Section 3: 1810-1861 (Ch 12-16)

New Harmony

A utopian community founded by Robert Owen in Indiana; provided best example of how hard it was to form a perfect society with imperfect people, lasting only a few years

Lyceum Movement

"Secular answer" (educational movement) to the Second Great Awakening; aura of self-improvement inspired non-Christians and nontraditional Christians to seek societal reform; original Lyceum was Aristotle's school; Lyceums were public lecture halls dedicated to adult education and public debate (attracted Transcendentalists and scientists); some of the presenters were charlatans, but this movement was indicative of the optimism pervading American society

Henry David Thoreau

1. A discipline of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau was a prominent transcendentalist writer. He advocated living life according to one's conscience, removed from materialism and repressive social codes; 2. Experimented with simple life by living alone on Walden Pond in Concord, MA for over two years; wrote of higher laws for guidance byond established institutions of human society, and expressed opposition towards Mexican War and Slavery ("Civil Disobedience," codifying pattern of passive resistance)

Free Blacks in the Slave South

1. About half million free Blacks lived in US in 1860, majority of which lived in South (slave population was 4 million); many free Blacks descended from slaves who had been freed by masters in aftermath of American Revolution, or purchased their own freedom 2. However, many restrictions that applied to slaves also applied to free Blacks in South (could not testify in court, etc.), most worked in agriculture, some were artisans, and most lived in Upper South (half of Black population of Maryland was free on eve of Civil War)

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Second Great Awakening and Reform Impulse

1. Age of Jackson was characterized by humanitarian reforms and political advancement for common man 2. Religious revivals stimulated associations of reformers to reform societal evils: drunkenness, abuse of mentally ill, discrimination against women, and slavery 3. Religion and education complemented each other, as ministers of Second Great Awakening supported common school movement and development of universities on the frontier 4. Secular and non traditional religious reforms included Transcendentalism, Unitarianism, and Lyceum movement (elevating ideas before a listening and reading public) 5. Several communal societies arose as groups formed radical alternative programs for pursuit of utopia (however, Mormonism was most successful in enduring)

Slave Society

1. American South under cotton kingdom was society where laws and customs elevated those who held property and acquired wealth through labor of slaves (the planter aristocracy); these people maintained slavery through cotton gins and screw presses and by equipping slave posses (who were dispatched to round up fugitive slaves-formed state militias in the case of slave revolts); dramatic growth of slave population prior to Civil War was attributed to natural reproduction through improved treatment and medical care 2. Yeoman farmers aspired to acquire enough slaves to join leisure class

Anglophobia

1. American presidents from Washington to James K. Polk operated under assumption that America's mother country was out to get them; the excuse that America should annex territory was grounded in this assumption in early 19th century, and US feared any British encroachment on territory in New World 2. Dependence on British for trade was a source of anxiety as tariff wars erupted, refusal of Canada to join american republic caused suspicion, and Great Britain reached its apex as expansionist world empire

Overview of Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny

1. As American economy expanded between War of 1812 and Civil War, they pushed further into continent, producing several developments: Texas's Independence from Mexico (1836), opening of the Oregon Trail (1841), Mexican War (1846-1848), Mormon exodus to Utah (1847), and California Gold Rush (1849); this westward migration held both implications for Native Americans and bordering nations 2. "Manifest destiny": fervent belief that it was G-d's plan for US to extend power in Western Hemisphere and expand westward; was initially popular with Northerners after Second Great Awakening, however, as Southerners brough slavery with them to west, Northerners opposed further expansion 3. Origin of manifest destiny: reinforced contemporary notions of race (believed that Mexicans, Native Americans, and Blacks were incapable of governance); this racial justification drew upon European Romanticism, and scientific racialism (proclaiming that Anglo-Saxon race was superior to non-whites); Manifest Destiny was summarized by notion that the unique political and religious freedoms of US society should expand 4. Americans also justified Manifest Destiny by asserting superiority of American institutions and practices (conquest of Mexico was perceived as liberty-loving Protestant victory over tyrannical, anti-republican Catholics)

Indian Removal Act

1. As profitability of cotton rose in first half of 1800s, value of land in interior of South increased, leading to passage of Indian Removal Act (1830), calling for removal of Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole tribes from their lands in the south; would then be provided with land in Oklahoma (Jackson abandoned Jefferson's policy of respecting rights of Native Americans to inhabit this land, instead adopting this policy of Indian removal to areas of US beyond Mississippi River); Jackson challenged a decision of the supreme court in the aftermath of the Indian Removal Act leading to the Trail of Tears

Frederick Douglass

1. As son of slave and white man, became dignified abolitionist, author, and orator; educated as house servant in Baltimore, acquired trade as ship's caulker, then escaped from Baltimore to move to NY and MA 2. Delivered abolitionist speeches, wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, and traveled abroad. Returning with enough donations to purchase his freedom 3. Edited abolitionist newspaper North Star, and served as advisor to John Brown and Abraham Lincoln

Mormonism

1. Book of Mormon gave rise to Mormonism (first religion born in the US); as Mormons moved west, forged tails to Utah, opening up path of first transcontinental railroad; experienced legal and military clash with federal government, and while intense persecution displaced the Mormons, they were prime example of the ability of tradition of religious freedom to keep the peace in a pluralist society 2. Clash between Mormon settlers of Utah and federal gov't ended when federal troops arrive to find Salt Lake City deserted and then left

Negro Spirituals

1. Combination of African and American influences; slaves often converted to Christianity, holding signings to enjoy the hymns of slavery, and also used spirituals to pass time in the fields 2. Entails call and response, and in conjunction with Underground Railroad, they were used to encode messages regarding times and places for departure of fugitive slaves

Common School Movement

1. Common School Movement originated out of Massachusetts Puritan tradition that sought to educate people to prepare for their callings; tax-supported schools did not spread across country until efforts of Horace Mann and others 2. With large immigrant populations, these schools provided shared education experience to assimilate different backgrounds into Protestant and Catholic school systems; was available for free but was not compulsory at first; compulsory high school education did not come into effect in most states until after 1900 as part of Progressive era reforms

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Age of Jackson

1. Contentious Political Arena: Age of Jackson was characterized by energy and volatile sentiments; slavery and its proliferation were contentious issues throughout the period 2. Native American Removal: As more Americans moved into interior of US searching for land for settlement and agriculture, government took actions to remove Native Americans 3. Restoring Executive Branch: Jackson restored prominent position of executive branch through the spoils system, actual use of the veto, and national nominating convention 4. Partisan Split: Through apex and nadir of antebellum economic and political changes, two-party system was restored to American political life, enduring to this day

Overview of the Ramifications of Slavery

1. During the antebellum period. Economies of North and south were moving on separate trajectories; economy of North was focused on a free-labor model (manufacturing and industries) and economy of South was contingent upon slave-labor (agricultural economy) 2. In first half of 1800s, cotton was central to US economy, becoming agricultural basis of Southern economy; invention of cotton gin, demand for cotton in North and Great Britain led to an increase in cotton production and an increase in slavery 3. Slavery existed in North America from beginning of European settlement (first: Virginia in 1619); by first decades of 1800s, all Northern states voted to abolish slavery (either outright or gradually), Great Britain outlawed international slave trade (1807) and Us followed suit in 1808; however, slavery merely became more entrenched in the South (4 million slaves in US by 1860) 4. For white Southerners, slavery was ingrained into lifestyle (even white non-slave owners defended the institution), but from 1830s onward, abolitionist activism was met with ardent defense of slavery in South (argued that it was a "positive good")-referred to as the "peculiar institution" of the south 5. Slaves were not passive as they endured harsh lives; with assistance of Underground Railroad, many made it to North of Canada, and they sustained families and communities (attempting a degree of autonomy) as a form of subtle resistance, passed on stories to future generations, and sang negro spirituals as a form of catharsis

Brigham Young

1. Early convert to Mormonism; after Joseph Smith's death, became head of religion, and moved mormons west, guiding their settlement of Deseret (colony in Valley of the Great Salt Lake); government recognized their settlement as the Utah territory (1850) (after claiming to secede from US, he was removed as territorial governor); however, he established administrative structure of the religion 2. Fled west to Utah when the sect was persecuted over its illegal practice of polygamy.

Temperance Movement

1. Excessive consumption of alcohol was deemed a societal evil by several preachers of the Second great Awakening; societies were formed to attack this vice, including Women's Christian Temperance Union and Anti-Saloon League (encouraged moderate use of alcohol) 2. Eventually, temperance movement transformed into Prohibition movement (amended Constitution to outlaw production + sale of alcohol); those opposed asserted that it violated their freedom both to sell alcohol and consume it

Gabriel Prosser

1. First leader of significant slave revolt (1800); Prosser and other leaders accumulated weapons + ammunition, but original attack was thwarted by weather, and word of conspiracy was divulged to governor of Virginia, who mobilized militia forces, and hanged Prosser and over thirty other conspirators 2. The hasty response exemplified unity of people of Southern states to prepare for potential slave revolts

Florida

1. Florida had wound up with Spain after American REvolution, but Spanish Empire had declined by early 1800s, and as a result, Jackson pursued Creek and Seminole Indians into Florida, which erupted in a series of conflict known as the Seminole War (3,000 American soldiers fought against them and fugitive slaves) 2. Jackson's fears that Great Britain planned to establish new colony in Florida were confirmed, and issues were not resolved until British retreated and Spanish caved; this war proved the fiercest conflict between US and indigenous people

American Colonization Society

1. Founded in 1817 by presidents Monroe and Madison, ACS advocated transportation of free African Americans back to Africa; originally Sierra Leone, but then became Republic of Liberia 2. Over 15,000 African Americans left US to join the colony by 1860, but emigration from South was shut down after Nat Turner Rebellion (1831) 3. Motives were to rid US of an "unsolvable problem" rather than to encourage African American development

Stephen Austin

1. Founder of Texas in northern province of Mexico through land grant from Mexican gov't as it was free from Spain; Austin negotiated permission for American slaves to enter Texas as indentured servants, but Southern Americans who came merely expanded cotton kingdom and plantation lifestyle 2. When war broke out between Mexico and Texans, Austin was chief liaison between Texas and US

Dorothea Dix

1. Headmistress at Boston school for girls, and dedicated life to reforming prisons, almshouses, and asylums; Reformer for treatment of people with mental and emotional disabilities, gathered data and presented findings in 1843 to MA legislature 2. Such efforts led to improvement of conditions for mentally ill in at least 15 states, and was placed in charge of all female nurses during Civil War

Specie Circular

1. In 1836, Jackson issued executive order called Specie Circular to stabilize currency and economy; after his destruction of 2nd BUS, inflation was rampant, silver from Mexican mines poured into US banks, speculation in western land increased, and entrepreneurs borrowed frequently from banks 2. In effort to slow down western land speculation (feared that eastern elite, instead of small-scale farmers were buying it), mandated that this land could only be purchased with silver or gold coin (resulted in shortage of gov't funds) 3. Both destruction of BUS and Specie Circular contributed to Panic of 1837

Overview of Second Great Awakening and Reform Impulse

1. In first half of 1800s, there was dramatic increase in reform activity; reform movements in antebellum period worked on temperance, women's rights, public education, abolitionism, fair treatment for prisoners and mentally ill; however, temperance movement was not successful in the 19th century; increased participation of women in reform movements was direct effect of Second Great Awakening 2. Reform movements of antebellum period were linked to Second Great Awakening (First Great Awakening was in 1730s and 1740s), with Christian camp meeting revivals in Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, spreading in 1830s and 1840s to eastern cities; Erie Canal was "burned over district" (due to intensity of religious revivals); ministers encouraged this activity because they were worried that Americans were more captivated by politics than by religion 3. Second Great Awakening: told individuals that salvation was in his or her hands (contrasted with old Puritan notion of predestination); encouraged individual redemption and societal reformation 4. Temperance Movement: largest reform movement of first half of 1800s; temperance activists focused on individual self-control, oaths of abstinence from alcohol (attempted to wield government to achieve sanctions on alcohol) 5. Abolitionist movement, women's rights movement both developed during antebellum period (Seneca Falls Convention of 1848); second great awakening caused increased participation of women in reform movements

Bank War

1. Jackson's signification confrontation with Senate rivals wash clash over Bank of US; publicly deemed bank and national currency a conspiracy against peoples' rights; while Whig Party perceived bank as indispensable towards economy, Jackson rendered it enemy of common man; vetoed Clay and Webster's charter bill, transferred federal funds into his supporters' private banks,and BUS was bankrupted, with Jackson gaining popularity 2. Jackson's "pet banks" and the acts of Buddle (bank's director) contributed to Panic of 1837 and encouraged speculation

Adams-Onís Treaty

1. John Quincy Adams capitalized on Jackson's aggression in Florida (though privately complaining that he had no authorization to invade foreign country), however, because Spanish Florida was declining, Spain agreed to sell Florida to US (1821) in this treaty in order to clarify borders of Louisiana Purchase; Florida entered US as slave state in 1845 2. Thereafter, US gave up claim to Texas, and Spain relinquished Oregon territory in Northwest

Martin Van Buren

1. Known as "Old Kinderhook," he was organizing force behind the first political party to survive today (Democratic Party), he opposed extension of slavery (blocked annexation of Texas), stuck to Jackson's policy of only allowing land to be bought with gold or silver (thus, he was partly responsible for Panic of 1837) 2. During economic downturn, attempted to stop speculation by taking money out of federal banks and keeping it in independent treasuries

Horace Mann

1. Legislator and educational advocate on the Massachusetts State Board of Education; A prominent proponent of public school reform, who increased state spending on schools, lengthening the school year (minimum of six months), divided the students into grades, and introduced standardized textbooks. He set the standard for public school reform throughout the nation (picked up as model in western states first, then became universal) 2. Founded first state-operated teacher training school in country

Seneca Falls Convention

1. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton launched women's suffrage movement at this meeting of about 300 women and men in NY in 1848; demanded the vote, and composed document listing grievances, entitled, "Declaration of sentiments," summoning ending of discriminatory practices, laid groundwork for feminist movement 2. From there, worked with Susan B. Anthony to secure women's suffrage

Mountain Men

1. Men who departed from civilized society and ventured into wilderness in pursuit of furs and freedom from constraints, conducting forays into unsettled American territory; they negotiated with Native Americans for permission to trap, hunt, and trade on these lands, and were thereafter first white men known intimately on frontier 2. Opened up trails for western settlement and sent back rumors of fertile soil of Oregon territory

Texas

1. Mexican gov't encouraged settlement of their northern provinces due to ferocity of Native Americans there, while neither Spanish nor Mexicans successfully invaded, Austin and Bowie made successful incursions there 2. Santa Anna (Mexican president) attempted to ban further importation of slaves and settlement by American immigrants, choosing to operate as an authoritarian dictator; thus, Texans chafed under this system, and decided to declare independence, culminating in the Texas War for Independence

Phrenology

1. Originated by Franz Joseph Gall, this pseudoscience was a popular means of explaining human behavior and personality during reform era (posted maps of human brain placed in various temperaments, talents, and measurements); lyceums gave phrenologists opportunity to perform public demonstrations + private screenings 2. New confidence in science and explaining all natural phenomena, and it was given serious consideration in screening people for employments and other purposes

Force Bill

1. Part of the Compromise of 1833, the Bill authorized President Jackson to use arms to collect customs duties in South Carolina 2. Thereafter, SC nullified the Force Bill, implying that if invasion occured, the bill would not be in effect once they entered the state; however, Jackson refrained in the election year because he needed southern planter aristocratic class to win, and ultimately gestured to cease abolitionist press mail, while SC cooperated the Clay's compromise tariff plan

Charles G. Finney

1. Presbyterian minister who departed from traditional Calvinist doctrine, and ushered in new methods of seeking converts; Modern evangelicalism received emotionalism and persuasive tendencies from Finney's New Light methods; was criticized by Conservative/Old Light Christian leaders for abandoning orthodoxy and using spiritual enthusiasm 2. Was first president of Oberlin College

Elections of 1824 and 1828

1. Presidential elections of 1824 and 1828 were first modern election (used strategies and procedures recognizable today); When John Q. Adams won in 1824 in House of Representatives (no clear majority existed in electoral college), Jackson was livid because he had won the popular vote (believed that Henry Clay and Adams had conspired against him) 2. Jackson won in 1828, bringing his common man democratic values, and these two elections ended Era of Good Feelings

David Walker

1. Prominent figure in anti-slavery movement; inherited mother's status as free person, and, growing up in North Carolina, was resentful of oppression of slaves, starting clothing business in Boston and became involved in religious and civic organizations 2. His praise of self-defense infuriated Southerners, and declared his pamphlet sedition, as he was in the radical wing of the abolitionist movement (influenced Douglass, W.E.B. Dubois and Malcolm X)

Joseph Smith

1. Published Book of Mormon in 1830s that became foundation of new religion calling itself Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints; claimed to have translated book from an angel with golden tablets, and in the Burned-Over District of NY he acquired some followers (the Mormons-new type of utopian communalists seeking to reform society) 2. Instituted practice of polygamy and militaristic tendencies; he was killed by mob, becoming martyr inspiring 18,000 followers to move west to escape persecution

Santa Anna

1. Rose in ranks of Spanish military and eventually lead in the Mexican Revolution, liberating Vera Cruz and clearing Mexico to be a free republic from Spain 2. After securing independence from Spain, he suppress insurrections, and was conferred with dictatorial powers backed up by an army of men

Henry Clay

1. Senator and faile presidential candidate, Clay was slave-owning attorney from Kentucky who was responsible for Missouri Compromise, compromise tariff (following nullification crisis), Compromise of 1850 2. First major statement during Age of Jackson to follow through with Hamilton's national economy; his American 3.System attempted to stimulate and stabilize economy Supported 2nd BUS, protective tariff, and federal transportational improvements

Slave Codes

1. Series of laws that regulated both slaves and slaveowners; if masters were too harsh with slaves fugitive slaves would incite uprisings, so egregious abuse was therefore forbidden (however, harsh punishments remained); 2. Enforced white supremacy of South by considering slaves to be subhuman, capable of crimes but not testifying against criminals, could not own property or travel freely, and while they could work for money, pay was as discretion of master

Shakers

1. Shakers were group of celibates founded by Mother Ann Lee in 1774; monastic sect of Christianity devoting themselves to work and worship, with villages organized into families (males and females were segregated) 2. Started in NY, then spread over New England, reaching peak in 1830, but declined after because they could not propagate the faith with celibacy (and missionaries were not successful) 3. Shakers represented view of Christianity that taught humanitarian reforms

Daniel Webster

1. Significant political orator; famous for defense of Dartmouth, was a Whig Party leader, cooperating with Clay in defending BUS, promoting American System, and asserting North's view that secession was unconstitutional 2. "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," voicing principles that would carry US toward nationhood through trials of Civil War

Nat Turner

1. Slave preacher who led most successful slave revolt in US; in 1831, Turner and followers killed nearly sixty white men, women, children in Virginia; in retaliation, over 100 African Americans were killed, with Turner and other leaders captured and hanged 2. The crescendo of slave revolts invoked militant support of slavery and this revolt silenced abolitionist sentiments in slaveholding states

Key Concepts/Big Picture of the Ramifications of Slavery

1. Slavery and cotton shaped economic, societal, and political dynamics of South into culture with contrast to the North 2. While reform impulse grounded in humanitarian and religious principles in North gave rise to abolitionist crusade, Southerners were intent on reforming institution of African slavery as a "positive good" 3. African American slaves developed unique culture that manifested in varying degrees of cooperation with and resistance towards their white masters (up to and including violent rebellion) 4. Northern abolitionists used powerful oral and written rhetoric to harbor animosity toward slavery, although quest for end to slavery did not equate to African American equality As peculiar institution came under attack, Southerners developed pro-slavery arguments and political tactics that almost thwarted abolitionist crusade due to demand in North for Southern cotton

Hinton R. Helper

1. Southerner, failed gold prospector returning from California who published Impending Crisis of the South, using statistics from 1850 census to write about economic weaknesses of slaveholding states, and he praised society and economy of the free states 2. He admonished leaders of slave society for precluding lower-class whites, in addition to African Americans from rising up (this text was used before Civil War to mobilize abolitionist cause)

Nullification Crisis

1. The 1828 tariff was protective tariff, earning title of Tariff of Abominations in the south; helped northern manufacturers compete with cheaper imported goods, rendering manufactured products more expensive and alienating foreign customers of exports (Ex: cotton); while tariff of 1832 was slightly lower, South Carolina nullified it, threatening national unity with succession (Jackson supported Union, threatening to invade south carolina if it seceded) 2. Henry Clay calmed crisis with compromise tariff reduced annually over 9 years

Overview of the Age of Jackson

1. The Jackson Administration: President Andrew Jackson was controversial figure; years of his presidency (1829-1837) and immediate aftermath bear name the "Age of Jacksonian Democracy," during which he expanded presidential power, prevented South Carolina from nullifying the Tariff Act of 1828, he and state of Georgia moved Native Americans to west after supreme Court rendered this unconstitutional, and he tooks actions that led to destruction of Second Bank of US 2. "Corrupt Bargain": Running in 1828, he accused John Q. Adams of devising a "corrupt bargain" to preclude him from presidency; Jackson's populist appeal helped him win the election 3. First Modern Election: Election of 1828 was considered first modern election; electorate was much broader, most states reduced or removed property qualifications (most free males could vote-after Panic of 1819, people demanded property restrictions on voting) and Kentucky, Vermont, and NH had universal white manhood suffrage (proliferated later), and thereafter candidates had to campaign, coinciding with democratization of voting process 4. Second Two-Party System: Jackson's policies were controversial; thus, new political alignment emerged (unity in Era of Good Feelings broke) as Jacksonian branch of democratic-republicans were known as Democratic Party and his opponents were the Whig Party (thus, second two-party system was formed) after federalists and democratic-republicans 5. While Progressive-Era historians viewed him as champion of the common man, many Americans have become attuned to suffering of Native Americans

Webster-Hayne Debates

1. These 1830 debates in Senate became clash between those who interpreted Constitution as creating a nation or "league of friendship" among states; Northerners feared opening of new land in West would shirk new factories of laborers, and Robert Hayne created alliance of South and West against North in his adamancy that lands remain open for sale as slave territories 2. Webster, a unionist, grieved over all issues dividing nation: tariff, sale of lands, slavery, states' rights

Cotton Kingdom

1. This title glorified importance of cotton to American and world economies; as inventions like cotton gin and screw press rendered cotton production lucrative, more southerners planted the cash crop (it was the raw material required by British and American textile factories); 2. Cotton comprised bulk of American exports, and led planter aristocrats to seek independence from US

Whigs vs. Democrats

1. Two significant parties that restored two-party system in politics; Democrats coalesced around Jackson (champion of common man, western expansion, member of aristocratic planter class), Whigs (named after party in English politics) led by Henry Clay, Daniel Webster 2. First split of republican party was National Republicans (became the Whigs-later absorbed in modern Republican Party) and Democratic Republicans (became the Democrats) 3. While Democrats initially adopted notion of common people (similar to Jefferson), ultimately adopted desire for strong central government

Brook Farm

1. Utopian community filled with luminaries attempting to join in creating a perfect society there; Unitarian minister George Ripley bought farm outside Boston, and from 1841-1847, Emerson, Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Hawthorne were dedicated to creating a model society (the community was based on Unitarian and Transcendentalism principles) 2. Practiced radical forms of equality and universal education different from American society (however, many chafed under rigors of farm life)

Christian Paternalism

1. While Second Great Awakening stimulated Northerners to launch abolitionist crusade, revivals in South were shared by both slaves and slaveowners; following revivals, Christian masters treated slaves better, taking "responsibility" to seek salvation of slaves; 2. Some churches in South permitted African American membership (however, masters were still against manumission), and when slaves' living conditions and medical care improved, production on plantations improved

Worcester v. Georgia

1. While state of Georgia seized land of Cherokee under Indian Removal Act (1830), Cherokee were given temporary reprieve from Supreme Court (case arose after-due to presence of missionaries-Georgia passed a law prohibiting non-Native Americans from being present on their lands without state license); 2. In this case, court both invalidated this statute as well as Georgia's order to seize Cherokee land, clarifying the relationship between fed. Gov't and tribes

Trail of Tears

1. With support of Jackson and his successor, President Martin Van Buren, state of Georgia moved Indians west, side stepping Supreme Court decision in Worcester v. Georgia (had ruled that Native Americans were subject to federal treaties, not actions of states) 2. Some Cherokee ceded their land, others adopted passive resistance, but during expulsion, Cherokee endured extortion and violence, resulting in deaths of 25% of the Native Americans along the route

James Fenimore Cooper

5. James Fenimore Cooper was the first author to create a western hero

Rush-Bagot Agreement:

After War of 1812, US and Britain divided in 1817 that Great Lakes should be demilitarized, and thereafter, lasting peace between Us and Canada had commenced

Spoils System

All presidents before Jackson's time and since selected many supporters as advisors in government (Jackson was first to do so after Era of Good Feelings after one-party rule for 3 decades), and he asserted that rotation in office was necessary to prevent such individuals from acquiring too much influence (was both accredited and chastised for this assertion)

George Fitzhugh

Ardent proponent of the "positive good" theory as a Virginian lawyer, argued that African slaves in South were better off than wage slaves in North; harbored racist and classist views, advocating for expansion of slavery on a global scale, and predicted that if emancipated and sent north, African Americans were be unable to function in free labor system

Harriet Tubman

As an escaped slave herself, she became leading conductor on Underground Railroad, guiding other slaves in their escape and making their way to Canada by series of safe houses supported by northerners Despite chronic headaches resulting from master's cruelty, she lead 300 slaves from Maryland to Canada, and for her prewar efforts she was known as "Moses," subsequently serving as guide for led raids to free slaves during Civil War

Indian Reservations

As several reformers were troubled by approach of US government toward Native Americans, the idea of establishing reservations grew out of desire to protect them from encroachments of white settlers; in 1851, Indian Appropriations Act established reservations that were enclosed and protected by federal government (reformers believed that they could learn new ways of civilization, be uplifted + regenerated); partly stemmed out of impulse to create humane penitentiaries

Maine Law

Neal S. Dow of Maine secured law from state legislature in 1851 prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages; a dozen states followed this model for the later Prohibition movement

Black Hawk War

Chief Black Hawk of Sauk and Fox tribes attempted to recover lands in 1832 lost under Indian Removal Act, and the resulting clashes in Illinois and Wisconsin foreshadowed Great Plains War to come

Circuit-Riding Preachers

Conformed to frontier folk hero stereotype; because there was a shortage of ministers required for preaching during SEcond Great Awakening, missionary preachers rode on a circuit, preaching in different churches each Sunday; however, during their absences, lay leaders would decrease adherence to orthodoxy, some preaching without reading scriptures, but also formed nature of American culture during new era of common man

Lyman Beecher

Connecticut minister (father of Harriet Beecher Stowe); did not believe government was sufficient to guide morals and protect liberty, insisting that American citizens needed education and Christian teachings to effect reform; typified the twofold nature of most reformers as educators and religious leaders

The Liberator

Created by the abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison, from 1831 to 1865--an influential newspaper that expressed new and controversial opinions, such as the belief that blacks deserved legal rights equal to those of whites.

Elijah P. Lovejoy

Editor and publisher of abolitionist newspaper in Illinois, and was killed by a mob in 1837, thus considered the first white man to die in the slavery controversy

William Lloyd Garrison

Editor for The Liberator, leading abolitionist newspaper; organized abolitionist societies, publishing the newspaper for 35 years, in which he espoused Northern secession to extricate themselves from compromises with the South, preached breaking the Fugitive Slave Law, and after the Civil War, continued to advocate for ban on alcohol and women's suffrage (was responsible for delaying votes for women until after slavery was abolished)

Cotton Gin

Eli Whitney's invention manufactured from hand-cranked machines to steam engines, rendering separation of cotton fibers easier (thus, more cotton could be produced for market, as opposed to just plantation); operated by pulling fibers through wire comb, and even hand-cranked version could "gin" 50x more cotton than by hand; inevitably, with increased production of cotton came higher demand for cotton and thus for more slaves to pick it for Industrial Revolution in North and abroad

Anti-Masonic Party

First third party in US history, formed in NY in 1828 to oppose perceived conspiracy of freemasons to take over the republic; one-issue party was first to hold a national nominating convention

Democratic Party

Formed in response to corruption during the 1824 presidential election. Jackson called John Quincy Adams' deal with Henry Clay a Corrupt Bargain and split the Democratic-Republican Party into two parties - the National Republicans (later the Whigs) and the Democrats.

Oberlin College

Founded by missionaries in 1833, with an express mission to educate teachers and other leaders to help develop the northeastern Ohio frontier morally and intellectually; Oberlin allowed women and minorities to enroll, graduating the first women with college degrees from an American university Early on became associated with Presbyterian minister Charles. G. Finney

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Had a profound impact on American intellectual thought because he stressed the need for individuals to be self-reliant; he was a pivotal presenter in the Lyceum circuit (scholar and minister) who founded Transcendentalism (combining idealism with Eastern mysticism); Published "The Dial" in 1840s with Fuller and lectures, became an abolitionist, and captured the optimism and individualism of American society

Kitchen Cabinet

Jackson preferred to meet friends in kitchen after state dinners to discuss policy; his informal advisors were usually more instrumental in his decision-making process than his actual cabinet, and his opponents used this phrase to portray these closed-door sessions

Jacksonian Democracy

Jackson was a "common man" who rose to power because of looser voting requirements. His ascendancy to the presidency symbolized the egalitarian political conditions at that time. It also reflects greater participation of male voters in elections and increased public education.

Corrupt Bargain

Jackson's fervently believed that Election of 1824 was stolen from him due to accusation that Henry Clay dropped out of election in order to be president later, support John Q. Adams (securing vote in House of REpresentatives), and bringing Clay into secretary of state (most presidents at the time had been sec. of states for previous president); no evidence exists, but Jackson remained Clay's diabolical enemy

Manumission

Legal term for formal freeing of slaves by their masters; slaves could be freed or were permitted to buy their way out of bondage if they had means to make and maintain income; while earliest slaves were manumitted similarly to indentured servants during Age of Jackson manumission laws were stringent; few planter aristocrats practiced it

McGuffey Readers

Minister/educator who was asked by publishing company to produce series of readers for children to use as textbooks; published it in 1830s (coinciding with rise of common schools); were designed to improve students' reading ability, literary taste, morals, espousing Puritan values (were criticized for emphasizing that white, Anglo-Saxon Protestant values were superior)

Tariff of Abominations

Name given to the 1828 tariff by Southerners because it seriously hurt the South's economy, while benefiting Northern and Western industrial interests. This led to the Nullification Crisis.

National Nominating Convention

One legacy of Age of Jackson was national nominating convention' shady caucus system was replaced with more open system, and by 1832, the conventions served to let delegates debate, outline party platform that their chosen candidate was supposed to adhere to on campaign trail and implement in elected

Tariff of 1816

Part of Henry Clay's American System; Tariff of 1816 was first protective tariff (designed more to protect domestic manufacturers than to raise revenue)

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845)

Presented a picture of slavery as a harsh and oppressive system; complemented the work being done by northern abolitionists; was written by an escaped slave who had become an abolitionist; called for complete political and economic equality.

Lucretia Mott

Promoted the vote for women in 19th century.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Promoted the vote for women in 19th century. Organized the Seneca Falls Convention for that purpose

Reform movements of 1830-40

Reform movements in this decade were dominated by women, many inspired by the Second Great Awakening. Most reform groups were devoted to improving the lots of disenfranchised groups and also promoting temperance (prohibition of alcohol). Their alliance with the Whigs was stronger than their alliance with the Democrats.

John C. Calhoun

Rose to prominence in the Senate, taking South Carolina side in Nullification Crisis, publishing editorials against Jackson's policies; was a believer in states' rights, slavery, nullification, and eventually secession, being southern figure in triumvirate of senators who opposed Andrew Jackson (however, compromised to maintain peace)

Underground Railroad

Secret series of houses and people supportive of emancipation formed who defied federal law regarding return of fugitive slaves to South; assisted and transported escaped slaves to safe communities in North or complete freedom in Canada; 50,000 slaves escaped through underground railroad, which was a network of Quakers and abolitionists, and certain Northern states passed personal liberty laws to protect escapees as a result of support of Underground Railroad

Denmark Vesey

Slave in Charleston, SC who acquired education and freedom by purchasing freedom from master through lottery winnings; grew as a dissenter to condition of slaves by reading abolitionist literature, and by 1822, amassed 9,000 slaves for insurrection; however a servant divulged Vesey's plot to slaughter the whites, and Vesey and other leaders were hanged Vesey intended to model this uprising after Haitian Revolution, and John Brown's plot was inspired by Vesey's plan

"Amistad"

Slave revolt occurred in 1839 aboard slave ship; once in control of the ship, slaves were unable to prevent recapture, but they were ultimately able to secure their freedom with the help of John Q. Adams from Supreme Court, returning to Sierra Leone

Pet Banks

So called banks that Jackson deposited money in order to destroy the bank of the United States.

Positive Good Theory

Southern slave leaders developed notion that slavery was a "positive good," and when slavery was under scrutiny in Missouri Compromise and Nullification Crisis, South developed defenses of slavery against abolitionists; claimed that slaves had lived that were better than Africans in Africa and Northern factory workers, and due to racist perception of "negro inferiority," supporters of slavery proclaimed that Blacks needed guidance and provision

Calhoun's Nullification Theory

States' rights were supreme; tariffs levied by Congress must benefit all states; equally; protective tariffs raised in 1816,1824, and 1828 damaged the Southern economy; states had the authority to decide the constitutionality of laws that affected their citizens.

Mason-Dixon Line

Surveyed by two men after whom it was named; border between Maryland and Pennsylvania, and, along with the Ohio River, it became symbolic divider between North and South (between slave states and free states)

Andrew Jackson

The 7th President of the United States, Andrew Jackson pulled himself up from poverty, and founded the Democratic Party and was known as a defender of the Common Man. He was the first Western President, and was a strong-willed and determined leader who opposed federal support for internal improvements and the second Bank of the United States. He also fought for states' rights, manhood suffrage (for whites only) and Native American removal. He was also the only president to pay off the entire Federal debt, but his unsound fiscal policies led directly to the Panic of 1837 and a 5-year depression; famous for Battle of New Orleans

Hudson River School

There was a romantic fixation on possibilities of American life (As symbolized by painting of landscapes that placed humans within vast wilderness settings); this transition occurred just as daguerreotypes were producing the first photographic portraits

Gag Rule (1836)

This resolution in House of Representatives was partly responsible for onset of Civil War; During the 1830s, abolitionists sent endless petitions to Congress demanding the outlawing of slavery in Washington, D.C. In response Southerners pushed the gag rule through Congress, which tabled all abolitionist petitions, resolutions, or bills and prevented anti-slavery from being discussed. It was repealed in 1844 under increased pressure from Northern abolitionists.

Oneida Community

Utopian society founded by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848 in NY; the community shared all property in common, and form of free love labeled "complex marriage" was practiced; lasted until the 1870s, when the members that were left adopted traditional marriage and became a silverware company