphasizes a commitment between teacher and learners to trust one another and the learning process, and approaching learning as a dynamic and creative process. Teachers assist students in communications by supplying chunks of language in the first language to ensure comprehension.It is an approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. The teacher acts as a counselor and a paraphraser, while the learner acts as a collaborator.

Lambert Sheltered English Instruction Theory

Transitional Bilingual: initially instruction is 90% L1 then shifts towards English

Linguistic Plasticity

a certain period of linguistic plasticity extends only to a certain age; beyond that point, language acquisition becomes a difficult and demanding process that is not always completed successfully. Estimates of linguistic plasticity period vary greatly, but in general it can be assumed that children must learn their first language before age eight at the outside. The same principles apply to the acquisition of foreign languages-learning to write and especially to speak a foreign language can be a difficult experience. The window of opportunity for proficiency with a foreign language is larger and more variable; in general, those who attempt to learn a new language after puberty are less likely to master writing and especially speaking a foreign language. Those who acquire multiple languages before puberty often speak both or several with ease, but those who acquire them later do much worse.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

a number of affective variables play a facilitative but non-casual, role in second language acquisition. These variables include; motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence and good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem and a debilitating anxiety can combine to raise the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is up it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

Krashen View on Student Motivation

a student becomes more motivated through free-based learning, free-based web surfing, and free-based reading. This reflects a vestige of Chomsky theory, since Chomsky also rejects that language could be learned without a context. In fact, as previously analyzed, Chomsky advocates for the integration of language as a natural acquisition to all humans. Therefore, Krashen's view on language to be learned without boundaries, in a natural environment, and with relevance, blends both theories together.

Instrumental Motivation

acquiring a second language for a specific reason, such as a job.

Pinker's View on Language Acquisition

all normal human brains come primed for language acquisition. They have the innate ability to memorize vocabulary, internalize rules regarding their native language's grammar and syntax and remember irregular forms. The stages of acquiring language-from babbling to one-word utterances, two-word phrases, full sentences and eventually complex grammar. In general, the major infrastructure of language has been completed by ages six to eight, though some errors may remain and the conscious knowledge of advanced grammar is not commonly taught in American schools until children are twelve or older.

Inflectional Suffixes

an inflection that is added at the end of a root word

Language Experience Approach

approach to writing instruction from personal experience; stories about personal experiences are written by teacher and read together until learner associates written form of word with spoken; can also be a group activity restating stories read by teacher.

Knowledge of Writing Process for ELLs

brainstorming, outlining, drafting, revising and editing; teaching revision can be hard for students to rearrange and rephrase ideas

Approaches for Teaching Writing Instruction

building background, modeling text type, guided practice and independent writing

Natural Approach

developed by Krashen andTerrell and emphasized the importance of listening comprehension and using the target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction. natural genuine learning situations where they use both conscious understanding of a language and subconscious (take cues from visual and commands)

Krashen Views on a Foundation for Learning

during the stage of language acquisition the natural language that results from the communicative act itself, that is, from the input, the feedback, the responses, the non-verbal communication, and the affect that results as a consequence of establishing a communicative relationship are the key to establishing a foundation for further learning.

The Input Hypothesis

explains how the learner acquires a second language. It is only concerned with acquisition and not learning. The learner improves and progresses along the natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For instance, if a learner is at a stage 'I' then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to level 'I + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'I + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Adaptation of Reading Instruction

explicitly teach vocabulary, grouped reading, multiple assessments, culturally relevant instruction, age-appropriate instruction, teach phonemic awareness and phonics

Communicative Language Teaching

focus on students communicating naturally in second language; conversation instead of grammar; teaching strategies: role play, games, interviews, negotiation

Direct Method

focuses on using the second language to communicate. The teacher directs class activities.emphasis is on direct associations that students make between objects and concepts and the corresponding words in the target language. Students' native language is avoided, but visuals, objects, and realia make the concept understandable.

Informal Methods to Assess Oral Language

informal assessments for oral language include interviews, oral reports, summaries, descriptions, presentations, dialogue journals

Chomsky Linguistic Perspective

intelligence is defined as a foundation of language that all humans already possess as part of our biological make-up. This innate body of knowledge is what he calls "universal grammar" or the "linguistic corpus". This body of language knowledge changes through time, as the individual makes additional social connections, acquires new words, or decides how to make use of language depending on the circumstances in which it is required. This ability to transform the language and change it through time make it generative in nature.The process of establishing the language rules, and expanding language further through time and level of complexity leads to deem it as a generative grammar.

Interlanguage

is a strategy used by a second language learner to compensate for his/her lack of proficiency, while learning a second language

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

is the day to day language needed to interact socially with other people. ELL's employ BIC skills when they are on the playground, in the lunch room, on the school bus, at parties, playing sports and talking on the telephone. Social interactions are usually context embedded. They occur in a meaningful social context. They are not very demanding cognitively. The language required is not specialized. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in the U.S.

Dialogue Journal

journal kept by two people, usually student and adult

Interactionist Approach

language acquisition is based both on learner's innate abilities and on opportunities to engage on conversations. Language development happens when the environment interacts with the child's innate capacity

Faculty of Language in the Broad Purpose (FLB)

language in the broad purpose is all the language produced for general and immediate responses. This faculty is not only inherent to humans, but also to animals. Its basis is the common need to express a message, and consists on any form of communication that is possible among living things. It is responsive, immediate and instinctive language usage that could also be explained as language of survival for immediate purpose.

Alphabetic Principles

letters making a word have corresponding sounds, letters and sounds can be placed together to build words

Strategies for Teaching Reading for Literate ELLs

make connections between reading strategies, teach alphabetic and phonemic differences, use read a-louds, partner reading and modeling, and explicit instruction of vocabulary

Role of 1st Language on 2nd Language

more academic understanding you have in L1, more you can apply to L2; cognitive development in L1 at home helps L2

Formal Elements of Written English

narrative, poetic, expository, persuasive

Cognitive Processes

needed to internalize language rules and vocabulary in L2: memorization; categorization and generalization (categorize and generalize vocabulary); metacognition

Overgeneralization

occurs when the learner attempts to apply a grammatical rule to instances where it does not apply.

Fossilization

relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person's second language competence.

Effective Strategies for Oral Skills

strategies for developing oral skills include frequent testing and surveys, speaking and vocabulary games for practice, flashcards, commands, and using visuals

Language Transfer

student applies knowledge of L1 to L2

Sheltered Instruction

students learn English under conditions of high language support. In sheltered instruction, the acquisition of English is promoted through instruction in the language and instruction in academic content simultaneously. Frequently, however, explicit instruction in English gets less emphasis and it is more a hope that "language development occurs" (Gersten & Baker, 2000, p. 459) during content area lessons than a clear instructional objective.

Strategies for Teaching Reading for Non-literate ELLs

teach sight words, language orally, introduce written words, provide clues to remind, teach direction of reading,

Woodcock Munoz Language Survey

tests CALP in Spanish and English; provide information on student's cognitive and academic language proficiency; individually administered; in both English and Spanish; test for ESL to determine bilingual eligibility; can also be used to identify LDs

Krashen View on Natural Versus Learned Language

the acquisition of natural language is more important in terms of relevance than the instructional language learned in school. For once, people are constantly and consistently engaged in some sort of communication during school hours, socialization, work, and home. Language comes as a need to enter the immediate environment, and to establish connections among speakers. Learned language is the teaching of the proper use of language according to the accepted grammatical rules of the culture: The way to use it, tense agreement, subject and verb agreement, the use of articles and the proper use of adverbs, and every other regulation that makes it general and for formal usage, for deferential purposes, and for specific reasons. The manner in which he defines the preponderance of natural versus learned language lays in his Monitor hypothesis of language acquisition.

Audio Lingual Method

the audio lingual method use only the target language. The teacher present dialogs; students repeat each line and practice changing one or more words in a sentence. This method assumes that language is learned by habit and that every language has a finite number of patterns. Therefore, pattern practice and drills are an essential component of this method. The goal is for students to over-learn so that they will come to respond automatically.

Register Variation

the change in language based on where the communication is happening, how the communication is taking place, who is talking to whom, and about what topic: Who , What, Where and How

Interlanguage

the emerging language system person creates based on L1 and L2 knowledge to communicate in L2

Vygotsky's view of Language Acquisition

the interactionists view of language acquisition (social constructivism). According to Vygotsky, all fundamental cognitive activities take shape in a matrix of social history and form the products of socio-historical development. That is, cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up. "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

the meta-theory of linguistics, or language learning, according to Chomsky consists on two premises: The first premise states that humans are born with an already established body of common grammatical knowledge, or intelligence which can also be described as a capacity, or a competence for language. This intelligence, which he calls linguistic corpus, is triggered by social discourse and interaction. As interaction takes place and new language is acquired, the second premise states that a specific place in the brain which he class the LAD Language Acquisition Device. Chomsky proposes that the LAD exists inside the brain. It is, theoretically speaking, a congenital organ that enables the skill of acquiring language. This organ would allow individuals to use minimal rules and regulations of language to create more words and more sentences.

Krashen Views on Grammar

the study and teaching of the structure of the language (grammar) is language appreciation or linguistics and not language teaching. The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition and proficiency is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

there are two independent systems of Second Language performance 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The acquired system or acquisition is the product of a subconscious process. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language-natural communication-in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen learning is less important than acquisition.

Grammar Translation Method

this method's main goal is to teach students how to read and write in the target language. Students are first taught the grammar rules and the vocabulary of the language and learn how to translate from one language to another. the teacher is the authority in the classroom and there is little to no emphasis on oral language. Techniques of this method might include, translation of literary passage, reading comprehension questions, recognize cognates, deductive application of rules, antonyms/synonyms, fill in the blanks and memorization of vocabulary

Lexicon

total stock of morphemes in a language

Promotion of Content Area Learning

using visuals, explicitly teaching cognitive strategies, permitting students to use dictionaries